Where’s the Impact?Proposing the Future of Instructional Technology

Research

Barbara LockeeVirginia Tech

Why this topic?Great interest in the use of technology for

learning across all disciplines

Much research has been done inside and outside of the field of Ed Tech

Overview of trends in Ed Tech’s evolution and research

The next generation? Believing and Hoping…

Educational Technology Past

The streams or threads that comprise ET

100,000 years ago?

30,000 years ago?

3,500 BCE

2000 BCE

1000 BCE

1150 CE

600 CE

MEDIA

Drawing in the dirt?

Cave drawings?

Written languages

First Alphabet

Paper invented

Lead pencils in England

100 CE

Writing on bone, tablets, etc.

First books printed (China)

Moveable steel type (Korea)

1500 CE

1500 CE Camera obscura

Educational Technology Past

The streams or threads that comprise ET

MEDIA

Magic Lantern

1888

Multiple images – Magic Lantern1700’s

1600’s

Kodak – Box camera

Phonograph1877

1888 First movie

First “talkie”1890

1900 First radio broadcasts

First television broadcast1925

Educational Technology Past

COMPUTING/CALCULATING

Abacus3000 BCE

1600 Calculators (Pascaline)

Punched cards (Jacquard)1801

Punched cards (Hollerith)1880’s

First electronic computers1940’s

Mainframes (1st Gen - tubes)1950’s

Mainframes (2nd Gen – transistors)1960’s

1965 -1971 Mainframes (3rd Gen–Integrated Circuits)

1972 –present Microcomputers

1990’s Internet

The streams or threads that comprise ET

Educational Technology Past

The streams or threads that comprise ET

Military training needs 1940’s

Skinner’s “Technology of Teaching”Programmed

Instruction

1950’s

Gagne’s “Conditions of Learning”1960’s

Height of Programmed InstructionRise of Cognitive Psychology

1970’s

Rise of CBI (big systems)1980’s

1990’s Rise of Constructivism

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Educational Technology Past

The “streams” or “threads” that comprise ET

MEDIA COMPUTING/CALCULATING

INSTRUCTIONALDESIGN

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational Technology Past

Educational Technology is at the nexus of Psychology, Media, and Computer Science

With the exception of a brief flurry of design activity around programmed instruction, the focus from the educational community and society has been on technology and its promise to solve educational problems…

In Other Words…

Technology is The Answer!!!

…but what was the question?

Why should we care about history?

"All this has happened before. All this will happen again.”

Educational Technology Past

Beginning in 1850 with the invention of the “Magic Lantern” (flame produced light and transparent slides), the educational value of media has been proclaimed.

Educational Technology Past

With motion pictures, recorded sound, “talkies”, etc. it appeared that books, and teachers(!) would become obsolete

“…books will soon be obsolete in schools. It is possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture.”

(Thomas Edison, 1913)

Educational Technology Past

Then radio would save education, then television…

“Radio broadcast is one of the greatest educational tools which has ever been placed at the disposal of civilized man.”

(G.T. Buswell, 1935 - The Phi Delta Kappan)

Educational Technology Past

“The results of the studies outlined above give substantial evidence that television does an adequate, and perhaps superior, job of teaching”

(Williams, The School Review, 1956)

Educational Technology Past

Video discs

Personal computers

Tablet computers

Mobile devices

The next innovation…

Educational Technology Present

In U.S., IT spending in education reached $47.7 billion by the end of 2008 and is exceeded $56 billion by 2012.

According to “Education Snapshot: Learning with Technology,” most education IT spending is occurring in higher education–about 64% versus 36% in K-12.

(Nagel, THE Journal, 2008)

Educational Technology Present

Over 60% of the funding is in telecommunications, wireless, security, etc. (hardware and personnel).

The rest is what pays for computers and other technology and software.

Educational Technology Present

Distance learning in K- 12 and Higher Education

Virtual Worlds

Games

Tablets & iPads

MOOCs

Flipped classrooms

Educational Technology Research

Lots of money, time, and effort

Does it work?

What do we even mean when we ask “does it work?”

Research vs. Evaluation

Research Began EarlyAs audio-visual innovations emerged, each was

“researched” by comparing it to “traditional” instruction

Known as media comparison studies

Distance education produced some of the first documented studies in ET

The Problem with Comparisons

Lack theoretical basis

Confounding variables

Most result in “no significant difference” outcomes

Hundreds of studies over decades of research

Every innovation becomes focus of comparison

Even meta-analyses of NSD studies

However…

GI = GO

To make matters worse…NSD results are misinterpreted to mean “as

good as”

This causal leap was unjustified, only indicating the treatment had no effect

Analyses revealed confounding variables of media features and instructional strategy

So What Are Good Questions?

Micro level issuesMedia attributes Instructional strategiesLearner characteristics

Macro level issuesAnalysis & design of systemsExploration of contextual factorsExamination of socio-cultural issues

3M’s of Technology Mediated Learning

Delivery Mode

Media attribute

Instructional Method

Realism and AbstractionAmount of detail

Line drawings--photographs--3-DRealism can cause interference

Color vs. Black & WhiteNo difference in learningPreferred by learnersColor can provide visual cues

Media AttributesMotion

Sequence

Interaction/Communication

Feedback

Instructional Strategies

Demonstration

Problem-based learning

Collaborative strategies

Individualized instruction

Learner CharacteristicsCognitive style

Motivation

Self-efficacy

Cultural influences

Two Examples

Starting a skip loader grader

Personal protective equipment

Current Research Trends

Movement from lab to applied settings

From single method to mixed approaches

Design-based research Iterative process of manipulating variables in the

learning environment until it “works”Nelson, W. (2013). Design, research, and design

research: Synergies and contradictions. Educational Technology (53), 1, 3-11.

The Design ProcessAnalyze

Design

Develop

Implement

Evaluate

Synchronous Distributed Systems

Conferencing Systems

Features Supports real-time communication for learning Various modalities Low development overhead

What the Evidence Says Can be very effective in support of outcomes related to

procedural knowledge or social interaction skills Instructor and student preferences related to social

presence Some negative feedback from learners regarding “being

on the spot”, hesitance to participate

Synchronous Distributed Systems

Multi-Player Games

Features Social interaction Competition and collaboration Rules and goals Players take on roles, can be team-based or individual Environments can vary from simplistic graphics to virtual reality

What the Evidence Says Game accessibility and ease of use is critical to learning Not great for direct instruction, action is emergent and focused on

interactions and player choices More appropriate for open-ended learning, gaining insights,

triggering questions Debriefing upon completion can provide important feedback for both

instructor and students

Synchronous Distributed Systems

Augmented Reality Systems: mediated view of real world environment enhanced with digital information

Features Information can be displayed through a variety of technologies

including head-mounted displays, handheld devices (including smartphones & iPads), and spatial, projected displays

Can support a variety of tasks including mechanical processes, navigation, surgery, military exercises, language translation

Can support individual instructional activities or collaborative endeavors

Digital enhancements are possible through a variety of media, including text, video, graphics, etc.

What the Evidence Says Engagement and motivation of learners with prior challenges related to

behavior and participation

Development of distributed knowledge and positive interdependence

Some learners experience cognitive overload

Can be remedied with effective design decisions

Google Glass

Asynchronous Distributed Systems

Asynchronous E-Learning

Features Flexibility in time and pace of coursework completion

Depending on delivery system, can support wide range of media features (text, audio, video, animations, etc.)

High overhead in initial development, but payoff related to ease of modifications and maintenance

What the Evidence Says Learners appreciate independence and convenience Struggles with completion and attrition Can be remedied with firm deadlines and regular communication from

instructor Some negative perspectives related to perceived decreased social

presence Can be addressed with provision of feedback and communication flow

Asynchronous Distributed Systems

Adaptive Learning Systems: computer-based instruction, content based on student input and performance

Features Individualized instruction Customized to learner needs Mastery-learning Can support variety of delivery modes and media features

What the Evidence Says Can enhance learner performance, as instruction is targeted to

specific needs Heavy front-end design needs can present barriers Evaluated through comparison conditions, demonstrate system

effectiveness

Asynchronous Distributed Systems

Mobile Learning: the use of mobile technologies to deliver instruction

Features Supports a variety of content and instructional approaches Often used to provide scaffolded support in field work or clinical instruction Can capture and deliver learner information in many forms (text, photos,

voice) Device variance can be problematic Internet access necessary Can use a variety of media features, but small display and text input can pose

challenges

What the Evidence Says Content should be delivered in simplest possible form Same issues of procrastination as e-Learning, can be addressed through

pushed email reminders, phone communication, quizzes and questions Learner preferences indicate an appreciation for flexibility. When compared to

standard e-Learning, learners preferred non-mobile option.

The Next Generation?Believing…more of the same?

US DOE 2010 National Ed Technology Plan

“Identify and validate design principles for efficient and effective online learning systems and combined online and offline learning systems that produce content expertise and competencies equal to or better than those produced by the best conventional instruction in half the time at half the cost.”

The Next Generation?Believing…more of the same?

“Design and validate an integrated system that provides real-time access to learning experiences tuned to the levels of difficulty and assistance that optimize learning for all learners and that incorporates self-improving features that enable it to become increasingly effective through interaction with learners.”

Personalized Learning Environments

Sound familiar??

The Next Generation?Hoping…

Research related to technological innovations and systems to engage learners

Increase interest in and excitement about learningVirtual humans to engage learners in science

Access information through innovation attributesAugmented reality to teach history

The Next Generation?Hoping…

To echo Tom Reeves call for more “socially responsible research”

Technology-enhanced learning environments to address real world problems

Preserving language and cultureDistance education to develop

human capacityUsing game-based instruction to increase girls’

awareness of IT careers

The Next Generation?In closing, let’s be hopeful that…

Instructional technology research will be informed by the pastexplore meaningful issues that address real world

problemsMake a difference in the future!