STICK INSECT

ORDER Insecta

FAMILY Phasmatoidea

GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS GENUS Phasmatidae

Stick insects blend into their su"oundings to fool predators. Their stemlike bodies and muted colors make them

almost invisible among the foliage of their food plants.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: 2-13 in. Female larger

than male.

Mouthparts: Chewing. Wings: When present, one pair

folded beneath horny cases formed from modified forewings.

Many species are wingless.

BREEDING

Breeding season: In temperate areas the eggs are laid in summer,

but in the tropics they may be laid

at any time of year.

Eggs: 100-1,300, depending on

species. Incubation: 3 months to 3 years.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Nocturnal, slow moving.

Diet: Foliage.

RELATED SPECIES The leaf insect, a flattened leaflike

creature, is in the same order. Both

are closely related to grasshoppers

and mantises.

SPECIES OF THE S

Giant prickly stick insect: Extatosoma tiaratum, also known as Maclean's specter. Subfamily Tropi­doderinae. Found in Australia.

Range of the stick insect.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread throughout the tropics, but also found in warm

and temperate regions.

CONSERVATION

Most stick insects live in poorly documented areas, so their numbers are not known. The deforestation of the rainforests

affects many species who rely on single food plants.

Defense: The giant prickly stick insect curls up its abdomen to mimic the scorpion attacking with its tail.

Pink-winged stick insect:

Sipyloidea sipylus.

Subfamily Necroiciimae.

Found in Madagascar.

Indian stick insect: Carausius merosus (left) . Subfamily Lonchodinae. Found in India. Green color camouflages it against foliage.

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Right: A green stick insect perching on foliage resembles a leaf stem. It even sways to imitate the effect of the wind on leaves.

The stick insect camouflages itself from predators with

its unusual appearance. Another characteristic that

makes this insect so unusual is its ability to produce

young without mating-some populations consist

entirely of mature females and their offspring,

all exact replicas of each other.

~ DEFENSES Birds foraging in grass or in leaves and branches of forest trees prey on the stick insect. Most hunt during the day, so the insect camouflages itself.

The stick insects' slender, mottled brown or green bodies and legs give them a twiglike appearance. A green stick insect blends into a grass stem or leaf by clinging with its tail to a twig and extending its forelimbs above its head. It sways to imitate the effect of

DID YOU KNOW?

• The southeast Asian stick insect, Pharnacia serratipes, is, at 1 3 inches, the longest insect in the world. • The males of some stick insect species have never been found in the wild.

wind on vegetation . If disturbed, the insect may

drop to the ground like a dead twig. If this does not fool predators, it may then flyaway.

The extended wings of some species have bright colors. When the insect folds its wings, the color is hidden, making it invisible to hunters .

Right: The Didymuria violes­(ens found in Australia can devastate eucalyptus trees.

a leg, it grows another to replace it. The non-molting adult loses this ability. • Some stick insects will discourage their attackers by regurgitating their food at them or squirting them with

• If a young stick insect loses poison .

~ FOOD &: FEEDING Stick insects only eat the foliage of herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees, gnawing the leaves with their small but ef­fective jaws. Each species has its own preferred food plants.

The stick insect feeds at night while enemies sleep. The in­sect forages slowly, avoiding

abrupt movements that might give away its presence.

Most species feed alone, but Didymuria violescens, found in the eucalyptus forests of Australia, gather in swarms and strip leaves from entire trees, causing serious crop damage or failure.

~ SPECIAL ADAPTATION Some stick insects can expose or conceal pigment g ranules in their skin cells, making their colors lighter or darker.

These pigments can also control body temperature.

~BREEDING Some species have few males. Instead of mating, the female lays eggs that develop without fertilization.

Most stick insects repro­duce non-sexually, but this fact has disadvantages. The young are identical to the female, allowing no random variations that cause a species to evolve. The male genes from other groups are what cause these variations.

Stick insects find mates

The tropics can be hot by day and cold at night. The insect remains pale in the sun, reflecting heat. As the temperature drops, it be­comes dark to absorb heat.

easily in groups, but scat­tered females attract mates by emitting a pheromone, a seductive scent. The two then mate while clinging to a twig or leaf.

The female scatters her eggs. Each egg may stay on the forest floor for up to three years, protected by its seedlike appearance and hard shell. Eventually the young insect emerges from its hinged shell.

Left: The female attracts the smaller and rarer male to mate by emitting a seductive scent, or pheromone.

BLACK WIDOW SPIDER "~ _________________________ G~R~O~U~P~5:_I_N_SE_C_T_S_&_S_P_I_D~_ER_S __

CLASS

Arachnida SUBORDER

Labidognatha FAMILY

Theridiidae GENUS

Latrodectus

The black widow spider is not as dangerous as its reputation implies. It has caused only 55 human

deaths during a 217-year period.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS

Length: Female, 1 in. Male, much

smaller. Color: Black body with red markings on abdomen. Venom: Poisonous, but rarely fatal

to man.

BREEDING

Mating: During warm months. Frequency: 1 mating fertilizes

several batches of eggs.

LlFECYCLE

Habit: Solitary, non-aggressive. Diet: Flies, moths, ants, beetles,

and other spiders. Lifespan: 1 year. Longer in

captivity.

RELATED SPECIES

Lactrodectus mactans lives in the

Western Hemisphere.

Range of the black widow spider species.

DISTRIBUTION

Found throughout the warm regions of the world . The ranges of some species have been widened by man- some spiders have traveled in fruit cargo, for example.

CONSERVATION

Common throughout its range, it does not appear to be in need of protect ion, except the species local to Madagascar.

FEATURES O F TH E BLACK W IDOW SPIDER

Size: Male is much smaller than female (life-size illustration)

Legs: Female, black and slender with a

Abdomen: Shiny-black, with bright red markings (hourglass-shaped markings on Latrodectus mactans). The male's abdomen is narrower and more finely patterned.

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Spinnerets: Organs at rear pro­duce silk for building web and cocoons and for securing prey.

Black widow spiders are found throughout the

warm parts of the world. The most familiar species

are in North America. They are known for their

powerful venom, which is deadly to prey but rarely

fatal to humans. In other countries, black widows

may be known by different names, such as

hourglass,. redback, jockey, or button spider.

The black widow spider lives in various types of wild habitat and cultivated farmland, but it is best known for populat­ing human residences. It likes dark, secluded places, such as in 'cellars and sheds and underneath houses. This spi­der spins its messy web be­neath floorboards or in piles of rubbish and wood.

The black widow is a shy, solitary creature and will at­tack humans only when sur­prised or threatened. Its venom is called a neurotoxin

-it attacks the nervous sys­tem, causes severe pain and muscle cramps, and makes breathing difficult. These symp­toms, although unpleasant to humans, are rarely fatal.

The front part of the black widow's body, called the cepholothorax, houses poison glands. Venom passes through ducts to the spider's fangs, known as chelicerae. The black widow stabs its prey with its fangs to inject the venom" though its mouth is really adapted for sucking . .

~ BREEDING Before seeking a mate, the male black widow spins a web and rubs a drop of semen (fluid that carries the sperm) on it. He then transfers the semen to reservoirs in his polps, which are limbs near his mouth that look like a pair of short legs. Then he finds a female and vi­brates her web, signalling that he is ready to mate.

During mating the male transfers the sperm from his palps to the female's body. Only one mating is necessary,

Left: Markings occur below or on top of the abdomen, depending on the species.

since the female stores the sperm and uses it for several months to fertilize five or six batches of eggs.

The female spins a silken cocoon and lays the eggs inside as she fertilizes them with sperm. Each cocoon contains 10 to 100 or more eggs. The eggs hatch into tiny, pale spiders that quickly become independent.

Below: Compared to his mate, the male black widow is much smaller.

Bottom: The female guards her cocoon of eggs, which is often tied to her web with silk.

~ FOOD &: HUNTING The black widow spider eats flies, moths, and other flying insects, as well as ants and even some spiders. It spins a · tangled, three-dimensional web. The male black widow's web is much smaller than the female's.

The spider waits for its prey while sitting on the web, with its feet touching the strands. An insect flying into the web quickly be­comes entangled. The black widow detects the vibrations

and runs out and binds the prey with sticky silk.

The spider injects venom and saliva that contains diges­tive fluids into the prey's body, paralyzing it. Over the next hour or two, the saliva predigests (liquefies) the con­tents of the prey's body.

The black widow feeds by sucking out the predigested material. The prey is reduced to an empty shell, which the spider cuts away from the web and lets fall to the ground.

Left: The web appears struc­tureless, but the faintest tremor in a strand alerts the spider to its prey.

~ BLACK WIDOW &: MAN The black widow spider has a reputation for being a kill­er, but few people actually die from its venom. This shy spider avoids humans rather than attacking them.

In the United States from 1726 to 1943, there were

DID YOU KNOW? • The myth that the female black widow always eats the male after mating is untrue. Only when the male be­comes weak and near death after several matings does the female eat him.

• The male black widow is much smaller than the fe­male. Because it produces only a tiny amount of venom and has fangs too

1,291 cases of black widow bites recorded; only 55 of those people died. Most of the victims w~re probably chil­dren, the 'sick, or the elderly, whose small size or weakened condition contributed to their deaths.

small to penetrate skin, the male black widow is harm­less to humans.

• Young, growing spiders are capable of regenerating missing legs.

• Black widows have been bred successfully in captivity in large numbers. Male spiders in captivity have been known to mate more frequently than in the wild.

HORSEFLY

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Diptera

GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS FAMILY Tabanidae

The horsefly is notorious worldwide for its bloodsucking habits. The female must feed on blood before she can lay her eggs,

inflicting painful bites on unwary animals.

KEYFACT~S ____________________________ ~

CHARACTERISTICS

Length: ' /2-1 in ., according to

species.

Body: Heavy, large-headed, with

large, colorful eyes.

Mouthparts: Sucking, piercing .

L1FECYCLE

Mating season: Varies according

to species.

Eggs: 100-1,000 in each mass.

Hatching time: 1-3 weeks.

Larval development: Variable.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Adults occur in swarms.

Diet: Nectar, plant juices, pollen .

Females suck blood . Larvae are

omnivorous (eat both plants and

flesh).

Lifespan: 3-6 weeks as adults.

RELATED SPECIES

There are 3,000-3,500 species of

horsefly within the family

Tabanidae.

FEATURES OF THE HORSEFLY

Range of the horsefly.

DISTRIBUTION

The horsefly lives throughou t the world . Most species

live in the tropics .

CONSERVATION

Horseflies are common in many habitats and are considered

pests. In others areas they have declined in number because

of increasing aridity (dryness) and the result ing reduction in

animal hosts.

Female

Body: Short and stocky with strong antennae. built for flying last. Some species can grow as long as an inch.

Male: Uses his mouthparts to suck pollen and nectar from plants. Some species also teed on decaying plant matter.

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Female: Bulg ing, brightly colored eyes and strong mouthparts .

The female's mouthpart are spec ially adapted to pierce the skin of the animals it feeds on. Its mouth suc s the animal's blood after making a wound.

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The horsefly and its close relatives make up

a large and widespread family of insects. Sturdily

built, it has a large head and huge bulging eyes

that sparkle with iridescent colors .of green, red,

and purple. Sometimes these colors form spots,

stripes, or even zigzag patterns.

~ LlFECYCLE The adult life of a horsefly is short and busy. Though this is the time when the insect is most noticeable to us, the earlier stages of its develop­ment take up a much longer part of its lifespan.

The female lays her eggs in damp places, often on leaves and stems close to water, in wet earth, or in rotten wood. She deposits between 100 and 1,000 eggs together in an egg mass. The egg mass is pale-colored at first, but soon darkens to gray or black.

After a few weeks the larvae hatch, often all at once. At first they feed on stored yolk,

but they soon crawl into the mud or down beneath the water to feed.

The horsefly larvae are adaptable; they develop at varying rates depending on conditions. They often delay pupation (the final stage of development) if foo,d is in short supply. They can sur­vive without eating for sever­al months. In cooler regions many hibernate through the winter. In more arid areas some species avoid drying out by surrounding them­selves with cylinders of mud.

Eventually, the larvae move to drier ground for the final

~ FOOD & FEEDING The horsefly and its relatives are adapted for feeding on fluids, either from plants or from animals . Both sexes feed on nectar and other plant juices, and some have an elongated, spikelike mouth­part for probing into deep flowers. In the Indian species, Philoliche longirostris, this probing mouthpart is more than twice as long as the rest of the body.

The male horsefly can sur­vive on plant juices. So can the female of some species, but females of other species eat only blood. They usually fly off in search of blood shortly after mating, when they need a rich supply of protein to provide yolk for their eggs. Large mammals such as deer, horses, cattle, and humans are their most common victims, but some species suck blood from crocodiles and turtles.

Top left: Over 3,000 species of horsefly exist. All have stocky bodies and colorful eyes.

pupation phase, which lasts anywhere from one to three weeks. Finally the adult emerges and is ready to fly three hours later.

Males often emerge first and begin to feed. Later, when the females emerge, the males hover in swarms along the water or boggy ground, above the treetops, or in open spaces. Females are attracted to the insect cloud and fly in to mate. Then the females feed. Several days later they lay their eggs.

Bloodsucking horseflies have broad, piercing mouthparts for cutting into tough skin. Their bite is almost always painful. They actually feed by creating free-flowing wounds and lapping up the blood that oozes out.

Horsefly larvae find most of their food in moist soil and water. Some are herbivorous, feeding only on plant mat-ter. Others hunt for animal prey-including other larvae.

~ HORSEFLY & MAN

Horseflies are considered pests by man in many parts of the world, especially during the swarming season. They can make outdoor work impossible. In some parts of the Soviet Union, farmers work only at night to avoid horseflies.

Horsefly bites often leave swellings because of toxins in the insect's saliva. And the open wOjJnds can get infected. Some horseflies carry diseases, includ­ing tularemia (the plague) and anthrax, both of which are harmful to humans.

Right: As it hovers, the horsefly makes a continuous buzzing noise with its large wings.

Above: The larger, more con­spicuous male horsefly gets all the nourishment it needs from plant materials.

Above and right: A female lays her egg mass. A few weeks later the larvae hatch. A tough outer skin protects the larvae. They use their powerful, curved jaws to feed on both plant and animal matter.

NATUREWATCH Horseflies are common in summer in fields and wood­land clearings and along roadsides. They can often be found near water. Because

they are relatively large in­sects, they are easy to see. At times, especially during humid thunderstorm weath­er, they can become a nui­sance. Some species give warning of their approach with a deep hum, but others fly up and bite their hosts in com lete silence.

DID YOU KNOW? • Female horseflies react to movement when they are ready to feed . They not only follow people and grazing animals, but also chase cars and trains, reaching speeds of about 25 miles per hour.

• Horseflies have tracked and bitten people on board ships several hundred feet offshore.

• When horseflies swarm, their attacks can be extreme and frequent. During one study in the Soviet Union, a grazing animal attracted almost 500 flies within five minutes.

• After horseflies bite an animal they lap up the blood that oozes from the open wound.

LONGHORN BEETLE

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Coleoptera

GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPIDERS

,. FAMILY ~ Cerambycidae

Despite its name, the longhorn beetle does not really have horns. Instead, it has unusually long antennae that

can grow to five times the length of its body.

KEY FACTS

CHARACTERISTICS

Length: Up to 6 in . Coloration: Many species are

brightly colored and patterned;

others are dark or plain . Mouthparts: Powerful jaws,

capable of biting through wood . Wings: 2 pairs, 1 pair folded

beneath the other.

BREEDING No. of eggs: 150-300, laid either

singly or in groups. Hatching time: Varies according

to species and location.

LlFECYCLE

Habit: Solitary. Diet: Larvae, living and dead trees.

Adult beetles, tree sap, plants, and

flowers.

RELATED SPECIES

The largest longhorn beetle is Titanus giganteus at 6 in. in length

(excluding antennae).

Range of the longhorn beetle.

DISTRIBUTION

The 20,000 species of longhorn beetle are spread throughout

the world but are concentrated mostly in tropical regions.

CONSERVATION

Several species are now legally protected in some countries. Tropical species are threatened by loss of habitat.

IfEATURES OF THE lONGHORN BEETLE

Wings: Longhorn beetles have two pairs of wings. The outer wings, called e/ytra, or wing cases, cover flimsy flying wings. S species do not fly.

The species shown is Stranga/ia macu/ata.

Close-up of leg segments, which end in a claw.

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Body: Elongated and slightly flattened .

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are divided into several segments and are usually longer than the beetle 's body. They contain scent-detecting organs. Mouthparts: The powerful jaws are well adapted for biting through

lid wood.

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The longhorn beetle family,

Cerambycidae, includes approximately

1,200 North American species.

They are found in all types of woodland,

since their larvae usually develop

inside tree trunks.

~ BREEDING Adult longhorn beetles are usually solitary insects . During breeding season the males must track down the females by scent, using their long ' antennae. Whefl a male lo­cates a female, he may mate

with her for several hours . Most species lay their eggs

in trees. The female bites a groove in the wood with her strong jaws and lays one or more eggs in it.

The hatched larva does not

~ DEFENSES Longhorn beetles have several defense mechanisms. Some species, such as the European wasp beetle and the African Dirphya species, mimic the behavior of wasps. The larvae of some of the small species of longhorn beetle feed on plant~ that contain toxins. When they become adults the insects se­crete these poisonous sub­stances if they are attacked. The North American Tetraopes

femoratus, for example, feeds on poisonous milkwood .

Other species defend them­selves with camouflage. Adult beetles often resemble the bumps on a tree trunk, or they lie flat on leaves to look like bird droppings . Still, the larvae fall prey to many birds.

change into an adult beetle until two to three years later, when it has absorbed enough nutrients from eating the wood. Once transformation is complete, the adult beetle gnaws its way out of the tree.

left: Mating often continues for several hours, during which time other males may fight to mate with the female.

Right: Sap oozing from a damaged tree trunk attracts hungry long­horn beetles.

Above and right: Long­horn beetles vary in color. Some brightly colored species use poison to deter preda­tors; others rely on camou­flage.

DID YOU KNOW?

• The larvae of many tropical longhorn beetles feed for as long as 30 years before they become adults .

• The larvae of Titanus gigan­

teus from South America can be six inches long .

• Many longhorn beetles squeak when handled . They produce the sound by rub­bing the rear of the thorax

(upper body) against the front of the wing cases. The

loudest species is the tropical harlequin beetle, Acrocinus

longimanus.

• Several European woodland species, once considered pests, now have small popu­lations and are endangered .

• The larvae of several tropical species are regarded as a delicacy by local inhabi­tants.

~ FOOD & FEEDING Most longhorn beetles fly from plant to plant in search of food. Many adult beetles, particularly the tropical spe­cies, eat the sap from dam­aged tree trunks. A. large sap supply attracts clusters of

~NATUREWATCH Most species of longhorn beetle live in woodland, al­though many are also found in parks and yards . They are easily identified by their long anten nae and thei r long, fla t bodies. Some species, such as t he black and yellow wasp beetle and the blue musk beetle, are brightly colored.

beetles from several families . In temperate areas longhorn

beetles eat mainly flowers and leaves. Their preferred food plants include parsley, dog rose, blackberry, and members of the daisy family .

JUMPING SPIDER

ORDER Arachnida

FAMILY Salticidae

GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS GENUS &: SPECIES Salticu5 5cenicu5

The jumping spider is found throughout the northern hemisphere. It has acute vision and can look 360 degrees

around its body without moving its head.

KEY FACTS

SIZE/ COLOR Length: Female 1/4 in. Male

smaller. Coloration: Black body with bands

of white on the abdomen .

BREEDING Mating season: During the

warmest months of the year.

Frequency: Female mates once

a year.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Non-aggressive, solitary.

Diet: Small insects such as flies,

moths, ants, and beetles.

Lifespan: 2 or 3 years in captiv­

ity. Females live longer than

males.

RELATED SPECIES

Species of Salticu5 found in

temperate regions include

S. cingulatu5 and s. zebranu5.

Range of the jumping spider.

DISTRIBUTION

Widespread and often found in large numbers throughout

the northern hemisphere .

CONSERVATION

The jumping spider is common th roughout the northern

hemisphere and does not need protect ion .

FEATURES OF Tt:fE JUMPIN,G SPIDER , " \r ~

" .

Abdomen: The

ac.ro sits abdomen.

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Mouthparts: Fangs used to stab prey and inirct venom. 8asi~ teeth crunch prey when eating.

Palps: Used to transfer sperm from male 0

. female.

Poison glands: In· frontal mouth region . The pOison is not dangerous to humans.

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The jumping spider gets its name from

the way it leaps toward its prey with

great speed, rather than trapping it

in a web. Some of the most colorful

spiders are contained in this group.

It has distinctive white bands

across its black abdomen.

~ HABITS The jumping spider is active during the day, mainly in warm, sunny weather. It lives in houses and gardens, but mountain climbers report sightings as high as 23,000 feet above sea level in the Himalayas. This spider finds a safe hiding place and spins itself into a silk cell for the night, emerging when

~ NATUREWATCH

Jumping spiders can be found on the ground or in bushes in gardens or parks

temperatures rise the next day. During cold weather, the spider stays in its silk cell until conditions improve.

Although solitary by nature, the jumping spider is curious and does not appear to be timid. Still, when disturbed, the jumping spider runs away. Sometimes it stops and stares at its pursuer.

on warm days. Approach them carefully because they run away when disturbed.

~ FOOD &: HUNTING The carnivorous (meat-eating) jumping spider eats flies, tiny moths, ants, and beetles. Most other spiders wait for prey to become entangled in their webs. But the jumping spider uses its keen eyesight to stalk its prey. It creeps closer, leaping the final few inches from a standing start, and grabs the prey with its front

Left: Young spiders undergo a series of molts before taking on their adult form.

legs. It then injects the prey with poison from its fangs.

With its good vision, the jumping spider can accurately leap forward, sideways, and backward. Before jumping, the spider spins a short line of silk and attaches it to its waiting spot. If it misjudges the target, it remains safely suspended from the line.

Right and below: The spider leaps onto prey, grasping it with its powerful legs.

DID YOU KNOW? • Male jumping spiders will perform their mating dis­plays to their own mirror reflections. • The jumping spider cleans dirt from its eyes by rub­bing them carefully with its palps. • Of all spiders, the Salti-

~ BREEDING Like most other spiders, the male reaches sexual maturity before the female. He courts the female by raising his front legs and abdomen, dancing and waving his large chelicerae

(jaws) to attract her attention. The sexually-excited male

sometimes mistakenly dances in front of a male, which re­sults in harmless sparring. When hunting for a mate, the male often finds a female wrapped in silk, molting (shed­ding her skin) for the last time

Left: A female jumping spider in her silken cell with her newly hatched young.

cidae family has the most acute vision; it is sensitive to color and polarized light. • The majority of the 4,000 members of the Salticidae

family around the world live in the tropics, but a few live in temperate cold climates including the arctic.

before becoming sexually mature. The male joins the female and mates with her after she molts.

To mate, the male spider spins a small rectangular web and deposits sperm onto it. He dips his palps (short, leg­like appendages near his mouth) into the sperm, filling them up like a fountain pen. He then transfers the fluid into the female's body.

The female spins a large silk cell, lays the eggs inside, and fertilizes them with the sperm. Then she guards the cell until the eggs hatch.

TERMITE

CLASS Insecta

ORDER Isoptera

GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPIDERS FAMILY Termitidae and others

Termites lead highly organized lives in vast colonies. Each individual plays a specialized role, but all of the termites work

together for the benefit of their colony.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: Up to 1 in. Queens up to

51/2 in . Mouth: Biting parts for chewing

plant material. Soldier has razor­

sharp jaw.

Wings: 2 pairs, 1/2 -31/2 in. Found only on reproductive adults.

BREEDING

Eggs: Up to 30,000 in a day.

Larval development: Up to 3

months. Adultlike larvae.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Large colonies with rigid

social structure. Diet: Dead and living plant

material, especially wood.

Lifespan: Queen and king can

live 10 years or more. Some colonies are several decades old.

RELATED SPECIES

About 2,300 species, grouped

into several families. Closest

relatives are cockroaches.

Range of the termite species.

DISTRIBUTION

Mostly tropical and subtropical, but also in temperate

regions.

CONSERVATION Termites are some of the most common and numerous of .

all insects. Some tree-dwelling species are threatened by

loss of habitat.

FEATURES OF A TERMITE COLONY TERMITE CASTES (POSITIONS)

Termite nests vary among species, from underground tunnel networks to aboveground mounds.

Ventilation channels: Allow oxygen to circulate .

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...-Queen

The queen (the colony's key member) and the king are the only breeding termites. They start life as reproductives. Other castes are soldier and worker.

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Most termites are small, white, blind

insects that never go outside of

their nests. Even so, countless numbers

of termites playa vital role in

recycling dead plants.

~BEHAVIOR There are more than 2,300 ter­mite species; most live in tropi­cal and subtropical regions. The various species occupy many habitats, from the edges of deserts to mountain slopes. Termites live in huge colonies, in which each insect's caste, or position, is well defined. The colony's central figure is the queen. She is much larger than the others and has a huge, or distended, abdomen. Her role is to produce eggs and control the number of termites born into each caste. The king, her

Right: Rock­hard termite mounds area mix of earth, saliva, and waste. The mounds maintain con­stant tem­perature and humidity.

DID YOU KNOW? • A termite mound found in northern Australia was 20 feet high and 100 feet around at its base.

• The Australian magnetic ter­mite builds a long flattened mound with narrow edges that face north and south.

• Some termites in dry regions

regular mate, assists her. The workers form the largest

caste. They maintain the nest, care for the eggs and young, and collect food for the colony. Specialized soldier termites de­fend the colony.

Nests vary greatly from spe­cies to species. They may be hollowed-out branches or net­works of tunnels in the soil. Some complex nests have large underground chambers with partitions. The most un­usual nests rise 20 feet from the ground.

keep their mounds humid by spreading water on the walls.

• The queen termite controls the development of castes by emitting special chemicals. Workers swallow these chemi­cals as they groom her and pass them on to developing laNae during feeding.

~ FOOD & FEEDING Swarms of termites journey from their nests to feed on dead wood, roots, and leaves. Some species prefer sap or parts of living plants.

Wood's main chemical com­ponent is cellulose, which is hard to digest. But microscopic organ­isms live in the termite's stomach and convert cellulose into a more

readily digestible substance. Other species rely on fungus

gardens, which are special ar­eas in their nests where fungi grow. The termites deposit their waste matter here. The fungi break down the cellulose in the waste, and the termites feed on the products released

by the fungi.

~BREEDING Swarms of large, sexually mature male and female termites appear aboveground when they are ready to mate. They are called re­productives, and they have been developing within the nest for months. They can fly only a short distance on their weak wings. In most termite species, the repro­ductives then rub or break their wings off on the ground and find mates. Each pair then searches for a nesting site. Al­though most of these termites fall prey to other creatures, some succeed at starting new colonies.

Centipedes, spiders, and ants often penetrate termite nests to prey on the insects. Soldier termites attack these intruders to ward them off. Most sol­diers have huge heads and powerful jaws. Some have spe­cial glands from which they squirt sticky fluid to ensnare small predators.

The new queen and king cre­ate a sealed chamber where they mate. They carry each fer­tilized egg to an incubation cell and tend to the laNae that hatch from the eggs. These later develop into the first group of worker termites. From then on the workers tend the next batches of young. The queen and king concentrate on mating and increasing the colony's size. During this time the queen's abdomen swells until she can produce 30,000 eggs a day.

Left: Young termites in a nursery.

Center: Workers transport eggs to individual incubation cells.

Below: The queen's abdomen grows so large that she can produce up to 30,000 eggs a day.

But many termites and their eggs fall prey to intruders. In­vading colonies of army ants are known to be capable of destroying a termite nest.

Large predators like anteat­ers, pangolins, and aardvarks can rip through the walls of nests and scoop out the in­sects with their long tongues.

EUROPEAN STAG BEETLE

ORDER Coleoptera

FAMILY Lucanidae

GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS GENUS & SPECIES Lucanus cervus

The IJKIle stag beetle's jaws have evolved to a large size that makes them almost useless for biting. Instead, like a stag deer's antlers,

they are used to battle with rival males at mating time.

KEY FACTS SIZES Length: 2-3 in. Female, 1-11/2 in .

Coloration: Dark violet-brown

wing covers with reddish brown

jaws. Larva is creamy white.

Mouthparts: Male, large jaws.

Female, smaller jaws.

Wings: 1 pair elytra (wing covers)

and 1 pair flying wings hidden

beneath the elytra.

BREEDING

Breeding season: June to July.

Larval stage: 3-5 years.

LIFESTYLE Range of the European stag beetle.

DISTRIBUTION Habit: Active at night in summer.

Diet: Larva eats decaying timber

and roots. Adult eats tree sap. Southern and central Europe, southeastern England.

RELATED SPECIES CONSERVATION

Other Lucanidae include Lucanus

elephas in the southern United

States, Chiasognathus grantii in

Chile, and C1adognathus giraffa in

India and Java.

Populations have declined with the clearing of dead or

decaying woodland timber. Some areas have policies for

leaving a portion of fallen trees to promote animal, insect,

and plant life.

GROWTH STAGES OF THE STAG BEETLE

larva: Hatches from the egg and feeds on decaying wood. Enters pupal stage after three to five years.

Pupa: Spends the winter hidden in a decaying tree stump. Emerges in spring as an adult stag beetle.

Male: Larger than female. Distinguished by large, antlerlike jaws.

©MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM

Female: Smaller than male, with less-developed but powerful jaws.

PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200311 PACKET 31

The European stag beetle varies in size,

but it may grow as long as three inches.

The male is much larger than

the female and was once thought

to be a different species. This rare

beetle is most active during June and July,

flying during the evening.

If disturbed, the male stag beetle rears up and opens its huge, antlerlike jaws menac­ingly. These large mandibles

have weak muscles and are ra rely used as weapons. The female's smaller jaws can ac­tually bite harder.

The size and shape of the male's jaws seems to depend on the beetle's size. Smaller males have less side projection on the jaws.

Like deer, the males fight with their antlerlike jaws for a female. The two beetles spar until one turns on his back and gives up. The rivals mainly display aggression and rarely hurt each other.

NATUREWATCH

The adult stag beetle can only be seen in June and July when the beetle emerg­es from its chrysalis (protec­tive covering), breeds, and lays eggs.

It lives in old woodlands with oak trees in southern Europe and England, and in parks with well-established trees. The stag beetle can also be found in hedgerows or in gardens where it uses old tree stu mps and fence posts for breeding areas .

The stag beetle flies well and can be seen during early summer evenings.

~ BREEDING The male stag beetle gets the female's attention by parad­ing around the female with his head raised and his antler­like jaws, or chelicerae, open wide. He also uses the power­ful jaws to hold the female still during breeding.

After laying her eggs in de­caying wood, the female dies. The male dies soon after as well . The eggs hatch into cream-colored larvae that have dark brown heads and curved and wrinkled bodies.

For the next three to five years, the larva remains in a non-developing state, eating large quantities of old, rotten timber. It has tough jaws for tearing the wood.

Larvae that eat food low in

left: Rival males fight over a mate. The more powerful beetle throws his weaker opponent into the air.

~ FOOD & FEEDING The stag beetle feeds on broad-leafed trees, especially oak. An adult uses it 1igula (re­tractable tongue) to lick the sap and other nutrient liquids from the tree. The jaws have evolved so that they are not .able to chew food.

The larvae feed for three to five years on decaying wood and roots of tree stumps. De­caying wood provides more fungi full of nutrients than young wood. The larv~ can also chew it more easily.

Stag beetles have declined with the removal of dead woodfrom European wood­lands. By eating old and de­caying wood, the stag beetle

nutrition take longer in the larval stage than those that eat nourishing substances. In comparison, fly eggs laid in rotting garbage take only 10 days to fully develop.

The beetle passes quickly through the pupal stage (final

is a helpful insect. It does not threaten woodlands and for­ests, since it does not eat and therefore damage living trees.

development stage before becoming an adult) but re­mains hidden in the chrysalis, in its complete state, for the winter months. The beetle's metabolism (process of burn­ing up energy) becomes so slow that it exists in a state of

Above: Poised for flight, a male stag beetle spreads out its elytra (wing covers) to allow its powerful wings to open.

Above: The stag beetle mates in early summer soon after it has emerged from the pupal stage.

suspended animation. As the weather becomes

warmer, the stag beetle fi­nally emerges and becomes active in early summer.

DID YOU KNOW? • German artist Albrecht Durer (1471 -1528) made the stag beetle famous with his drawing of it. • It was believed in medi­eval times that the stag beetle flew around with a hot coal in its jaws setting fire to buildings. • In an experiment, the stag beetle emerged from its chrysal is earlier in the year than was normal when it was chilled for sev­eral weeks and then placed in a warm spot. The tem­perature change in the ex­periment represented the change in seasons between winter and summer.

~ARD 28 1

COCKROACH ~

ORDER FAMILY Insecta Dictyoptera

GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPIDERS -----SUBORDER Blattaria

The cockroach is a familiar and adaptable household pest in all parts of the world. However, 99 percent

of the cockroach species live in the wild.

1f KEY FACTS~ __________________________ ~

SIZES Length: 1/4-21/2 in. Wings: 2 pairs. Some species are wingless.

BREEDING Breeding season: Varies with each species and climate. Eggs: 5-50 within each ootheca

(egg case). Development of eggs: Usually

30-60 days. Fully grown: 3-6 months.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Solitary or in concentra­tions. Diet: Varied; plant and animal foods. Lifespan: 6 months or more.

RELATED SPECIES

At least 3,500 species of cock­roach . Nearest close relative is the mantis.

Range of the cockroach.

DISTRIBUTION Found worldwide, except in the polar regions, with most species living in the tropics.

CONSERVATION Cockroaches are considered pests when they live indoors, and strenuous efforts are made by man to eradicate them. No species are known to be endangered.

FEATURES OF THE COCKROACH

Wings: Two pairs of wings lie over each other along the length otthe thorax. The upper pair is tough and leathery and generally not well adapted for flight.

Abdomen: The softest part of the body, with poorly developed muscles. Contains most of the insect's organs.

©MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILE'" PRINTED IN U.S.A.

Head: Made up of generalized mouthparts, mainly adapted for biting. The head is covered with a shield. Two long, multi­jointed antennae spread out from the head.

0160200231 PACKET 23

The cockroach has spread into almost every

corner of the world and has exploited all

kinds of habitats. It is able to feed on almost

anything, including household articles, but

only a few species have become domestic

pests. Many more live in the wild,

especially in the tropics.

~ BEHAVIOR The cockroach has evolved to cope with a variety of condi­tions . Most of the 3,500 spe­cies live in the tropics, but others are native to cooler temperate regions. They in­habit forests, grasslands, des­erts, and swamps. Most avoid direct sunlight by hid­ing beneath stones, bark, and leaves. Some tropical species,

DID YOU KNOW? • Cockroaches represent an ancient group of insects. Fossils show that they have chang~d little since the Car­boniferous Period, over 250 million years ago. • Though cockroaches usually cannot tolerate the cold, the dusky cockroach

however, are active by day. Not all species have func­

tional wings, and females commonly cannot fly. Even the species that take to the air fly weakly, using their wings to aid jumping . Strong legs en­able cockroaches to run quick­ly, and their flattened bodies allow them to crawl under stones and crevices.

has penetrated the polar regions. It has colonized the homes of Laplanders and lives off their stores of dried fish. • Some species secrete de­fensive sprays from special glands. These sprays repel ants, spiders, and frogs .

~ BREEDING The female cockroach pro­duces strong chemicals called pheromones to attract males. The cockroaches touch each other's antennae for a long period of time before they mate.

The eggs are arranged in two rows to form a bundle within the female's genital pouch. After the male has fertilized the eggs, they are expelled from her body onto the ground, surrounded by a tough capsule, or ootheca. Some species, however, carry the ootheca on the end of the abdomen until the young hatch. A few species do not expel the eggs at all, giving birth to live young.

Newly hatched cockroaches are white, but they become colored within a few hours . Though they lack wings, they

Left: The cockroach ranges from sea level to the tops of mountains.

h~ NATUREWATCH

The most likely place to see a cockroach is indoors . The German and oriental cock­roaches are both well estab­lished here, having been introduced accidentally from the tropics .

~ COCKROACH &: MAN About one percent of the cockroach species have been highly successful at moving into habitats that man has created. All over the world, they have relocated in build­ings, benefiting from the warmth and abundance of food that they can find on

are similar in shape to their parents. Over the following months the young molt sev­eral times, growing larger at each stage, until they reach full adult size and develop complete wings .

Since cockroaches need warmth, they can survive the winter only in heated places. They commonly occur in bakeries, restau­rants, food processing plants, and hospitals .

floors, in kitchens, and in dining rooms. With their flattened bodies, they can conceal themselves in all kinds of nooks and crannies. Their diet allows them to eat just about anything. Starchy, sugary foods tend to be the favorites of most species.

Above: The cockroach excretes as it feeds-a characteristic that contributes to its reputation as a disease spreader.

Below: In a few hours this young cockroach will turn dark brown.

Four species of tropical cockroaches have become well-known pests: the Ger­man cockroach, Blatella germanica, the oriental cock­roach, B. orientalis, the Amer­ican cockroach, Periplaneta americana, and the Australian cockroach, P. australasiae.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The cockroach has broad feed­ing habits. Most insects have specially adapted mouths for crushing or sucking their food . The cockroach, however, has an unspecialized digestive sys­tem and generalized mouth­parts. It tests and eats what­ever food it comes across. It takes in food by licking or by chewing. Its strong mandibles (biting jaws) bite through hard substances. Once swallowed, tough food is ground down in the gizzard, a muscular part of the stomach.

Plant matter makes up the bulk of the cockroach's diet, but it also feeds on dead creatures and animal drop­pings. In houses, the cockroach has been known to eat wall ­paper, book-bindings, and glue. Some cockroaches can eat wood, though they need the help of special one-celled organisms that live in their guts to digest it.

They have spread all around the world on trading ships. Those that have moved to temperate climates survive by living indoors.

Cockroaches can be real pests, contaminating food with their droppings and their feet, thus spreading disease.

TRAPDOOR SPIDER

~------------------CLASS Arachnida

ORDER Araneae

GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPIDERS FAMILY Ctenizidae

Trapdoor spiders are masters of ambush. These killers lurk in their perfectly camouflaged lairs, ready to pounce

on any insects that stray too close.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: About 1 in. Mouthparts: Pair of downward­pointing poison fangs for pierc­ing, crushing, and digging. Eyes: 4 pairs of simple eyes.

BREEDING Breeding season: Summer in

temperate regions; year-round in the tropics. Eggs: Laid in burrow. Number varies according to species.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Stays in burrow by day and ambushes prey from burrow by night. Diet: Ground-dwelling insects and other invertebrates. lifespan: Normally 1-2 years.

RELATED SPECIES Include the European purse-web spider, Atypus affinis, and the funnel -web spider, Atrax robustus.

Range of trapdoor spiders.

DISTRIBUTION

Various species are found throughout the world, in the warm climates of tropical, subtropical, and warm temper­ate regions.

CONSERVATION

Some species of trapdoor spider are quite rare because of their very localized distribution, but no species is known to be endangered.

BURROWS OF TRAPDOOR SPIDERS

Trapdoor spiders use their burrows to conceal themselves when hunting prey. The burrows also serve as protection against enemies and as nests in which to raise young.

Burrow: Built in a variety of shapes. The simplest is a tubelike tunnel. It may be up to 1 foot deep and 112 inches in diameter.

© MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.

Hunting: The spider waits for its prey at the mouth of the burrow. It stays half-hidden

beneath the trapdoor.

Prey: When an insect passes by, the spider opens the door, seizes and poisons its prey, and drags it into the burrow.

0160200421 PACKET 42

Trapdoor spiders are among the most ingenious

engineers in the animal kingdom. They build all

kinds of defenses to protect their burrows, from

which they surprise and kill prey. Yet despite

their skill and caution, they are easy prey

for spider-hunting wasps, which use

their burrows as living pantries.

~ HABITAT Trapdoor spiders dig burrows in the ground with their fangs. The fangs are mounted on mobile "turrets" that contain poison glands. Each turret has a comb of spines on its under­side. The spider uses the comb to sweep soil into pellets that it dumps outside.

A hinged lid, or trapdoor, fits neatly in the mouth of the burrow. Some are thin flaps, but most are thick slabs made of silk and soil. The 'spider

chisels the edges of the lid with its fangs to get an exact fit. It attaches it with a silk hinge and covers the top with plant debris.

The result is a perfectly camouflaged retreat. It pro­vides protection against the weather and most predators and is an ideal lair from which to pounce.

Right: The female trapdoor spider seldom ventures far from her well-camouflaged burrow.

~ FOOD &: HUNTING The hunting methods of trap­door spiders vary according to habitat. Species living in moist places with plenty of insects can rely on the am­bush. At night the spider lurks at the entrance to its burrow. It puts out its front two pairs of legs, which have hairs that are sensitive to ground vibra­tions. When a victim passes by, the spider lunges forward and strikes.

Some trapdoor spiders live in drier habitats, where there are fewer insects. These spe-

Left: The trapdoor spider stays half inside the burrow as it waits for prey to pass by.

~ -

DID YOU KNOW? • A female trapdoor spider may spend her whole life inside her burrow, enlarg­ing it as she grows. • Trapdoor spiders can move up to 140 times their own weight. • In arid areas trapdoor spiders often build burrows under a tree to snare in-

cies have better eyesight and longer legs. They often pur­sue their quarry for some distance from the burrow.

Some species lay traps for their prey. They stretch silken trip wires from the burrow or even small twigs wired with silk. At the slightest twitch, the spider rushes out and plunges its fangs into the victim. The venom kills the prey in seconds and begins to digest its tissues, making a soup the spider can suck up at leisure.

Right: When in dange" the trapdoor spider adopts a threat posture and displays its fangs.

sects attracted to the tree's moisture. • Some Australian trapdoor spiders build walls around burrow entrances as pro­tection against flooding. • The spider strikes so quickly that it occasionally drags inedible prey into its burrow by mistake.

------- -----------~

Despite their well-defended homes, trapdoor spiders are vulnerable to spider-hunting wasps. The wasp can flip back the trapdoor, dive in, and paralyze the spider with a sting. Some spiders cling to the trapdoors, but the wasp simply slices through the door with its shearing

~ BREEDING For the male spider, mating can be hazardous. The female, which is usually larger, may not recognize him as a suitor. Conditioned by her predatory instincts, she is likely to regard him as a meal.

Females rarely stray far from their burrows. The male is guided by a pheromone (a special chemical attractant) that the female releases and by the distinguishing pattern of silk around her burrow.

jaws. The wasp then lays an egg . When it hatches, the wasp grub eats the spider.

Some spiders strengthen their defenses. Several spe­cies build complex burrows with side chambers and ex­tra doors. An Australian spe­cies digs a V-shaped burrow with an escape tunnel.

Some males perform court­ship dances. They drum their legs in a way that seems to lull the female into a state of re­ceptiveness. Then the male im­pregnates her with a drop of sperm from a capsule on the end of his palp (feeler).

The eggs are laid in the bur­row, in a cocoon attached to the silk lining. The hatchlings look like miniature versions of their mother and stay with her for several weeks.

BRITISH WEEVIL ,, __________________________ G_R_O_U_P_5_:_I_N_SE_C_T_S_N __ SP_I_D_E_RS __ ~

ORDER Insecta

FAMILY Coleoptera

SUBFAMILY Curculionidae

Weevils are not a problem just in the United States. They also make up one of the largest families of British insects. This beetle has a

tough outer shell that enables it to survive in many areas.

SIZES Length: Up to 1/2 in .

Coloration: Varies. Usually mottled

brown or black; some species are

bright green or red. Wings: Usually 1 pair of elytra

(wing cases), 1 pair flying wings. Elytra fused in wingless species.

BREEDING Breeding season: Spring and

summer. No. of eggs: Up to 200, depend­

ing on species.

Hatching time: 5-20 days.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Mainly nocturnal; solitary.

Diet: Nuts, seeds, and plant tissue.

Lifespan: 1-7 years, depending on

species.

RELATED SPECIES More than 500 species of British

weevil. Leaf rollers (Attelabidae) are

close relatives.

Range of the British weevil.

DISTRIBUTION British weevils are found throughout the British Isles,

wherever there is suitable vegetation for them to eat.

CONSERVATION The use of insecticides affects all insects, but weevils are not

in danger. Even though pests such as the granary weevil are

controlled with insecticides, they remain numerous.

FEATURES OF THE BRITISH WEEVIL

Wing cases: Hard covers that protect wings. Flightless spe­cies have a single

©MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM

Shown below is the nut weevil Curculio nucum.

Compound eyes

PRINTED IN U.S.A.

Rostrum, or snout: Tiny gnawing jaws at the tips can penetrate deep into plant tissue, .wood, and other foods .

0160200181 PACKET 18

British weevils spend much of their lives

as larvae, munching their way through nuts,

grains, or buds. These foods give them the energy

they need to change form into adults. They cause

extensive damage to crops and stored food.

~CHARACTERISTICS A weevil is a type of small beetle with a long beaklike snout. On the tip of the snout is a set of tiny jaws for gnaw­ing into plant tissue. A pair of antennae (feelers) is located near the snout's end. In most species the antennae fold back into grooves, allowing the insect to probe deep into hard materials without damaging its feelers.

Most species of weevil can fly. Like all beetles, their wings are concealed beneath a pair

of hard elytra (wing tases) that join down the back, giv­ing them a streamlined ap­pearance when they are not flying. In some non-flying weevils, the wing cases are fused together to form a single, strong shell. This armor protects their bodies and helps conserve moisture.

Some weevils are brightly colored by a layer of scales attached to their shells. These scales may be rubbed off over time.

~LlFECYClE The British weevil has a four­stage lifecycle. The egg hatch­esinto a larva that spends most of its time eating. After several weeks the larva be­comes a pupa (enters an inactive, non-feeding state) and eventually transforms into an adult. When the pupa splits open the adult crawls out to find a mate and produce an­other generation of eggs.

Some adult weevils do not need a mate. The female Polydrosus mollis, which lives on tree foliage, can lay eggs

Left: Adult nut weevil Curculio nucum. The jaws are visible at the tip of its snout.

~DIET Each weevil species usually eats only one type of plant: the tiny alfalfa weevil feeds only on alfalfa, and the boll weevil attacks only cotton crops. In New Zealand, gorse weevils have been introduced in an attempt to eradicate the

without mating. All the larvae that hatch from these unfertil­ized eggs grow into females. Males are not found, except in southern Europe, where the two sexes mate and produce a new generation of both females and males.

In most species the adult fe­male lays her eggs in plant tissue. The nut weevil uses her gnawing jaw to drill a deep hole in a young nut and de­posits an egg in the hole. She then pushes it all the way in with her long snout. The hatched larva feeds for about four weeks inside the nut, which falls off the tree.

gorse, which is considered a weed.

In most weevil species the adults and their young have slightly different diets. For example, the adult nut wee­vil Curculio nucum feeds on nectar and pollen from haw-

Right: Larvae of the Cionus weevil feed on a leaf.

This allows the larva to bur­row straight into the ground, where it remains as a pupa for three to four years before emerging as an adult.

The larvae of gorse wee­vils feed and pupate within the seed pods of gorse. On hot summer days the pods burst with an audible crack and scatter the seeds. The weevils inside are hurled through the air to land on other gorse plants.

Below: Phyllobius pomateus weevils mate.

thorn flowers and nibbles the buds, shoots, and leaves of a variety of trees. But the weevil's larva lives in a hazel­nut or acorn, devouring the nut meat and eventually gnawing its way out through the shell.

~ WEEVIL &: MAN Farmers consider many weevil species to be pests. The granary weevil, Sitophi­

Ius granarius, infests cereal grain, flour, and stored grain products. Like the nut weevil, the female lays her egg in a hole that she bores in the kernel. When the larva hatches it eats the contents of the grain; it then pupates and emerges as an adult beetle, leaving only an empty shell.

DID YOU KNOW? • Parasitic wasps can detect weevil larvae feeding inside plants. The female wasp stabs through the plant wall and injects her eggs into the helpless grubs. When the wasp larvae hatch they eat the live weevil larvae. • More than 50,000 species of weevil exist worldwide­more than all mammal, bird, and fi sh combined. • Weevils were once used as toothache charms: people believed that wearing the weevi l larvae in a locket would drive away their pain . • In Surinam the large larvae of tropical palm weevils are eaten as a delicacy.