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WillPeasantsMap?Hyperlinks,MapMashups,andtheFutureofInformation

JeremyW.Crampton

[Chapterfrom:TheHyperlinkedSociety:QuestioningConnectionsintheDigitalAge

JosephTurowandLokmanTsui,Editors]

Inthisessay,Iexaminethechangingdynamicsofhowmapsandinformationareinterlinked.Iarguethatformostofitshistory,mappinghasbeenthepracticeofpowerfulelitesthesovereignmap.[1]Nationstates,governments,thewealthy,andthepowerfulalldominatedtheproductionofmaps,andknowledgeoftheworld

emanatedfromtheelitesforthebenefitoftheelites.[2]Thishistoryisnowbeingchallengedbytheemergenceofanew,populistcartography,inwhich,throughnewformsoflinking,thepublicisgainingaccesstothemeansofproducingmaps.

Thisiscertainlynotanisolateddevelopment.Itispartofalargermovementofcounterknowledgesthatareoccurringinthefaceofeverincreasingcorporatizationofinformation,suchastheconsolidationofthenewsmediaintothehandsofafewglobalmultinationalsandtheirdominancebyfairlynarrowinterests.TheInternetandWeb,blogs,andthenetroots(onlinepoliticalactivism)areallreasonsforthispeoplepoweredcontrolofinformation.[3]3Inthisessay,Ifocusonsomeoftheexcitingnewdevelopmentsthatcanhelpcreate,visualize,anddisseminate

geographicalinformation.Ialsonoteanumberofobstaclesthatimpedewidespreaddisseminationofthesetools.

PopularversusPopulistCartography

Mapsareapowerfulwayofknowingabouttheworldandhavealwaysinvolvedlinkingcertaintypesofinformationtospatialrepresentationsofthatinformation.Evidenceofmapusedatesbacktoearliesthistoricaltimes(Greece,Rome,andMesopotamia).Mappopularityhasfluctuated:atcertaintimes,thepublichasembracedmaps;atothertimes,mapswereonlymadeduetonewgeographicaldiscoveriesandtechnologies,withoutexplicitdemandbythepublic.However,ifwelookattheseoccasions,theyallsharesomethingincommon;theywerepopularbut

notpopulist

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events.Inpopularmapping,thecontrolofgeographicalinformationremainsinthehandsofanelite.Inpopulistmapping,bycontrast,thepublicnotonlyhasaccesstomapsasanendproductbutcancontrolthemeansofproductionofmaps.Thispopulistprojectisatrulyradicalhistoricaldeparturethathasthepotentialto


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changethefutureofinformation.Itfacessomedifficultchallengesandobstacles,whichIshalldiscuss.

HistoricalExamplesofPopularMapping

Duringthesixteenthcentury,asnewterritorieswerebeingexplored,anexplosion

ofnewmapsbecameavailablefromthebigEuropeancartographicpublishinghouses,suchasOrtelius.ThemapoftheworldproducedbyPtolemyinthefirstcenturyADwasrediscoveredandrepublishedinthemidfifteenthcenturywithverylittlemodification.TheBehaimGlobeof1492(theoldestsurvivingglobe)wasindicativeofknowledgeatthetimeinthatitobviouslyomittedtheAmericasbutalsopushedAsiaeastwardby1500miles,makingitfarmorereachablefromEurope.ItisthoughtthatthismistakeconfirmedColumbusinhisenterpriseoftheIndies.IfColumbusdidnotseethatglobe,hewouldbefamiliarwithitsgeneralcontentasanavigatorhimself(andonewhohadabrotherinthemapmakingtrade),fromworldmapsandmapsofportsalongthecoast(knownasportolancharts).

SubsequenttotheColumbianencounter,[4]however,informationaboutfarflungterritoriesandcontinentscameinthickandfast,andpublishersviedwitheachothertoproducethemostuptodatemaps.JuandeLaCosa,whosailedwithColumbus,wasthefirstEuropeantomaptheAmericancontinent(1500),whileMartinWaldseemllersmapof1507(recentlypurchasedbytheLibraryofCongressfortenmilliondollars)wasthefirsttonameit.TheFlemishcartographerMercatorinventedhiseponymousprojectionin1569,stillinuseinclassroomstoday.ThesixteenthcenturyalsosawAbrahamOrteliusissuethefirstmodernatlas,theTheatrumOrbisTerrarum(TheateroftheWorld)bycombiningmapsintobookformin1570.ItwasMercator,however,whocoinedthewordatlas(forhiscollectionin1595).JohnSmithsmapofVirginiaof1608isalsowellknownand

includesadrawingofChiefPowhatan,fatherofPocahontas.Astheseselectedexamplestestify,theimportanceandnumberofmapsandcartographicpublicationsduringthisperiodcannotbeunderestimated,andtheywereembracedbythepublic.Everyeducatedpersonconsideredtheirlibraryincompletewithoutatlasesandmaps.

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Adifferentkindofpopularmappingemergedduringthenineteenthcentury.Inthiscase,thenewknowledgeswerenotofterritoriesbutofscience.Manytypesofthematicmapsthatthendevelopedsuchasproportionalsymbol,dot

distribution,choropleth,andisolinemapsformthebasisoftodaysmappingandGISsoftware.[5]JohnSnow,forexample,consideredtodaytobethefatherofepidemiologyandakeenexponentofthegeographicalnatureofdisease,isfamousinbothgeographyandpublichealthforhisworkthatusedmappingtoanalyzethecholeraepidemic.[6]Snowsmapidentifiedtheverywaterpumpthatwasthesourceofthecholerainfectedwater.Thiswasafullthreedecadesbeforethegermtheoryofdiseasewasacceptedinthe1880s.


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Withtheriseofindustrializationandurbanization,themodernstatemappedoutahostofproblematicsubjects:crime,education,divorce,birthrates,education,poverty,disease,thedistributionoflanguages,andnewimmigrants.Allthesetopicsreceivedtreatmentatthehandsofthecenturyspoliticalscientists,protodemographers,geographers,andgovernments.EvenFlorenceNightingale

useddatagraphicstoconvinceskepticalBritishofficialsthatdirtanddiseasekilledmorementhanfightingdid.

Manyofthesemapswerepublishedinanewkindofatlas,thestatisticalatlas.Itmappednotterritorybut,rather,thenationshumanresources.Basedonthecensus,itwasaimednotjustatofficialsbutattheeducatedpublic.ThefirstAmericanstatisticalatlaswasprintedinsufficientnumbersforboththepublicandlibrariestopurchaseit.[7]Neweditionswereissuedeverytenyearsintimewiththecensus.

Butinterestinknowledgeofplaceshadnotdisappeared;inlinewiththenewscientificknowledges,itwasorientedinward,atthehometerritory.AsSchultendescribesinherfineaccountoftheRandMcNallymappingcompany,[8]inAmerica,atleast,thecontinentwasstillrelativelyunexplored.BythetimetheclosingoftheAmericanfrontiertookplacein1893,[9]mapswererequiredfortheemergingautomobileindustry.[10]TheAmericanGeographicalSociety(AGS),foundedin1851,andtheNationalGeographicSociety(NGS)alsoprovidedthepublicwithprodigiousquantitiesofnewmapsandexplorersaccounts.Thesewerepopularwiththepublic,ifnotamongmoreseriousmindedacademics.[11]

Theworldwarsofthetwentiethcenturyalsostimulatedarenewedpublicappetiteformaps.DuringWorldWarII,manyAmericansfollowedtheprogressofthewaronwallmaps,anactivityencouragedbyPresidentRoosevelthimself.Suchpopular

outletsasFortuneandtheLosAngelesTimespublishedincrediblenewmapsbyRichardEdesHarrison

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andCharlesOwenssuitedtotheairage,featuringviewsoverthepolaricecapsandperspectivesofEuropeasseenfromMoscow.[12]Thewaritselfwasnotshortonpropagandamaps,oftendroppedinthethousandsfromtheairoverenemyterritory.

Countermapping

Theprecedingexamplesdemonstratethatthepopularityofmappinghaswaxedandwanedhistoricallyinconjunctionwithnewdemandsformapsornewopportunitiesformaps.Noticeably,mappopularityisassociatedwiththeproductionanddisseminationofnewknowledgebyelites(thestate,thewealthy).Asmapsaredeeplyculturalphenomena,thisgeographicalknowledgedoesnotexistinasocioculturalvacuum.Mapmakersshareatopdownapproach;informationisdisseminatedfromacadreofcartographicexpertstoalargelyignorantpublic.Thispublichasnocontroloverwhatinformationisprovided,whenitisprovidedorin


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whatform,howmuchitcoststoaccessit,whocanaccessit,thepossibilityofchallengingthisinformationandgettingotherinformation,andsoon;thatis,thesystemwasprofoundlyundemocratic.

Thefactthatthedistributionandcirculationofgeographicinformationwasconstrainedinthiswayshouldnotsurpriseus.Thecontrolofinformationandknowledgeforthebenefitofapoliticalelitehasbeenahallmarkofinformationforaslongastherehasbeeninformation,aswritersonpublicopinionhavelongpointedout.[13]Nevertheless,paralleltothiscontrolhasbeenacurrentofoppositionandcritique,whichincartographytakestheformofcountermapping.

Theideaofcountermappingistoreversepowerasymmetries.Mapscanbecreatedbysmallgroups,communities,andevenindividualstoachievegoalsnototherwisepossible.TheycanbeusedbythoseindevelopingcountriestoworkagainstdominantWesterninformation.Theyarecountertotheprevailingstructuresofpower,especiallythosedeployedbythestate.Forexample,countermappinghasbeenusedinconservationtoshowthatthewaysomeareasaremappedaffectstheirstatusasprotectedareas.[14]SomespacesthatincludeindigenouspeoplewithnonWesternculturesmightbeconstruedasuninhabitedandacandidateforenvironmentalprotectioninwaysthatwoulddisrupttheirlivesorignorelocalknowledges.Whilebiodiversityandspecieslossarecriticalecologicalfactors,thesimpleprotectionofareascanalsobemerelyanextensionofstatecontroltotheexclusionoflocalactors.Countermapping

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canbeemployedtogivevoicetotheseactors,whethertheyareinEastAfricaorimpoverishedAmericanurbanneighborhoods.

Indeed,oneoftheearliestexamplesofcountermapping(althoughnotermyetdescribedit)wasperformedduringthe1960sbytheradicalgeographerBillBungeinurbanareas,suchasDetroit.[15]Bungesmapswereproducedwithgroupsintheinnercitystrugglingforcivilrightsandsafeneighborhoods.Onefamousexamplemappedoutratbitesonneighborhoodchildren;anothershowedclusterswherechildrenhadbeenhitbycars.

Countermappingoftenemploystheverytoolsthathavepreviouslybeenusedtoassertdominantpowerrelations.Forexample,incommunityGIS(sometimesknownasparticipatoryGIS,orPGIS),localcommunitiesmayusecheaporWebbasedGIStoolstomapoutneighborhoodresources(e.g.,communitycenters,parks,andopenspaces)toresistdevelopment.PGISisagrassrootsphenomenonwiththegoalofempoweringtraditionallydisempoweredgroups.Maporbemappedmightbeitsmotto.

Countermappingisanattempttocreatemapsbasedondifferentkindsofknowledgethatexplicitlyembraceapolitical,partisanpointofview.Countermappersclaimthatallmapshavesuchpointsofview.Mapsarenotmirrorsofnaturethatreflect


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knowledgebutsitesofknowledgeproduction.Knowledgeiscreatednotinisolationbutinconditionsthatprivilegesomeknowledgeoverothers.

Theseideashaveproventobeveryinfluentialinunderstandingspatialrepresentations,andtheyparallelresearchinotherareas,suchasspatialcognition.Forexample,childrenappeartogothroughaprocessofunderstandingspatialrelationsasacreativeprocess.Astwoleadinginvestigatorssuccinctlyputit,mapsarecreativestatementsabouttheworld,notmerelydegradedversionsofit.[16]SarahElwood,aleadingresearcherofPGIS,hasarguedthattheconditionsofspatialknowledgeproductionarepolitical.[17]ThisdoesnotmeanthatmapsandGISarebiased;itmeansthatknowledgeisproducedunderconditionsofpower.HereweareclosetoawellknownideaintheworkofMichelFoucault,thatofpowerknowledge.Foucaultsaidthatknowledgesareusuallyproducedundercertainconditionsofpowerandthatsomeknowledgesareprivilegedwhileothersaresubjugated.Forexample,hespeaksofawholeseriesofknowledgesthathavebeendisqualifiedasnonconceptualknowledges,asinsufficientlyelaborated

knowledges,knowledgesthatarebelowtherequiredleveloferuditionorscientificity.[18]

Relevantforourpurposeshereisthatsometimescounterknowledges

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canemergeandprovidethebasisforacritiqueoftheprevailingwayofdoingthings,likenedbyFoucaulttoaninsurrectionfrombelow.[19]Themostobviousparalleltothisinsurrectionarethenetroots,atermcoinedin2002byJeromeArmstrongtodescribetheonlinegrassrootspoliticalcommunity.Armstronghasstatedthathewasattractedtothewholenetrootstograssrootstypeofpoliticalactivismthatthe

Internetenabled.[20]ArmstrongandMarkosZnigawrotethattheywerecrashingthegateofestablishmentpolitics.[21]

Thenetrootshassomeinterestingparallelstocountermapping.Itisorganizedfromthebottomupanddistributesmessagesthroughblogsandothersocialnetworks.

Theprincipalvalueoftheblogosphereisthatitdemocratizesourpoliticaldiscoursealmostcompletely.Anyonecanbecomeapundit,findanaudience,reportfacts,createacommunityoflikemindedcitizensandactivists,andinfluencethepublicdiscourseallwithouthavingtomoldoneselfintowhatisdemandedbytheWashingtonPostandwithouthavingtocareaboutpleasingtheeditorsofTimemagazine.[22]

Todemocratizediscoursemeaningfullyinthecaseofmappingrequirestoolsthatareaccessibletoasmanypeopleaspossible,theknowledgetousethosetools,accesstorelevantdata,andtheabilitytoanalyzeanddisplaythatdataonmaps.Inthenextsection,Idiscussthedevelopmentofthesetoolsandwhattheymeanforthefutureofgeographicalinformation.

TheDemocratizationofCartography


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Itturnsoutthatwhenwetalkabouttheworldsinformation,wemeangeographytoo.

Google

Upuntilthe1980s,ithadalwaysbeenassumedthatmapswereessentiallydevices

thatcommunicatedinformationthathadbeengatheredandprocessedbytheexpertcartographer.Asthehistoricalexamplespreviouslycitedtestify,thishadbeenthecaseforhundredsofyears.Thecraftofcartographyhadaguildlikestatus,requiringyearsoftrainingandthemasteryofspecializedtechniques.TheseideasabouthowmapsworkedwereformalizedinthepostwaryearsbyArthurRobinson,aprofessorof

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geographyattheUniversityofWisconsinMadison.RobinsonprovidedtheconceptualapparatusofwhatlaterbecameknownastheMapCommunication

Model(MCM),whichexplainsmappingasaprocessofcommunicatinginformationfromthemapexpertorcartographertothemapreader.Theinformationisacquired,marshaled,andselectedbythemapexpertandsetdownonthemap.

Itisaverytopdownmodel.Forexample,thecartographerexpertmightacquireinformationonthedistributionofcropsacrosstheMidwest,selectandarrangetheinformation(e.g.,intocategoriesofdifferentcroptypes),andthensymbolizeitcartographically(e.g.,asadotdistributionmap).Themapreadernovicethenabsorbstheinformation.

However,therewereproblemswiththismodel.Cartographershadnowaytodecidehowtopresenttheinformationoreveniftheirmapswerebeingunderstood.Robinsonsinsightcameinpayingattentionnotonlytothewaytheinformationwaslaidout(symbolized)onthemapbuttotheabilitiesofthemapreadertoabsorbit.Hiskeystoneworkissuedacallforresearchintothephysiologicalandpsychologicaleffectsofmapdesign.[23]

Thisideawasbasedonthatofoneofthemostinfluentialscientistsofthetwentiethcentury,ClaudeShannon.Shannonistheprogenitorofcommunication(orinformation)theory.[24]Thistheoryisattheheartofourdigitaldevices,suchascomputers.Shannonrecognizedthatinformationwascountable.Usinghismethods,itbecamepossibletocountthemaximumamountofinformationthatitwaspossibletotransmitthroughaparticularchannel,[25]suchasamap.Shannon

showedthatcommunicationcouldbeimprovedifthesignal(theinformation)wasmaximizedandthenoise(theunwarranteddistortionsorerrors)couldbeminimized.Thissignaltonoiseratio(SNR)isstillusedtodayininformationtheorytomeasurethequalityofacommunication.Usingcommunicationtheory,Robinsonclearedthewayforthedevelopmentofthemapcommunicationmodelinthelate1960s.By1972,thismodelwasfirmlyestablishedinthediscipline,withtheInternationalCartographyAssociation(ICA)establishingthetheoryofcartographiccommunicationasoneofitstermsofreference.[26]


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Bythe1980s,however,therewereanumberofpressuresonthisaccountofmapping.Foronething,publiccontrolofinformationbecamemorepossiblewiththearrivalofinexpensivedesktopcomputersandthefirstmappingsoftware.Mappingprogramshadbeenaroundsincethe1960sandwerelatertoproveveryinfluential.TheHarvardLaboratoryforComputerGraphics,forexample,nurtured

earlydevelopmentsin

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GIS.[27]Buttheywerecumbersome,limitedtoexpensiveequipment,andrequiredsophisticatedprogrammingskills.Theywerealsoverycrudeinappearance.Bythe1980sandtheadventoftheAppleMacintosh(aplatformquicklyembracedinthegraphicdesign,publishing,architecture,andcartographiccommunities),anewformofmappingdesktopcartographywaspossible.

Asagraduatestudent,IcanstillrememberthethrillofthosefirstMacs.Thedepartmenttaughtcartographytheoldway(darkroom,camera,andphotographic

chemicals)untilthelate1980s.Studentswereexpectedtobuyinkpensandmasterfreeformdrawingonmylarastheyhaddonefordecadesinhis1948cartographyguide,Raiszhadincludedachapteronhowtoavoidsmudgingyourink.[28]Nowonecouldguaranteeastraightlineofconstantwidthwithaflashofthemouse.

Cartographersquicklyrealizedthatthesenewtoolsaffordednewmappingpossibilities.Atthetime,scientistswereworkingonscientificvisualization,asetofapproachesforvisualizingscientificdata.Ingeography,thisbecameknownasgeovisualization.[29]Typically,visualsareofsecondaryimportanceinscienceorareonlyusedtocommunicatefindingstheknowns.Bythelate1980s,scientistsandcartographersrealizedthatvisualizationcouldbearesearchtooltoexplore

datatofindhiddenpatterns.Theseexploratorytoolsfocusedondiscoveringtheunknownsinadataset.Today,theGISbusinessisbelievedtogenerateanywherefromfourtotenbilliondollarsayear,[30]andthegeospatialglobalbusinessispossiblyaslargeasfiftybilliondollarsayear.

Verylargedatasets,suchassatelliteimageryofdeforestation,couldnowbeinteractivelydataminedforsignificantpatternswithoutrequiringpriorknowledgeofthesituation.Thepowerofthevisualgraphicswasthattheycoulddisplayhugeamountsofdataatonce.TodaysGoogleEarth(GE)isanoffshootofthisworkitprovidesavisualizationoftheearthwithwhichtheusercaninteractinanynumberofways(zoomingscale,addingorsubtractingdatalayers,measuring

distances,calculatingdirections,etc.).Bothdesktopmappingandvisualizationmovedtheproductionofmappingfromthehandsoftheeliteintothoseofthepublic.MarkHarrower,aleadingproponentofpopulistcartography,hasobserved:

Oneofthethemesofmyprofessionrightnowisthedemocratizationofcartography.Mappingusedtobeajoboftheelite,theRandMcNallysandNationalGeographicsoftheworld.Nowpeoplearetakingituponthemselvestomaptheirpassions.[31]


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Inotherwords,desktopmappingandgeovisualizationprovidedthebeginningsofnewformsofpeoplesmapping.ButthetruedemocratizationofcartographywouldonlyarrivewiththeadventofnewadvancesinWebtechnology,oftenreferredtoasWeb2.0functionality,suchasmassivelydistributedandhyperlinkeddatasets,mashups,andcustomizableopensourcetools.Thesetoolsareprofoundlydifferentfromtheirprecursorsbecausetheyallowcollaborativelylinkedmappings.

PopulistMappingApplications:Web2.0andWeb-BasedMapping

GoogleEarth

WiththereleaseofGoogleEarthinthesummerof2005,itbecameapparentthattherewasatremendouspublicappetiteforvisualizinggeographicinformation.GEliketoolshadexistedinscientificGISforsomeyears(andVicePresidentAlGorehadoutlinedanearlyvisionofdigitalearthin1998),[32]butGooglespopularity

wasfargreater.ThekeytoGooglessuccesslayinprovidingopenaccesstoGoogleMaps,knownasanapplicationprogramminginterface(API).UsingthisAPI,membersofthepubliccouldhack(i.e.,modify)thesemapsandlinkthemupwiththeirowndata.[33]Theresultsareknownasmapmashups.

GoogleEarthisadatavisualizationtoolitdoesnotperformanalysis,runmodels,ormanipulatedata(createbuffers,mergeonelayerwithanother,etc.).Itprovidesrealisticimageryand3Dpicturesratherthantheabstractcartographicsymbolizationoftraditionalmapping.Despitetheseaspectsor,rather,becauseofthemGoogleEarthiseasytounderstandandisnaturallooking(althoughnoviewfromspacewouldeverlooklikeGE).

GoogleEarthandothermapopenaccessAPIsarehighlycollaborativeandprovidefertilegroundforotherdatatobelinkedandgeographicallyvisualized.Forexample,GoogleEarthnowsweepsthroughWikipediaandautomaticallymakesmapsofplacesmentionedinthearticles(throughPlaceopedia).GooglehascreatedafeaturethatmapsalltheplacesmentionedinbooksandputsthemintoaGooglemapmashup.Thesemapsgiveyouachancetoseenotonlyhowplatial(howrichingeographicalreference)butalsohowconcentratedordistributedthebookis.Wheredoesthebookfocus?IsitWesternized?IsitorientedtoEuropeandNorthAmerica?Onecouldalsocomparethemapsfromtwo

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differentbooksonthesametopic(e.g.,thespreadofadisease,likeHIVorSARS)toseeiftheytelldifferentstories.

GooglehasalsoimplementedalayerofinformationcalledtheGeographicWeb,inwhichpeoplecanannotatetheearthwiththeirphotographsorplacedescriptions.AswiththeWikipediaproject,Googleseemstohaverealizedaprojectthatworks


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becauseofusercollaborationandcontributionsdatanowcomefromthebottomupratherthanfromthetopdown.

CensusBureauData

Everytenyears,theUnitedStatescollectsreamsofdataaboutitspopulationand

theplacespeoplelive.Additionaldataiscollectedonanannualbasis.Allsortsoftopicscanbemapped,includingincome,race,age,gender,ethnicity,andoccupation.ThecensusisprobablythemostimportantsinglesourceofsociodemographicdataaboutAmericatoday,anditsfindingsinformpolicyanalysisanddecisionmakingofallkinds.AllthisdatacanbemappedifyouknowhowtonavigatetheCensusBureauslabyrinthinedatabases.

ThebureauoffersanonlinemappingtoolcalledtheAmericanFactFinder,whichisusefulforaninitialvisualizationofthedata.Thedisplayisquitesmallhowever.MostserioususersdownloadtherawdatasetsandprocessthemwithGIS.Bothoftheseapproachesrestrictusageofthedata.Recently,adifferentapproachwas

developedthatallowsuserstointeractivelydisplaycensusdatawithouthavingtohaveGISexpertise.Thetoolstodothisaredistributedacrossthenetwork,thusprovidingaccessformanymorepeoplethanifitweredesktopbased.ThisistheSocialExplorerproject,basedatQueensCollegeattheCityUniversityofNewYork,inassociationwiththeNewYorkTimes.SocialExplorerprovidesaneasytouseinterfacetohugequantitiesofcomplexcensusdatadatingbackasfaras1940.

PoliticalApplications

Republicansstillcontrolthemaps.

ChrisBowers,MyDD.com

Thereisnowsomeintriguingmappingevidencethatsuggeststhataccessto,controlof,anddisseminationofgeospatialinformationischanging

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politicalparticipation.[34]Whilemuchpoliticaldiscussionoccursinthetraditional,ormainstream,media,muchisnowalsoheldintheemergingarenaofblogs.Blogsnowconstituteasignificantandnoteworthycomponentintodayspoliticallandscape.Blogsandonlinepoliticalactivism(thenetroots)nowplayimportantrolesincampaignsforgettingoutthevote(GOTV)andgettingoutthedollar

(especiallyinonlinefundraising).Sincethe2004electionsandthesuccessofHowardDeanandsuchorganizationsasMoveOn.org,theintersectionofnetrootsandpoliticshasonlybecomestronger.

WorkingalongsideandofteninconjunctionwiththenetrootsarearangeofmappingandGIStoolsnowavailableforthepublic.Thesetoolsoftenrelyonmakinglinkagesbetweendifferentkindsofthings:forexample,betweendifferentsourcesofdata(e.g.,betweenGoogleMapsandtheU.S.CensusBureauortheFederal


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ElectionCommission)andbetweendifferentsoftwareprograms(e.g.,betweenGISandGoogleEarth).Theselinkages,effectedthroughopensourcesoftwareandAPIs,markapotentiallynewphaseofpoliticalactivismandcollaborationcharacterizedbymoredemocraticaccess,control,andproductionofinformationandknowledge;amorelocalmicropolitics;andpotentiallyawaytobreaktheholdof

establishmentbigmoneyincumbents.

Forexample,theFairDataWebsiteprovidescommunitybasedinteractivemapsforthewholenationdowntolevelofprecinctsandcensusblockgroups.[35]ThesedataarelinkedtoopensourcemappingAPIs,suchasGoogleMaps,forvisualdisplay.Userscanpanandzoomacrossthemapsanddisplaydifferentlayersofinformation(thesiteusesasophisticatedonlineGISasabackendtotheWebpages).ForaGOTVeffort,communityorganizerscancreatemapsofthenumberofnonvotersbyprecinct.InthemapofPhiladelphiainfigure1,thevotingturnoutisshownforeachprecinct,allowingtheGOTVteamtotargetnonvotingneighborhoods.

Themapshowsthatturnoutvariedquiteconsiderablyacrossthecityandwasbelow40percentinmanyareas.TheseareascanthenbetargetedbytheGOTVeffort.Themapscanalsoshowindividualhouseholdsthatdidnotvoteforevenmoretargetedefforts.AsfarasIamaware,thesearethefirsttoolsavailabletothepublicthatwerepreviouslyonlycompiledbypoliticalpartiesinsecretpoliticalprecinctmaps.

Dothesetoolsbythemselvesmeanthatthepoliticallandscapeisnowmoredemocratic?Notnecessarily.Foucaultsreminder(mentionedearlier)aboutpowerandknowledgeisnowheremoresalientthanintherelationship

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Fig.1.

PercentageturnoutinaPhiladelphianeighborhoodbyvotingprecinct,comparedwithraceandethnicity.(Fromwww.fairdata2000.com.)

betweenthemilitaryanddigitalmappingandgeovisualization.ThesizeofthemilitaryinvestmentinGIS,suchasthegeospatialintelligence(GEOINT)community,isnotknownbutwasformallyrecognizedinthecreationofthefederalNational

GeospatialIntelligenceAgency(NGA)in2004,andthemilitarysdoctrineonGEOINThasbeendescribedinrecentreports.[36]BecauseGIShashistoricallybeenlargelyassociatedwithgovernmentandindustry(e.g.,theGEOINT2006symposiumwaskeynotedbythedirectorofnationalintelligence,JohnNegroponte),therearemanywhoviewGISasbeingjustanothermechanismofgovernmentcontrolandsurveillance.[37]


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Picklesarguesthatmanyofthenewmappingcapabilitiesarewonderful.

Theyprovidemorepowerfultoolsforlocalplanningagencies,excitingpossibilitiesfordatacoordination,accessandexchange,andpermitmoreefficientallocationofresources,andamoreopenrationaldecisionmakingprocess.[38]

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Yetheconcedesthatthesesystemsaretakingplaceinalargercontextofeconomicproductionandacultureofmilitaryandsecuritypractices.[39]TrevorPaglen,ageographeratBerkeley,hasinvestigatedmanyofthesehiddengeographiesandevenprovidedamapmashupoftheCIAsextraordinaryrenditionflights.[40]

Open-SourceAccesstoGeospatialData

Thedevelopmentofopensourcedataandtoolsisveryattractivetothosewhoseektoavoidpoliticalandculturalassociationsandretaincontroloverthemaps.Forexample,MicrosoftoffersMapCruncher,atechnologythatallowsanyonetomaketheirownmapmashupinabouttenminutes.NASAoffersaglobalmapprojectoryoucantakeanymapandprojectitautomatically.Onelistinggivesover230ongoingopensourceGISprojects(http://opensourcegis.org/).

Oneobstaclefacedbytheopensourcemappingcommunityisthatmanymapdatalayersareprotectedbycopyright,especiallyintheUnitedKingdom(theUnitedStatesdoesnotcopyrightfederaldata).ThenationalmappingorganizationoftheUnitedKingdom,theOrdnanceSurvey,canregulatethesedatathroughlicenses.Inresponse,theOpenStreetMapisawikibasedcollaborativemappingprojecttocreatemappingcoveragesthatarecopyrightfree(undertheCreativeCommonslicense).

ParticipantsintheOpenStreetMapprojecttakeGPSsystemswiththemwherevertheygoandthenuploadtherecordedroutesintothesystem.Inthebeginning,partsoftheprojectwerebasedonoldcopyrightexpiredmaps.OtheruserswhodonothaveGPScaneditorannotatetheuploadedmaps.(AcouriercompanyinLondonhasalsoprovidedtracksofvirtuallyallLondonroads.)Formoreinaccessibleareas,suchasBaghdad,theprojecthasmadeanagreementwithYahootouseitsaerialimagery.Thiswillprovidedigitizedmaplayersofallfeatures(roads,rivers,railroads,parks,etc.),whichcanbeusedinmanydifferentapplicationsforexample,thedatacanbeexportedtoGoogleEarthforwideviewinganddistribution.

Aslippymap,intheGoogleMapsstyle,allowsuserstobrowseacrossthemapandzoominandouttospecificcities.Thelevelofdetailisatnearprofessionallevels,whichposestherealchallengeoftheseprojects:willtheyprovidecompetitionforthetraditionaltopdownprovidersofgeospatialinformation?Itatleastseemslikelythatopensourcemappingwillprovideaparallelalternativesetofpubliclyavailable

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data,butitdoesnotseemlikelythattheywillreplacetraditionaldataproviders.

Anotherobstacleisthatdataproviderssometimescurtailorsuppressdatathattheyhave.ThemostwellknowninstanceofthisinvolvesGooglesimageryofIndia,China,andKorea.Inthesecountries,Googlehasagreedtodegradethequalityofimageryforcertainmilitarysites.(Othercountries,suchasIndonesia,havedeclinedtomakethisrequest,statingthatthereducedqualitywouldsimplyindicatewheresuchsitesarelocated.)ThesensitivityofthispracticewasillustratedwhenquestionswereaskedintheU.S.CongressaboutGooglesprovisionofimageryratherclosertotheUnitedStates.[41]GooglerevealedthatinSeptember2006,theyhadreplacednewerimageryofthedevastatedcityofNewOrleanswithpreKatrinaimagery.Googlerespondedthattheycontinuedtoprovidethenewerimagery(whichisactuallylowerquality)onaspecialWebsite.However,Googlesalterationstoimagery,sometimesattherequestofforeigngovernments,raisesquestionsaboutthefutureofinformationsupply.

CommunityandParticipatoryMapping

Whengroupsofpeoplecometogethertoaddressaproblem,theycanleverageeconomiesofscale.Thinkoftheonlinesocialnetworkingcommunities,suchasdel.icio.us,Diggit,andSlashdot.Inmapping,thisleveraginghasoftentakentheformofcommunityorparticipatorymapping,whichIalreadydiscussedinthecontextofcountermapping.[42]

ScientificApplicationsofMapMashups

Scientistsarenowusingcollaborativemappingtoolstovisualizeandbringtolightspatialpatternsofthingsasdiverseasbirdmigrationpatternsorthespreadofthe

SARSvirusandtodemonstratehowloggingwillaffectdownstreamcommunities.[43]Aswehaveseen,opensourcegeospatialAPIs,suchasGoogleEarthandYahooMaps,arepopularandpowerfultools.Thispointhasnotbeenlostonscientists,whoareincreasinglyturningtothesetoolsinordertovisualizeandcommunicatedata.Forexample,DeclanButler,aseniorreporteratNature,regularlypostsKMZ(GoogleEarth)filesinarticlesshowingtheoccurrenceofavianinfluenzaA(H5N1)andotherpublichealthissues.

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AnotherfascinatingapplicationhasbeenproducedbytheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(AAAS)aspartofitsScienceandHumanRights

Program.TheGeospatialTechnologiesandHumanRights(GaTHR)Projectuseshighresolutionglobalsatelliteimagerytoexamineareasoftheworldthatareotherwiseimpossibletoaccess,suchasDarfurinSudan.In2004,thisimageryconfirmedtheextentofethniccleansinginthisarea,anditisnowavailableasGElayers.TheAAASsays:

TheQuickBirdimageryusedbytheDepartmentofStateandUSAID,togetherwithotherhighresolutionimagery,hasprovenespeciallyvaluableasitcanshow


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damagetosmallhouses,orchards,fields,andotherfeatures.Giventheunequivocaltimeofimageacquisitionitcanauthoritativelydocumentchangestothesefeatures,andinprintedformtheimageryhelpscompileandsynthesizewitnessreportsduringinterviews.[44]

Suchaprojectcan,ofcourse,benefitfromtraditionalGIS,butitspublicoutreachanddisseminationcomponentissignificantlyimprovedbyusingpubliclyassessableoutletsofdatavisualization.TheGaTHRprojectalsoworkswithmembersofthehumanrightscommunity(e.g.,AmnestyInternational)whomaynothaveaccessorexpertiseincostlytechnology.

Geospatialtechnologiespotentiallyofferhumanrightsresearchersandadvocatesasignificantnewtoolforassessinghumanrightsviolationsandmonitoringdevelopingcrisesingeographicareaswhereitisdifficulttosendobservers.Thesetoolsmayalsoprovidecompellingdocumentationtoencourageinterventionandtodetermineresponsibility.TheinitialphaseofthisprojectwillenableAAAStoevaluatethepotentialusesandtodeterminethemostfeasiblewaytodevelopanddisseminatethesetechnologieswithinthehumanrightscommunity.[45]

GEandsimilarapplications,suchasNASAsWorldWindandMicrosoftsVirtualEarth(VE)3D,donotproviderealtimedataasmanypeoplebelieve(exceptinspecialcircumstances).Buttheyarevitallyimportantforlookingatchangedetection(comparingimagerybetweendifferenttimeperiods).Changedetectioncanshowwhethervillagesorbuildingshavebeenrazedtotheground,forexampleastheAAASfoundinZimbabwe,despitegovernmentalsilence.

BarriersforLinkingGeospatialData

Interoperability

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Therearestillmanybarrierstotheuseofopensourcegeospatialtools,mapmashups,andmaphacking.Someofthesearetechnologicalforexample,ensuringthatdifferentsoftwarecanoperatewitheachother,orinteroperability.Thedevelopmentofwidelyacceptedstandardsandmetadataisthemostworkablesolutiontothisproblem.WearecurrentlyinasituationanalogoustothemanystandardsforhighdefinitionDVDs.Theyallwork,butnotnecessarilytogether.EffortssuchastheOpenGeospatialConsortium(OGC),aninternationalconsortiumofgovernments,universities,andcorporations,canpromotestandardsand

interoperabilitytoacertainextentinatopdownmodel.Thebiggestproblemhereisnotgettingsoftwaretoconnectbutgettingthedataandmetadataintostandardforms.

InstitutionalBarriers

Aswehaveseen,therearepresentlytwodifferentrealmsofmappingandGISdata:GISandWebbasedmapping.TheGISindustryishavingtocatchuptothepopular


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applications,suchasGEandVE.Inthelastyearorso,programsthatlinkbetweenpopulartraditionalGISapplicationshaveappeared:anexampleistheArc2Earthprogram,whichlinksESRIsArcGISandGE.GIScompanies,afterlargelyignoringprogramsfordigitalearthvisualizationbecausetheydidnotprovideanalysis,arenowstrugglingtoquicklycatchupandleveragethetremendouspopularityofWeb

basedmapping.AmajorbreakthroughinthinkingcamewhenESRIrealizedthattheyneedednotjustanexporterfromArcGIStoGEbutonefromGEtoArcGISthatis,thatyoucouldbringprettypicturesintoindustrialgradeGIStodoseriouswork.

Anotherinstitutionalbarrierarisesfromthecorporatizationofinformation.TheInternethasundergonetremendouscorporatizationoverthelasttenyears,notsolelyintermsofcontent,butalsointermsofownershipofthemechanismsofdistribution(thecablesandphonewires).Inparticular,thereismountingconcernovertheerosionofnetneutrality.TheconcernisthatInternetprovidersmightnolongertreatallInternettrafficequally.Endusers,forexample,mayexperience

differentialaccesstoWebsitesinaccordancewithfeesthatthesitesandendusersmayhavepaid(ornotpaid).Thistieredaccesswouldresemblethecurrentmodel

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oftenadoptedbycableproviders,wherebyconsumersreceivedifferentTVchannelsaccordingtothepackagetheyhavepurchased.Thefearisthataccesstocontentperseorevendifferentialspeedsofaccesstocontent(fasterorslower)maybecomethenormontheInternet.OnemodeltocircumventthisistoswitchtoopenaccessWiFibroadband,buteventheprovisionofthataccessisultimatelycablebound.

Advocatesoftieredinformationaccessarguethatitisatypicalfinancialmodel

foundinmanybusinesses.Proponentsofnetneutralityarguethattheconceptofbusinessmodelsshouldnotapplytotheprovisionofsuchanimportantsourceofinformation.Thedebateovernetneutralityiscurrentlybeingfoughtoutincompetinglegislationatstateandfederallevelsandisundoubtedlygoingtoremainanimportantissueinthenextfewyears.

TheDigitalDivide

Thedigitaldivideisameasureofaccesstothedigitalinformationeconomy.Itincludesaccesstotechnology(hardwareandsoftware)butalsotoknowledgeitself(education).RecentresearchhasdemonstratedthattheInternetisnotfreeofthegeographicalrestraintsofthephysicalworld.[46]Thesedividesoccurataplethoraofscales:withinacity,withinaregion,withinacountry,andbetweenonecountryandanother.Forexample,accordingtofiguresfromtheUnitedNations,Internetaccessratesare19per1,000peopleinsubSaharanAfrica;inhighincomeOECDcountries,theyaremorethan30timeshigher,onaverage563per1,000.[47]ButevenwithintheUnitedStates,broadbandaccess(requiredformanyoftodaysInternetapplications)iscurrentlyinstalledinabout45percentofhomesahighproportion,butcertainlynotatsaturationlevel.[48]


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Thedigitaldivideisenduringinthesensethatnewtechnologiesareconstantlybeingproducedandconstantlybeingspreadunevenly.Eachtimeweinventagreattechnology,weironicallyalsoproduceinequalities.AsShirkyhasargued,diversityplusfreedomofchoicecreatesinequality,andthegreaterthediversity,themoreextremetheinequality.[49]AstheInternetincreasesinsizeanddiversity,

inequalitieswillalsoincreaseandreplicatethedigitaldividepatternsalreadyfoundinthephysicalworld.

Researchalsoshowsthattherearesomeremarkablegeographiesofhyperlinksbetweenblogclustersontherightandtheleftofthepoliticalspectrum.Lookingnotatthecrosssectionofallblogsbut,rather,at

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thosethatcarrythemostreadership(theAlistbloggers),AdamicandGlancefoundthatinthemonthsprecedingthe2004U.S.presidentialelection,thedegreeofinteractionbetweenliberalandconservativeblogswasverylow.Bothblogospheres

linkedmostlywithintheirowncommunitiesandnotacrossthepoliticaldivide.[50]

Conclusion:CanPeasantsMap?

Manyobstaclestodigitalaccess,suchasthedigitaldivideandnetneutrality,arenot,atbase,technologicalissuesthatcanbeaddressedthroughmarketincentives;rather,theyarecomplexsociopoliticalproblems.Lackofaccesstoonlineinformationparallelstheveryunderservedpopulationsitcouldbenefit.CommunityandparticipatoryGIS,thenetroots,andWebbasedmappingarethereforenotlikelytoprovidesolutionsforunderservedpopulationstobootstrapthemselvesoutofpoverty.Butifunderservedandwellservedcommunitiesworktogether,then

problemscanbemoreablyaddressed.Thisisabigif,andasthisessayshows,thereareenduringdividesandconnectivities.Afterall,welivenotinisolatedcommunitiesbutinaworldofnetworks.

InhisworkonpoliticalNetbasedactivism,DavidPerlmutterexploresthequestionofwhethertheonlineactivismandthenetrootsarearepresentativeconstituencyspecifically,whetherbloggersarethepeople.Hepointsoutthatatthemoment,thenetrootsareoverwhelminglyyoung,white,male,welleducated,andtechnologicallysavvyandarethusnotrepresentativeofthepopulationasawhole.Asheputit,peasantsdonotblog.[51]

Inthisessay,Ihaveintroducedanumberofdevelopmentsthatbothassistand

createobstaclesforaccessandusageofgeospatialinformation.Thesetoolsareprovidedoutofagenuinerealizationthatthewayswevisualizeandunderstandtheworldaroundusitsplaces,geographies,andrelationshipsareundergoingaradicaltransformation.Ifthemedia(TV,newspapers,andnewsradio)hashadtoadaptandincorporatenewmodelsofinformationdisseminationandparticipation,andifpublishingisundergoingasimilartransformation,thentherewouldseemtobeanequivalenttransformationworkingonourmappings.Theremainingquestions,however,aretowhatdegree,howmuch,andwithwhateffectsthese


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toolswillconfronttheobstaclesandbarriers.Theanswerstothosequestionswillprovevitalindecidingthefutureofinformation.

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Notes

1.C.Jacob,TheSovereignMap:TheoreticalApproachesinCartographythroughoutHistory(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2006).

2.D.Buisseret,Monarchs,Ministers,andMaps:TheEmergenceofCartographyasaToolofGovernmentinEarlyModernEurope(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1992).

3.J.ArmstrongandM.M.Zuniga,CrashingtheGate:Netroots,GrassrootsandtheRiseofPeoplePoweredPolitics(WhiteRiverJunction,VT:ChelseaGreen,2006).

4.J.B.Harley,M.Warhus,andE.Hanlon,MapsandtheColumbianEncounter:An

InterpretiveGuidetotheTravellingExhibition;AmericanGeographicalSocietyCollection(Milwaukee:GoldaMeirLibrary,UniversityofWisconsin,1990).

5.Mapsthatshowgeographicaldistributions(asopposedtoroadmapsandgeneralreferencemaps)canbecategorizedintoseveraltypes.Thesemapsareknowngenerallyasthematicmapsandtendtoshowquantitativedata.Isolinemapsarebasicallycontourmaps(withlinesofequalelevation)butcanalsorepresentabstractinformation(asinthefamiliartemperaturemap).Dotdistributionmapsshowdistributionsofeventsorfeatureswithscatteringsofdots(themoredots,themorefeatures).Proportionalsymbolmapsusesizetoindicatequantity(e.g.,linewidthfortrafficflows).Choroplethmapsareoneofthemostfamiliarthematic

maps.Theytakepredefinedareas(e.g.,countries)andshowquantityforeacharea(e.g.,percapitaincomebycountryonaworldmap).

6.S.Johnson,TheGhostMap:TheStoryofLondonsMostTerrifyingEpidemicandHowItChangedScience,Cities,andtheModernWorld(NewYork:Riverhead,2006);T.Koch,TheMapasIntent:VariationsontheThemeofJohnSnow,Cartographica39,no.4(2004):114.

7.F.A.Walker,StatisticalAtlasoftheUnitedStates(NewYork:J.Bien,1874).

8.S.Schulten,TheGeographicalImaginationinAmerica,18801950(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2001).

9.F.J.Turner,TheFrontierinAmericanHistory(NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,1921).

10.J.R.Akerman,AmericanPromotionalRoadMappingintheTwentiethCentury,CartographyandGeographicInformationScience29,no.3(2002):17591.


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11.H.Clout,GeographersinTheirIvoryTower:AcademicGeographyandPopularGeographyinParis1931,GeografiskaAnnalerSeriesBHumanGeography87,no.1(2005):1529.

12.D.E.CosgroveandV.dellaDora,MappingGlobalWar:LosAngeles,thePacific,andCharlesOwenssPictorialCartography,AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers95,no.2(2005):373;R.E.Harrison,LookattheWorld:TheFortuneAtlasforWorldStrategy(NewYork:Knopf,1944).

13.E.S.HermanandN.Chomsky,ManufacturingConsent:ThePoliticalEconomyoftheMassMedia(NewYork:Pantheon,2002);W.Lippmann,PublicOpinion(NewYork:FreePress,1922).

14.L.M.HarrisandH.D.Hazen,PowerofMaps:(Counter)MappingforConservation,ACME4,no.1(2006):99130.

15.W.Bunge,Fitzgerald:GeographyofaRevolution(Morristown,NJ:Schenkman,

1971);W.Bunge,TheFirstYearsoftheDetroitGeographicalExpedition:

Page225

APersonalReport,inRadicalGeography,ed.R.Peet(Chicago:Maroufa,1969),3139.

16.R.M.DownsandL.S.Liben,ThroughaMapDarkly:UnderstandingMapsasRepresentations,GeneticEpistemologist16(1988):16.

17.S.Elwood,BeyondCooptationorResistance:UrbanSpatialPolitics,CommunityOrganizations,andGISBasedSpatialNarratives,AnnalsoftheAssociationof

AmericanGeographers96,no.2(2006):32341;S.Elwood,NegotiatingKnowledgeProduction:TheEverydayInclusions,Exclusions,andContradictionsofParticipatoryGISResearch,ProfessionalGeographer58,no.2(2006):197208.

18.M.Foucault,SocietyMustBeDefended:LecturesattheCollegeDeFrance,19751976(NewYork:Picador,2003),7.

19.Ibid.,9.

20.W.Safire,Netroots,NewYorkTimesMagazine,November19,2006.

21.ArmstrongandZuniga,CrashingtheGate.

22.G.Greenwald,Blogs,AlternativePoliticalSystems,Funding,http://glenngreenwald.blogspot.com/2007/02/blogsalternativepoliticalsystems.html.

23.A.H.Robinson,TheLookofMaps:AnExaminationofCartographicDesign(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1952),13.


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24.C.E.Shannon,AMathematicalTheoryofCommunication,BellSystemTechnicalJournal27,no.3(1948):379423,62356.

25.D.Mindell,J.Segal,andS.Gerovitch,FromCommunicationsEngineeringtoCommunicationsScience,inScienceandIdeology:AComparativeHistory,ed.M.Walker(London:Routledge,2003),6696.

26.L.Ratajski,CommissionVoftheICA:TheTasksItFaces,InternationalYearbookofCartography14(1974):140.

27.N.Chrisman,ChartingtheUnknown:HowComputerMappingatHarvardBecameGIS(Redlands,CA:ESRIPress,2006).

28.E.Raisz,GeneralCartography(NewYork:McGrawHill,1948).

29.J.Dykes,A.M.MacEachren,andM.J.Kraak,ExploringGeovisualization(Amsterdam:Elsevier,2005).

30.Daratech,GIS/GeospatialMarketGrew17%in2005toTop$3.3Billion,http://www.directionsmag.com/press.releases/index.php?duty=Show&id=14697&trv=1.

31.NewTechnologyHelpingFostertheDemocratizationofCartography,ScienceDaily,http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060920192549.htm.

32.A.Gore,TheDigitalEarth:UnderstandingOurPlanetinthe21stCentury,http://www.isde5.org/al_gore_speech.htm.

33.S.Erle,R.Gibson,andJ.Walsh,MappingHacks(Sebastopol,CA:OReilly,2005).

34.E.Talen,BottomupGIS:ANewToolforIndividualandGroupExpressioninParticipatoryPlanning,JournaloftheAmericanPlanningAssociation66,no.3(2000):27994.

35.TheFairData/FairPlansiteissovastthatnodescriptioncanreallyencompassit.Itprovidesinteractivemaps,censusdata,precinctmapsofregisterednonvotersbyrace,racialprofilingdata,GOTVdata,andmuchmore.

36.UnitedStatesJointForcesCommand,GeospatialIntelligenceSupporttoJointOperations(Washington,DC,2007).

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37.J.Pickles,AHistoryofSpaces:CartographicReason,Mapping,andtheGeoCodedWorld(London:Routledge,2004);N.Smith,RealWars,TheoryWars,ProgressinHumanGeography16,no.2(1992):25771.

38.Pickles,HistoryofSpaces,148.


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39.Ibid.,152.

40.T.Paglen,UnmarkedPlanesandHiddenGeographies,http://vectors.usc.edu/index.php?page=7&projectId=59;T.PaglenandA.C.Thompson,TortureTaxi:OntheTrailoftheCIAsRenditionFlights(Hoboken,NJ:MelvilleHouse,2006).

41.AssociatedPress,HousePanel:WhyDidGoogleAirbrushHistory?http://edition.cnn.com/2007/TECH/03/31/katrina.google.maps.ap/index.html.

42.Elwood,NegotiatingKnowledgeProduction.

43.S.Herhold,TechnologyBuildsBiggerSoapbox,MercuryNews,December3,2006.

44.AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(AAAS)2007.GeospatialTechnologiesandHumanRights.http://shr.aaas.org/geotech/whatcanGISdo.shtml(assessedDecember28,2007).

45.E.W.Lempinen,NewAAASProjectWillExploreGeospatialTechnologyandHumanRights,http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/0127geospatial.shtml.

46.J.ChakrabortyandM.M.Bosman,MeasuringtheDigitalDivideintheUnitedStates:Race,Income,andPersonalComputerOwnership,ProfessionalGeographer57,no.3(2005):395410;M.Crang,T.Crosbie,andS.Graham,VariableGeometriesofConnection:UrbanDigitalDividesandtheUsesofInformationTechnology,UrbanStudies43,no.13(2006):255170.

47.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram,HumanDevelopmentReport2006:

BeyondScarcity;Power,Poverty,andtheGlobalWaterCrisis(BasingstokeHampshireandNewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2006).

48.L.RainieandJ.Horrigan,Election2006Online,http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Politics_2006.pdf.

49.C.Shirky,PowerLaws,Weblogs,andInequality,http://shirky.com/writings/powerlaw_weblog.html.

50.L.A.AdamicandN.Glance,ThePoliticalBlogosphereandthe2004U.S.Election:DividedTheyBlog,Proceedingsofthe3rdInternationalWorkshoponLinkDiscovery(NewYork:ACM,2005),3643;seealsoAdamicsessayinthe

presentvolume.

51.D.D.Perlmutter,AreBloggersthePeople?http://policybyblog.squarespace.com/arebloggersthepeople.


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