wind turbine terminologies
TRANSCRIPT
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 29
CHAPTER 3.
WIND TURBINE
TERMINOLOGIES
Coefficient of power
Coefficient of power is the most important variable in wind turbine aerodynamics. This
variable is also a means to compare different turbines.
Coefficient of power PC is defined as the ratio power extracted by the turbine rotor
because of axial force acting on the rotor to kinetic power available in the wind.
o
PP
PC
)( 31 XX CCmX
2312 )( XXXX CCCmXCP
)( 312
22 XXX CCCAP
It is convenient to define to define an axial flow induction factor, a (assumed to be
invariant with radius), for the actuator disc or turbine rotor:
1
21 )(
X
XX
C
CCa
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 30
123 2 XXX CCC
And therefore P is given as;
23
12 )1(2 aCAaP X
22
)( 3 12122
1 XXXo
CACACP
2
)1(4 aaP
P
Co
P
The maximum value of PC is found by differentiating PC with respect to a .
0)31)(1(4 aaad
dCP
The above equation gives two roots, a=1/3 and 1.0 . Using the first root, the maximum
value of the coefficient of power is given as
593.027
16max PC
This value of PC is often referred to as Betz lmit, referring to the maximum possible
power coefficient of the turbine.
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 31
The axial force coefficient
The axial force coefficient is defined as
2
2
12
1 AC
XC
X
x
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 32
2
2
1
21
2
1
)(2
AC
CCmC
X
XXx
2
1
212 )(4
X
XXXx
C
CCCC
)1(4 aaCx
we can find the maximum value of xC by differentiating the the above expression for
xC with respect to a and equating it to zero.
084 aad
dCx
This gives the maximum value of xC as unity at a =0.5.
Variation of PC and xC as a function of a (axial induction factor).
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 33
Tip speed ratio
Tip speed ratio is one of the most important non dimensional parameter for the rotors ofHAWTs, and is defined as;
J = speed of the tip of the rotor
Free stream velocity(v)
v
Rn
v
RJ
2
This parameter controls the operating conditions of a turbine and strongly influence the
values of the flow induction factors a and 'a which in turn influence the maximum
possible values of PC . Maximum PC occurs at specific tip speed ratio.
Typically, the values of tip speed ratio lies between 1 to 1.5 for pumping purpose, and
between 6 to 9 for electricity production.
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 34
AERODYNAMIC THEORIES OF WIND TURBINE
The analysis of aerodynamic behavior of wind turbines can be started without any
specific turbine design just by considering the energy extraction process. A simple model,
known as the actuator disc model can be used to calculate the power output of ideal
turbine rotor and the wind thrust on the rotor. Additionally more advanced methods,
including momentum theory, blade element theory and finally blade element momentum
theory are introduced. BEM theory is used to obtain the optimum blade shape and also to
predict the performance parameter of the rotor for ideal, steady operating condition.
Blade element momentum theory combines two methods to analyze the aerodynamic
performance of a wind turbine. These are momentum theory and blade element theory
which are used to outlined the governing equations for aerodynamic design and power
prediction of HAWT rotor. Momentum theory analyses the momentum balance on a
rotating annular stream tube passing through a turbine and blade element theory examines
the forces generated by the airfoil lift and drag coefficient at various sections along the
blade. Combining both theories gives a series of equations that can be solved iteratively.
Actuator disc theory
The analysis of the aerodynamic behavior of the wind turbines can be started without any
specific turbine design just by considering the energy extraction process. The simplest
model of a wind turbine is the so-called actuator disc model, where the turbine is replaced
by a circular disc through which the air stream flows. There are some assumptions
associated with this theory but even though the analysis yields useful approximate results.
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 35
Following are the assumptions:
1. Steady uniform flow upstream of the disc;
2. Uniform and steady velocity at the disc;
3. No flow rotation produced by the disc;
4. The flow passing through the disc is contained both upstream and downstream by the
boundary stream tube;
5. The flow is incompressible.
Because the actuator disc offers a resistance to the flow, the velocity of the air is
reduced as it approaches the disc and there will be a corresponding increase in pressure.
The flow crossing through the disc experiences a sudden drop in pressure below the
ambient pressure. The discontinuity in pressure at the disc characterizes the actuator.
Downstream of the disc there is a gradual recovery of the pressure to the ambient value.
We define the axial velocities of the flow far upstream (x - ), at the disc (x=0) and far
downstream (x ) as 321, XXX andCCC , respectivly. By continuity equation, the mass
flow rate is given as
22ACxm
Where = air density and 2A = area of disc.
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 36
The axial force acting on the disc
)( 31 XX CCmX
And the corresponding power extracted by the turbine or the actuator disc is
2312 )( XXXX CCCmXCP
The rate of energy loss by the wind must then be
2
)( 2 32
1 XXW
CCmP
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 37
Assuming no other losses, we can equate the power lost by the wind to the power gained
by the turbine rotor or actuator
PPW
231
2
3
2
1 )(2
)(XXX
XX CCCmCCm
On simplification we obtain;
2
)( 312
XXX
CCC
)( 312
22 XXX CCCAP
212
222 XXX CCCAP
It is convenient to define to define an axial flow induction factor, a (assumed to be
invariant with radius), for the actuator disc or turbine rotor:
1
21 )(
X
XX
C
CCa
)1(12 aCC XX
23
12 )1(2 aCAaP X
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 38
Momentum theory
Axial force
Consider a stream tube around a wind turbine(represented by disc) as shown in figure.
Three stations are shown in the diagram 1, someway upstream of the turbine 2, at the
plane of disc(wind turbine) 3, someway at the downstream of the turbine. At 2 energy is
extracted from the wind and there is a change in pressure as a result.
The air passing across the disc undergoes an overall change in velocity 31 XX CC and
a corresponding rate of change of momentum equal to the mass flow rate multiplied by
this velocity change. The force causing this momentum change is equal to the difference
in pressure across the disc times the area of the disc. Thus,
312231222 XXXXX CCCACCmApp
31222 XXX CCCppp
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 39
The difference in pressure p is obtained by application of bernoullis equation to the
two flow regimes of the stream tube.
Applying bernoullis equation to the region 1-2;
2
221
2
2
121
1 XX CpCp
And to the region 2-3;
2
22
2
33 2
1
2
1XX CpCp
By taking the difference of two equation, we get ;
222 32 12
1ppCC XX
XAppACC XX 22222 32 121
And using the below equations,
2
)( 312
XXX
CCC
1
21 )(
X
XX
CCCa
We get ;
2
2
1 142
1AaaCX X
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 40
Rotating annular stream tube
It is evident that the torque exerted on the rotor disc by the air passing through it requires
an equal and opposite torque to be exerted on the air. As a consequence, this reaction
torque causes the air leaving the rotor to rotate incrementally in the opposite direction to
that of the rotor. Thus the wake leaving the rotor blades will have a velocity component in
the direction tangential to the blade rotation as well as an axial velocity component.
The flow entering the rotor has no rotational motion at all. The flow exiting the rotor
has rotation and this remain constant as the flow travels downstream. We can define the
change in the tangential velocity in terms of a tangential flow induction factor, 'a .
r
Ca
2' 2
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 41
Consider such an elementary annulus of a HAWT of radius r from the axis of rotation and
of radial thickness dr.
Moment of inertia of an annulus, 2mrI
Angular Moment, IL
Torque,dt
dLT
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 42
22
dt
dm
dtdt
dIT r
mrd
So for a small element the corresponding torque will be:
2rmddT
For a rotating annular element
22 XCrdrmd
222 rCrdrdT X
2
'a
1
21 )(
X
XX
C
CCa
drraaCdT X 31 '14
So momentum theory has yielded equations for axial and tangential forces on an annular
element of fluid.
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 43
Blade element theory
Blade element theory relies on two key assumptions:
1. There is no aerodynamic interaction between different blade elements.
2. The forces on the blade elements are solely determined by the lift and drag coefficients
Consider now a turbine with Z blades of tip radius R each of chord l at radius r and
rotating at angular speed . The pitch angle of the blade at radius r is measured from
the zero lift line to the plane of rotation. The axial velocity of the wind at the blades is the
same as the value determined from actuator disc theory and is perpendicular to the plane
of rotation
Figure shows the blade element moving from right to left together with the velocity
vectors relative to the blade chord line at radius r. The resultant of the relative velocity
immediately upstream of the blades is,
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 44
BLADE DESIGN PROCEDURE
1. Determine the rotor diameter require from site condition.
33
2
1VRCP P
Where ;
P is the power output.
PC is the expected coefficient of performance (0.4 for modern three bladed
wind turbine).
is the expected electrical and mechanical efficiency (0.9 would be a suitable
value).
R is the tip radius.
V is the expected wind velocity.
2. Choose a tip speed ratio for the machine. For water pumping take 1
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 45
6. Choose the design aerodynamic condition for each airfoil. Typically select 80% of
the maximum lift value, this choice effectively fixes the blade twist. On long blades a
very large degree of twist is required to obtain 80% of the maximum lift near the hub.
This is not necessarily desirable as the hub produces only a small amount of power
output , a compromise is to accept that the airfoil will have very large angles of
attack at hub.
7. Choose a chord distribution of the airfoil. There is no easily physical accessible way
of doing this but a simplification of an ideal blade is given by
rB
rc
3
cos8
This gives a moderately complex shape and a linear distribution of chord may be
considered easier to make.
8. Divide the blade into N elements. Typically 10 to 20 elements would be used.
9. As a first guess for the flow solution use the following equations. These are based on
an ideal blade shape derived with the wake rotation, zero drag and tip losses. Note
that these equations provide an initial guess only. The equations are given as follows:
r
1tan
3
290 10
1
'
2
sin
cos41
LCa
1431'
a
aa
10. Calculate rotor performance and then modify the design as necessary. This is an
iterative process.
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 46
A typical experience shows the relation between TSR and number of blades(B).
B
1 8-24
2 6-12
3 3-6
4 3- 4
More than 4 1- 3
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 47
SCALING OF WIND TURBINE
Before manufacturing of actual full scale prototype of a wind turbine , it is required to
perform certain performance tests on a scale model to predict its performance subjected
to certain set to conditions. Such tests are required to compare the actual performance and
anticipated performance.
A number of scaling parameters and geometric parameters are considered during the
design of a scale model of a wind turbine rotor, which also include mass scaling, mach no.
scaling, Reynolds similarity and geometric scaling.
Full scale wind turbine have a Reynold number based on the blade tip speed and tip
chord on the order of 610 . Reynold similarity can not be achieved since it require high
flow velocity which could violate the assumptions of incompressible flow in air.
Thus oftenly only geometric similarity and tip speed ratio matching are employed.
This results in impractical rotational speed. For wind tunnel tests that involve Reynolds
no. less than approximately 500,000 Reynold no. matching is necessary. When including
Reynold no. matching in the scaling process, keeping rotational velocities realistic
become even more challenging and preventing impractical free stream velocities become
difficult.
Sometimes on scaling a turbine for design or wind tunnel testing, typically only
geometric scaling and TSR ( tip speed ratio ) matching is applied.
U
RTSR
For most medium to large turbines (>20m) operate at higher Reynold's number and
matching Reynold number for scaling does not need to be accounted.
cUrel
Re
In case of Reynold number below 500,000 the flow can vary significantly with both flow
and geometric parameters.
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 48
WIND TURBINE SCALING LAWS WHITHOUT
REYNOLD NUMBER MATCHING
QUANTITY SYMBOL RELATIONS SCALE DEPENDENCE
Power P
2
2
1
2
1
R
R
P
P 2R
Torque Q
3
2
1
2
1
R
R
Q
Q 3R
Thrust T
2
2
1
2
1
RR
TT 2R
Rotational
1
2
1
2
1
R
R 1R
Speed
Weight W
3
2
1
2
1
R
R
W
W 3R
Aerodynamic
Moments AM
3
2
1
2
1
R
R
M
M
A
A 3R
Centrifugal
Force CF
2
2
1
2
1
R
R
F
F
C
C 2R
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 49
WIND TURBINE SCALING LAWS WITH
REYNOLD NUMBER MATCHING
PARAMETRS SYMBOL RELATION
Radius R scR
R
2
1
Chord c scc
c
2
1
Kinematic
Viscosity 12
1
Free stream UscU
U 1
2
1
Velocity
Rotational 2
2
1 1
sc
Velocity
Rotor power rotorP
scP
P
rotor
rotor 1
2
1
Torque sc2
1
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 50
HAWT BLADE SECTION CRITERIA
The essential requirements for a wind turbine blades is its aerodynamic performance,structural strength and stiffness, ease of manufacture and maintenance. It was assumed
that blades with high lift and low drag were the best choice for wind turbine blades and
thus the standard aerofoils, e.g., NACA 44XX, NACA 230XX, (where the XX denotes
thickness to chord ratio, as a percentage), that were suitable for aircraft were selected for
wind turbines.
The main factor that influence the liftdrag ratio of a given aerofoil section is the
Reynolds number. Earlier works showed that optimal performance of a turbine blade
depends on the product of blade chord and lift coefficient, LcC . When other turbine
parameters such as the tipspeed ratio J and radius R are kept constant, narrower blades
can be used with high value of LC . It is not necessary that narrower blades are responsible
for lower viscous losses. Reynolds number plays an important role in viscous losses. In
fact lower reynolds number often produces higher values of DC .
Another important factor to consider is the effect on the blade structural stiffness, which
largely depends upon thicness of the blade. The standard aerofoils also suffered from a
serious fault; such as, a gradual degradation of performance due to roughness effects by
contamination on the leading edge. The roughness also degrades the aerofoils lift-curve
slope and increases profile drag, further contributing to losses. Small scale wind turbines
are more prone to losses due to roughness because of their lower elevation that allows the
accretion of more insects and dust particles and the debris.
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 51
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION MEASUREMENT
Pressure distribution is the variation of static pressure on the surface of a model. Lift on
an airfoil is because of the pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the
airfoil. A prior knowledge of pressure distribution over the airfoil will give us lift acting
on the airfoil.
Pressure distribution over the airfoil is measured using pressure tapping leading to the
pressure transducers or suitable pressure sensing element like multitube manometer.
Pressure tapping are simply a hole which are perpendicular to the surface of a body. This
holes are connected to pressure sensing elements through tubes. This tubes are of very
small diameter(1mm internal diameter). Earlier the pressure sensing elements were
multitube manometer but now a days piezoelectric pressure sensors are common.
Lift and drag on the airfoil depends upon the quality of pressure measurement. The
pressure tapping should cover the entire airfoil. They should be denser near the leading
and trailing edge.
Pressure sensor connection
Pressure sensor can be connected to pressure tapping in two ways;
1. The pressure sensors are connected to pressure tapping by short tubes, inside the
model and then the sensors are connected to data acquisition system by long electric
cables. Such kind of connection is required for unsteady pressure measurements.
2. The pressure sensors are connected to pressure tapping by long tubes and pressure
sensing element lies outside the model. Such kind of connection is necessary for small
models that can not accommodate the pressure sensors inside.
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EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 52
Pressure Taping placement
Pressure taping are to be placed on the airfoil in a manner as shown in the figure. A total
of 19 number of taping are to be done on the airfoil. 9 taping on the upper surface and 9
taping on the lower surface. One taping is at the leading edge. Taping placement on all
airfoil are to be done in similar fashion.
All the pressure taping are connected to multitube manometer in a manner as discussed
above. Pressure is taken by reading the column of multitube manometers and thus
pressure distribution is obtained. Coefficient of pressure is calculated at each pressure
taping point and is plotted against chord length at various angle of attack. A typical
coefficient of pressure distribution is shown in the figure.
2
2
1V
ppC iaPi
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 53
Where, ap is static pressure on the surface of airfoil in pascal.
ip is the inlet static pressure or test section static pressure.
V is free stream velocity.
Figure. coefficient of pressure distribution over an airfoil
Coefficient of Lift and drag on the airfoil can also be obtain by pressure distribution.
Coefficient of lift and drag can be given as;
P
LL
AV
FC
2
2
1
P
DD
AV
FC
2
2
1
clAP
Where, LF and DF are the lift and drag forces respectively.
PA is the projected area
c and l are the chord length and span of the airfoil model
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 54
The total drag on the airfoil is sum of frictional drag and pressure drag(form drag).
Lift on an airfoil is because of the pressure difference between the upper and lower
surface of the airfoil. A
Coefficient of lift and drag can also given as ;
sincos XZL CCC
cossin XZD CCC
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WIND TURBINE
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADES AIRFOIL 55
Where, XC and ZC are the coefficient of resolved forces of resultant force along X
and Z direction.
is the angle of attack
surface
PXc
xdCC
surafce
PZc
zdCC
ZC and XC can also be obtained by numerical integration
xCC PijZ2
1
zCC PijX 21
ij xxx
ij zzz
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WIND TURBINE
is measured from the leading edge in a direction parallel to chord line.
z is measured from the chord line in a direction perpendicular to chord line.
PijC is pressure coefficient acting on the airfoil between pressure taping positions i and j.
2
PjPi
Pij
CCC
PiC and PjC are coefficient of pressure at i and j taping positions.