within a context of their sensitivity t ?ry possible interference on site, particularly lightning. Thus, Just * a control engineer views a plant as a system with many interactive components so too should earthing, grounding and EMI control be treated as part of the control design effort, integrating it in to the overall plant design.

11.1 LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This study is limited by the fact that a purely documentary research has been done and that no practical test and measurement verifications have been possible. Furthermore, due to the diversity and complexity of process control systems encountered and the variety of industrial situations, it is difficult to lay down a set of standard cookbook rules. However, the objective stated at the outset of this study, to establish a better understanding of the functions of earthing and grounding such that such systems can be designed with a greater degree of confidence in their performance, has been adequately satisfied.

Also, it has become clear that several areas of investigation and standardisations are necessary, namely

1. Research and development are necessary on impedance measurement as applied to grounding and bonding, to develop more reliable measurement criteria that will make it possible to use such measurement for real assessment of a network performance and on the corrective action to be taken.

2. The compiling of tables or graphs of interference producing levels vs frequency and distance for representative types of industrial interference generating sources.

3. The establishment of maximum field strength and adiatior. standards for these types of equipment after concerted efforts by manufacturers to minimise them.

Conclusion 311

4. The compiling of tables or graphs to determine to which interference frequencies the different susceptible equipment units react.

Conclusion 312

APPENDIX A.

To evaluate the amount of noise reduction, the following expression is used which is exactly like the one used for voltage or current gain, i.e.

rV^ut (A. 1)20 tog10

inexcept, in this case , noise reduction is of prime interest (not noise gain). Thus, a shield which attenuates the wanted field by a factor of 10 is a barrier with 20 dB shielding effectiveness.

Table A.l gives a simple conversion between yVolts and dByVolts, or volts and dBVolts.

Noise in Volts or Field in Volt/meter

Equivalent in yV or yV/meter

Corresponding dBVolts

(or dBV/mater)

Corresponding dByVolts

(or dByV/meter)

1000 10* 60 180316 50 170100 10* 40 16032 30 15010 107 20 1403 10 1301 10* 0 120.3 300 000 -10 110.1 100 000 -20 100

.03 30 000 -30 90

.01 10 000 -40 80.003 3 000 -50 70.001 1 000 -60 60

Table A . l Conversion Table

In expressing the amplitude of a noise voltage (when EMI is conducted), EMI specialists seldom use the terms volts, or the volt/metei Instead, they use their equivalent values in decibels, which means that noise voltage of 10 volts is expressed as: 20 (10) decibels above 1 volt.

Appendix A. 313

The very low noise levels involved in EMI require the use of a smaller unit than the volt, i.e. the microvolt, or pV. Similarly, a noise amplitude of 100 pV, for instance, is expressed as 20 *08jq (100 pV) above1 |iV. Therefore, 100 pV is equivalent to 40 dBpV. Thus, an electromagnetic field strength of lmV/meter, i.e. 1000 pVolts/meter, is expressed as 60 dBpV/m.

Appendix A. 314

APPENDIX B.

B . 1 WAVE IMPEDANCE FROM ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

Consider a short electric dipole antenna like that shown in Figure B.l. The fields which exist in free space due to a short electric dipole are given by the following expressions obtained from Maxwell's field theory. For a detail derivation refer to standard texts on electromagnetic wave theory and antennas:Thus

—j 6rE. - j3O02It I J_ - J __ * J ___ ) sin 0e (B.l)6 61 ^ 6 0 * <6r)3

Er " 6062 U I— ' - _ I h c , (B.2)(Brr (0r)

" i f - “ ' k ' Si" 6 6 " J 6 r ( » • » VPf )

and for an electric dipole

E« * Hr = He = 0 <B-4>whereEf, Eg, E^ = Electric field components Hf, Hg, = Magnetic field components

I = Current in dipole = Sin wt 4 = Length of short dipole r = Radial distance from dipole 0 = Angle between r and the vertical w = radian frequency - 2vf X = Wavelength at frequency /0 = 2»/X j = A l

Appendix B. 315

Thus for a electric dipole the electric and magnetic feilds from the dipole have only three components, where the restrictions are X » I and r » X.

Examination of the Eg field, for example, showj that all three components of Eg are equal in amplitude at a distance r = X/2ir from the source. From a detailed examination of the equations, it is evident that from the dipole to the point r = X/2ti the fields decaying as 1/r* and 1/r* are dominant. However, beyond r = X/2u point, the 1/r field component is dominant. Thus it is convenient to use this specific point r = X/2ir from the dipole as the delineator between the so called "near" and "far" fields.

Appendix B. 316

a) Far Field Condition: r » X/2»

In the far field condition, where 1/r field term is dominant, E isrnegligible. Thus, Equations (B.l) and (B.3) can be approximated and simplified to

J60irlfE0 = ----- sin 0 e‘JBr (B.5)

rX

jirllH# = ---- sin 0 e'JPr (B.6)

2irrXThus the wave impedance is given by

i£e i| Z | = — - 1201 = 377 C = Z w o

|H# |

where Zq is the wave impedance for free space and is purely resistive.

L) Near Field Condition: r « X/2ir

Since the 1/r* and 1/r’ field components are dominant, then considering only these major contributing terms in the brackets of Equations (B.l) and (B.3), these equations can be simplified to

301 £E0 * sin 0 e JBr (B 7)

0r *

It

H* “ sln 6 e (B. 8)Aitr*

Thus

| Eg | 120ii XZ | = --- = ---- = Z w ' o

|H#| Br 2irr

Appendix B. 317

Since Z » Z , the near field of an electric dipole is referred to as a w ohigh impedance field, i.e. high relative to a plane wave impedance.

By contrast, for a small magnetic loop antenna, it can be shown that analogous equations are obtained, but with the electic and magnetic units interchanged. It follows that, for the near field condition for a magnetic dipole where r « X/2ir

- -J30B*I Sin 0 e'J^r (B-9>

-j&’I -jBr (B.10)u ~ ---- Sin 0 e "‘0

Thus

2»r

X| Z | = Z -- « Zo c

In the near field condition the field produced by a magnetic loop is referred to as a low-impedi wave (radiation) impedance.referred to as a low-impedance field, i.e. low relative to Zq the plane

Appendix B. 318

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Name of thesis Earthing And Grounding For The Control Of Emi In Industrial Instrumentation And Control Systems. 1986

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