Women’s Political Women’s Political Participation in OmanParticipation in Oman

Roadblocks to ProgressRoadblocks to Progress

Rafiah Al-TaleiReagan-Fascell Democracy FellowNational Endowment for Democracy

December 13, 2006

Please note that the views expressed in this presentation represent the opinions and analysis of the speaker and do

not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment for Democracy

Outline of PresentationOutline of Presentation

I. I. IntroductionIntroduction

II. II. Women and Elections: Majlis al-Women and Elections: Majlis al-ShuraShura

III. III. Women and Political Women and Political Appointments: Appointments: Majlis al-Dawla and Majlis al-Dawla and MinistriesMinistries

IV. IV. Women and NGOsWomen and NGOs

V. V. RecommendationsRecommendations

Maps of the Sultanate of Oman

I. Introduction: General FactsI. Introduction: General Facts Oman is a SultanateOman is a Sultanate Population: Population: 3 million (577,000 non-nationals)3 million (577,000 non-nationals)

49.5% of the population is female49.5% of the population is female Literacy: Male 82.0 %; Female 65.4%Literacy: Male 82.0 %; Female 65.4%

GDP Per Capita (PPP): $13,100GDP Per Capita (PPP): $13,100 75% of Omanis are Ibadi Muslims75% of Omanis are Ibadi Muslims Freedom House Rating, 2005: Not Free Freedom House Rating, 2005: Not Free Universal Suffrage since 2003 for adults over Universal Suffrage since 2003 for adults over

21 (previously had 25% suffrage, by selection)21 (previously had 25% suffrage, by selection) Political parties are illegalPolitical parties are illegal

State InstitutionsState Institutions Three Branches of Government: Three Branches of Government:

Executive, Legislative, JudiciaryExecutive, Legislative, Judiciary Executive: Sultan, Prime Minister (an Executive: Sultan, Prime Minister (an

office held by the Sultan), & Council of office held by the Sultan), & Council of MinistersMinisters

Legislative: Consultative Council (Majlis Legislative: Consultative Council (Majlis as-Shura) and Council of State (Majlis as-as-Shura) and Council of State (Majlis as-Dawla)Dawla)

Judiciary: Shari’a courts and regular Judiciary: Shari’a courts and regular courtscourts

The Sultan The Sultan

As head of state, the Sultan:As head of state, the Sultan: serves as President of Council of Ministers; serves as President of Council of Ministers; appoints & dismisses ministers, governors, appoints & dismisses ministers, governors,

judgesjudges issues & ratifies laws, declares war and peaceissues & ratifies laws, declares war and peace is Supreme Commander of the Armed Forcesis Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is the governor of Oman’s central bankis the governor of Oman’s central bank is “inviolable.” His orders must be obeyed is “inviolable.” His orders must be obeyed

(Article 41)(Article 41)

has served as prime minister since 1972has served as prime minister since 1972

Sultan Qaboos

(in power since July 23, 1970)(in power since July 23, 1970)

The LegislatureThe Legislature

Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla): an Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla): an appointed body of 58 members, appointed body of 58 members, picked by the Sultan, established in picked by the Sultan, established in 1997 1997

Consultative Council (Majlis as-Shura): Consultative Council (Majlis as-Shura): an elected body of 83 members, an elected body of 83 members, established in 1991established in 1991

Both bodies advise the Sultan on all Both bodies advise the Sultan on all matters of statematters of state

WomenWomen Women have been able to run in Majlis as-Shura since Women have been able to run in Majlis as-Shura since

19941994 2004 Shura elections: 15 of 509 candidates were women2004 Shura elections: 15 of 509 candidates were women 2004: 2.4% of Shura members were women 2004: 2.4% of Shura members were women No. of women candidates has decreased from 27 (1997) No. of women candidates has decreased from 27 (1997)

to 21 (2000) to 15 (2003)to 21 (2000) to 15 (2003) 9 of 58 (15.5%) members of Majlis al-Dawla are women9 of 58 (15.5%) members of Majlis al-Dawla are women Women need a male relative to obtain a passport initiallyWomen need a male relative to obtain a passport initially Men, but not women, are eligible to get state land.Men, but not women, are eligible to get state land. Women married to non-Omanis cannot confer citizenship Women married to non-Omanis cannot confer citizenship

to their childrento their children 20% of women participate in work force20% of women participate in work force Women have unequal access to state universitiesWomen have unequal access to state universities

II. Women and II. Women and Majlis as-Shura ElectionsMajlis as-Shura Elections

A. BackgroundA. Background

B. Obstacles for Candidates B. Obstacles for Candidates

C. Obstacles for Voters C. Obstacles for Voters

D. Obstacles Within the Majlis al-DawlaD. Obstacles Within the Majlis al-Dawla

Taiba al-Mawali(Imprisoned Sep. 2005 –

Feb. 2006)

Shukoor al-Ghammari(Now a member of Majlis

al-Dawla)

1994: First Women Elected in Oman

Lujaina DarwishRahaila al-Riyami

2001–Present: Two New Women Elected

Background on Majlis as-ShuraBackground on Majlis as-Shura Advisory body with limited powers to propose Advisory body with limited powers to propose

legislationlegislation Reviews economic & social legislation prepared Reviews economic & social legislation prepared

by ministries. Also examines drafts proposed by by ministries. Also examines drafts proposed by Sultan Sultan

Does not express its views on defence, foreign Does not express its views on defence, foreign policy or any other sensitive topicpolicy or any other sensitive topic

May call ministers for questioning; is not May call ministers for questioning; is not permitted to respond to their answerspermitted to respond to their answers

Has 83 members elected by universal suffrage Has 83 members elected by universal suffrage for 4-year renewable termsfor 4-year renewable terms

Its president is appointed; its 2 vice presidents Its president is appointed; its 2 vice presidents are elected by the 83 membersare elected by the 83 members

Women as Candidates: Women as Candidates: Social and Cultural ObstaclesSocial and Cultural Obstacles

Tribalism (male domination)Tribalism (male domination) ReligionReligion Economic dependenceEconomic dependence Lack of awareness and confidenceLack of awareness and confidence Lack of public exposure & political Lack of public exposure & political

knowledgeknowledge Women & men are encouraged to occupy Women & men are encouraged to occupy

separate spaces in both public & private lifeseparate spaces in both public & private life Women are expected to uphold family honor Women are expected to uphold family honor

Reputation of families is very importantReputation of families is very important

Al-Sablah (a public place where men gather)

Mosque in Oman

Women as Candidates: Women as Candidates: Political and Legal ObstaclesPolitical and Legal Obstacles

Limited freedoms of expression, e.g. Limited freedoms of expression, e.g. criticism of governmentcriticism of government

Limitations on campaigning (especially Limitations on campaigning (especially in rural areas) e.g. travelin rural areas) e.g. travel

Limited freedom of association Limited freedom of association

All apply to men, but affect women candidates All apply to men, but affect women candidates moremore

Rural Oman : Al-Sharqiya

Sociocultural obstacles include:Sociocultural obstacles include:

- lack of education- lack of education

- lack of awareness- lack of awareness

- family relations- family relations

- tribalism- tribalism

- religion- religion

- economic dependence- economic dependence

Media insufficiently covers electionsMedia insufficiently covers elections

2003 elections: 95,000 women registered to vote out of 262,000 total registrations (36.3%)Total voter turnout: 75%

Obstacles to Women as VotersObstacles to Women as Voters

A woman voting A Bedouin woman

Obstacles Within the MajlisObstacles Within the Majlis

Little power to criticize Little power to criticize No power to rebut ministersNo power to rebut ministers No power to propose legislationNo power to propose legislation No financial support except small No financial support except small

salary salary No trust from the people that the No trust from the people that the

elected member can changeelected member can change Most members behave as part of the Most members behave as part of the

government. This discourages voting government. This discourages voting and new candidates from runningand new candidates from running

III. Women & Political Appointments: III. Women & Political Appointments: Majlis al-Dawla and MinistriesMajlis al-Dawla and Ministries

• BackgroundBackground• Political obstacles: criteria for selectionPolitical obstacles: criteria for selection

Majlis al-Dawla

Majlis al-DawlaMajlis al-Dawla Majlis al-DawlaMajlis al-Dawla ((Council of State) Council of State)

established in 1997established in 1997 Presents proposals and prepares studies Presents proposals and prepares studies

that help in executing development plansthat help in executing development plans Charged with finding solutions to financial, Charged with finding solutions to financial,

social, economic problemssocial, economic problems Reviews draft laws proposed by Reviews draft laws proposed by

government, presents opinions to Sultan government, presents opinions to Sultan and ministers in cooperation with the and ministers in cooperation with the Consultative CouncilConsultative Council

MinistersMinisters 4 of the 50+ ministers are women 4 of the 50+ ministers are women

(tourism, higher education, social (tourism, higher education, social development, plus 1 without a development, plus 1 without a portfolio) portfolio)

13% of high administrative positions 13% of high administrative positions within government are womenwithin government are women

20% of all government employees are 20% of all government employees are womenwomen

Rajiha Abdel Amir: Tourism Rawiya al-Busaidi: Higher Education

Sharifa al-Yahyai: Social Development Aisha as-Siyabi: Crafts

The Four Women Ministers of Oman

Criteria for Political AppointmentsCriteria for Political Appointments Official Criteria:Official Criteria:

Appointee has provided great services for the Appointee has provided great services for the statestate

Has long experience in the field of interestHas long experience in the field of interest Has served as a high executive in governmentHas served as a high executive in government

As perceived by the people:As perceived by the people: Appointee is not politically oriented Appointee is not politically oriented Was potential opponent, now co-opted into silence Was potential opponent, now co-opted into silence Appointment maintains a tribal balanceAppointment maintains a tribal balance Appointees never know in advance that they are Appointees never know in advance that they are

being considered for appointment. Once being considered for appointment. Once appointed, they cannot refuse the honorappointed, they cannot refuse the honor

The newly appointed minister swears loyalty to the Sultan and to Oman

IV. Women and NGOsIV. Women and NGOs

The Omani Women’s Association (OWA) The Omani Women’s Association (OWA) has 45 branches across the countryhas 45 branches across the country

3,000 members belong to the OWA3,000 members belong to the OWA There are no specialized Women’s NGOsThere are no specialized Women’s NGOs Many women work in charity associations Many women work in charity associations

and associations for the disabled and associations for the disabled One women’s NGO, Women in Focus, One women’s NGO, Women in Focus,

failed: deemed illegalfailed: deemed illegal

Women and NGOs: Political ObstaclesWomen and NGOs: Political Obstacles

NGOs dealing with politics or human rights NGOs dealing with politics or human rights are not allowedare not allowed

Exisiting NGOs may not engage in political Exisiting NGOs may not engage in political activityactivity

All or most activities need an official approval All or most activities need an official approval from the ministry of social developmentfrom the ministry of social development

Transparency in NGO-related laws is absentTransparency in NGO-related laws is absent All NGOs need official approval to work with, All NGOs need official approval to work with,

or receive funding from, non-Omani or receive funding from, non-Omani organizationsorganizations

Typical Activities in Women NGOs

People are not encouraged to work in NGOs—People are not encouraged to work in NGOs—

considered useless, ineffectiveconsidered useless, ineffective No considerations for familial duties and No considerations for familial duties and

constraints (e.g. NGOs don’t provide child care) constraints (e.g. NGOs don’t provide child care) Women in families aren’t encouraged to Women in families aren’t encouraged to

participate in social work voluntarily, especially participate in social work voluntarily, especially

if they will be working with menif they will be working with men Government employees tend not to risk defying Government employees tend not to risk defying

government officialsgovernment officials

Women and NGOs: Social ObstaclesWomen and NGOs: Social Obstacles

V. RecommendationsV. Recommendations

•Create independent body to oversee elections •Within this body, have several committees

-one to provide education on electoral process-one to address women voters in particular

•Create government program to educate women in particular regarding political rights and electoral process•Involve women’s NGOs from the start to help design and implement voter and civic education campaigns•Provide skills training and consultation for women candidates•Encourage media to start covering elections early and in-depth

•Should there be women quotas?

Majlis as-Shura

RecommendationsRecommendations::

Women’s issues should be a priority (for Women’s issues should be a priority (for 10 years no action has been taken on 10 years no action has been taken on Omani Women Strategy)Omani Women Strategy)

Collaborate with women NGOs and Collaborate with women NGOs and qualified individuals to develop a qualified individuals to develop a strategy for how best to effect change strategy for how best to effect change

Cooperate with Majlis as-Shura to Cooperate with Majlis as-Shura to emphasize women’s rights and issuesemphasize women’s rights and issues

Majlis al-Dawla and Ministers

NGOs and Civil Society

More political liberalization is necessary to permit more More political liberalization is necessary to permit more discussion and practice of activism:discussion and practice of activism: Freedom of associationFreedom of association Freedom of expression to discuss political/cultural/other issuesFreedom of expression to discuss political/cultural/other issues Willingness from the government to allow people to be active Willingness from the government to allow people to be active

citizenscitizens Freedom to cooperate with foreign NGOs Freedom to cooperate with foreign NGOs Give NGOs autonomy, so they can freely choose to work with or Give NGOs autonomy, so they can freely choose to work with or

criticize/challenge the government criticize/challenge the government Allow NGOs and individuals to lobby for their interestsAllow NGOs and individuals to lobby for their interests

NGOs should write independent assessments, to NGOs should write independent assessments, to complement national annual reviews, for certain complement national annual reviews, for certain international treatiesinternational treaties

RecommendationsRecommendations::

Women’s Education

General RecommendationsGeneral Recommendations Create independent high council for women’s affairsCreate independent high council for women’s affairs Raise awareness about existing rights, as well as Raise awareness about existing rights, as well as

international treaties, such as CEDAW (ratified by international treaties, such as CEDAW (ratified by Oman) that relate to womenOman) that relate to women

Initiate Oman-specific gender-sensitive programs to Initiate Oman-specific gender-sensitive programs to overcome male-dominated systemovercome male-dominated system

Shura and Dawla should have more independence to Shura and Dawla should have more independence to propose legislationpropose legislation

Reduce constraints on freedoms of association & Reduce constraints on freedoms of association & expressionexpression

Make sure all awareness programs reach out to Omanis Make sure all awareness programs reach out to Omanis who live in rural areas, with less access to informationwho live in rural areas, with less access to information

What International Community Can DoWhat International Community Can Do Help form new institutions to focus on women’s affairsHelp form new institutions to focus on women’s affairs Strengthen existing institutions dealing with women’s Strengthen existing institutions dealing with women’s

affairsaffairs Assist with gender analysis of legal framework on elections Assist with gender analysis of legal framework on elections

to provide advice & identify indirect discriminationto provide advice & identify indirect discrimination Support civic-education campaigns that include Support civic-education campaigns that include

information about what democracy and democratic values information about what democracy and democratic values areare

Encourage the exchange of information and best practices Encourage the exchange of information and best practices to advance women’s participation in electionsto advance women’s participation in elections

Monitor Omani government’s compliance with standards Monitor Omani government’s compliance with standards and treaties regarding electoral and women’s rights, using and treaties regarding electoral and women’s rights, using media to highlight the application of these norms media to highlight the application of these norms

Galvanize support among international NGOs & multilateral Galvanize support among international NGOs & multilateral institutions (e.g. women’s groups and human rights institutions (e.g. women’s groups and human rights organizations) to pressure Oman to liberalizeorganizations) to pressure Oman to liberalize

Women’s Political Women’s Political Participation in OmanParticipation in Oman

Roadblocks to ProgressRoadblocks to Progress

Rafiah Al-TaleiReagan-Fascell Democracy Fellow

National Endowment for Democracy

December 13, 2006