world - how increased atmospheric co why are the oceans...

The oceans cover over 70%of the Earth’s surface,carry out about 50% ofglobal primary productionand support the greatestbiodiversity on the planet.They are also one of thelargest carbon reservoirs inthe Earth system, holdingup to 54 times morecarbon than theatmosphere. The oceans therefore:

Regulate the Earth systemTransferring heat around theworldDriving climate and weathersystemsPlaying a key role in the global carbon cycle

Supply living and non-living resourcesFrom fisheries to marinebiotechnologyMinerals to renewable energy

Provide social and economicgoods and servicesTourism and recreationMarine transport and securityCoastal protection

Why are the oceans important?

Living in a high CO2 world - How increased atmospheric CO2 is affecting our oceans

Why are the oceans important?


Regulate the Earth systemIn the North Atlantic Ocean wind-drivensurface currents head poleward from theequator, cooling all the while and eventuallysinking at high latitudes into the ocean basins(thermohaline circulation). Extensive mixingtakes place across ocean basins, reducingdifferences between them and making theEarth's ocean a global system. On theirjourney, the water masses transport heat, gasand matter around the globe. This circulationhas a large impact on the climate of ourplanet.

Ocean currents transport large amounts ofheat and water around the world andconstantly interact with the atmosphere,which enables the ocean to act as a heat sinkto delay the full effects of climate change.

Carbon is continuously cycled betweenreservoirs in the ocean, on land and in theatmosphere, where it occurs primarily as CO2.In the ocean, CO2 dissolves in seawaterforming carbonic acid and is ultimatelyremoved from the marine system throughprocesses such as the formation of calciumcarbonate and the creation of limestone.

Carbon exists in many forms in the ocean,mainly as dissolved CO2 and organic matter inthe form of small creatures, such as plankton.The largest reservoir is the deep ocean, whichcontains close to 40,000 Gt C. The exchangeof carbon between the deep ocean and thefast-responding system above takes severalhundred years.

Microalgae are responsible for greater than50% of global primary production. In doing so,they play a major role in the global carboncycle by consuming CO2 from the atmosphereand positively influencing climate change.

Supply living and non-livingresourcesThe oceans are a major source of food.Worldwide approximately half of thepopulation live in coastal zones and about abillion people rely on fish as their main sourceof protein.

Blue (marine) biotechnology is an emergingsector with huge potential to use marinebiological systems and living organisms orderivatives to produce innovative productsand services for the health and beauty andmedical industries.

Apart from harvesting food from the sea,many industrial processes worldwide rely onthe marine environment for resources, suchas oil, gas and marine aggregates.

The oceans offer enormous potential forrenewable energy technologies, such asoffshore wind farms, tidal or wave energydevices.

Provide social and economicgoods and servicesCoastal and marine tourism is a large globalindustry supporting regional economies ascoastal and marine environments becomemore accessible. Eco-tourism in particular is afast growing sector.

International seaborne trade relies on regularand safe routes for freight and passengers.World seaborne trade is estimated atapproximately 28,000bn tonne miles1. 90%of EU external trade and 40% of EU internaltrade is carried by sea and in the UK theshipping sector employs over 30,000 people2.

Approximately half of the world’s populationlive and work within 100km of the sea and100 million people live less than 1 metreabove present sea level.

Marine habitats such as coral reefs and saltmarshes provide natural coastal defences andnursery grounds for fisheries as well asdiverse ecosystems.

1 estimate from Fearnley 20052 Sea Vision UK 2004

CONTACT details:Plymouth Marine Sciences Partnershipc/o The LaboratoryCitadel HillPlymouthPL1 2PBTel: +44 (0)1752 633 [email protected]

Atlantic Meridional Transect

A child born in 2007 will be an adult by2025 - “within one generation wewant to have made a difference”Safeguarding Our Seas - UK Government.

The UK Natural Environment ResearchCouncil (NERC) has approved fundingfor a 5-year marine science &technology core programme calledOceans 2025, which is being deliveredby 7 research centres across the UK,including 3 in Plymouth. Oceans 2025will make a major contribution to ourunderstanding of oceans and climatechange impacts through projects likethe Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT)which has been investigating the linksbetween oceans and climate for over10 years.

CASE study:

Climate change will impacton the way oceanecosystems function.Better knowledge ofclimate impacts on themarine environment isvital for improvedforecasts of futurechanges and for informingclimate change policy. This is essential for ourbroader economicprosperity, security andwell-being. Impacts willinclude:

Physical processesIncreased frequency andseverity of storm eventsSea level riseChanges to ocean currents

Changes to biological and chemical processesCombined temperature rise andlower pH will affectbiogeochemical processesChanging ecosystem structuresand function

Biological changes Massive shifts in globaldistribution of marine speciesDisruption to marine life cyclesRapid changes and losses inmarine biodiversity

What will be the impacts of climatechange on the oceans?


Physical processesEscalating natural disturbance events,including sea level rise and storms, willincrease damage to coastal infrastructure,housing, transport (including ports and majorcoastal cities), as well as have a significantimpact upon vulnerable habitats, such ascorals and salt marshes, which provide naturalcoastal protection and important marineenvironments.

There will be serious risks and increasingpressures on coastal protection in South EastAsia, small islands in the Caribbean and thePacific, and large coastal cities, such as Tokyo,New York, Cairo and London. Rising sea levelswill result in tens of millions more peopleflooded each year with 3-4

oC warming1.

Changing sea level, ocean currents, extremeweather events and other changes to climaticprocesses, will impact on aquaculture,shipping, food production, tourism andrecreational industries.

Increased rainfall, melting of sea ice, glaciersand the Greenland ice sheet are all possibleconsequences of higher temperatures andcould reduce North Atlantic surface watersalinity sufficiently to slow down, or evenstop, the thermohaline circulation which givesthe UK its mild climate. Once stopped, theconsequences would be a cooling ofnorthwest Europe.

Changes to biological andchemical processesOcean biogeochemistry (i.e. the cycling ofelements like carbon and nitrogen) is drivenby activity in the ocean surface wheresufficient light exists to stimulatephotosynthesis. This process converts CO2

and other nutrients into living biomass, onwhich all subsequent ocean productivitydepends. Research has shown that the mostsignificant changes in seawater temperatureand pH levels so far have been observed inthe surface layers of the oceans where thebase of the marine food web is most active.

Phytoplankton, microscopic oceanic plantswhich live in the surface waters, take in CO2

during growth and convert it into complexorganic compounds. During biological cycles,some of the carbon is broken down andtransported to the depths by faecal matterand dead organisms, creating a net transfer ofcarbon from the surface to the deep ocean ina process known as the ‘biological pump’. Thecombination of increased levels of CO2 andreduced productivity of phytoplankton willreduce the oceans’ ability to process thecarbon.

Biological changesThere will be major poleward shifts in species’distributions. Over the past 30 years, a 10

o

latitude northward shift in the distribution ofmany plankton and fish species has alreadybeen observed.

There will be changes to the seasonal timingof plankton production with consequences forplankton predator species, such as fish,whose own life cycles are timed according tothe seasonal production of particular preyspecies.

Many organisms, such as corals, urchins andspecies at the base of the food chain, will beimpaired in their ability to digest, reproduceand grow due to the effects of oceanacidification.

Declining productivity at the base of the foodchain will cause changes or loss of foodresources for marine species. This will impacton the availability and accessibility of manycommercially exploited fish (e.g. decline instocks of cold water species such as cod).

A 2oC warming could cause loss of 15-40% of

biodiversity1.

The decline in populations of native speciesmay be caused by an increased invasion ofnon-native species.

What will be the impacts of climate change on the oceans?

CASE study:


1 Stern Report 20062 Beaugrand et al SAHFOS ecological status report 2004/2005.

Plankton distribution shifts

The image shows biogeographicalchanges in plankton assemblagesspanning five decades. Warm waterplankton are moving north and coldwater plankton are moving out of theNorth Sea

2.

Researchers use long-termmonitoring programmes to monitorchanges in abundance, populationstructure and biogeographicdistributions of a range of species.

Evidence suggests that species rangeexpansion in response to climatewarming is occurring quicker inmarine systems (plankton, fish,intertidal species) than terrestrialsystems.


“Climate change presentsa unique challenge foreconomics: it is thegreatest and widest-ranging market failure everseen.” (Stern Report)

As a maritime nation,much of our social andeconomic activity relies onthe marine environment, inaddition to traditionalgoods and services, weincreasingly understandthe ‘value’ of less obvious‘goods and services’.Examples of climateimpacts on both include:

Traditional goods andservicesIncreased costs of coastalprotection Implications for commercialfishingReduced access to rawmaterialsChanges in tourism andrecreation opportunities

Less obvious goods andservicesLoss of biodiversity andpotential for biotechnologyChanges to trade, shipping and securityIncreased potential and risks for renewable energyChanges to physical-chemical-biological processes (e.g. nutrient cycles)

How will climate change impacts on the oceans affect our economy?


1 Association of British Insurers. Financial Risks of Climate Change, SummaryReport, June 20052 Marine Biodiversity. An economic evaluation. Buliding the evidence base for theMarine Bill. Defra 2006. This value is subject to considerable limitations, seeBeaumont et al. 20063 UNCTAD Maritime Transport4 Sea Vision UK

How will climate change impacts on theoceans affect our economy?


Traditional goods and services

Increased costs of coastalprotection Costs of man-made coastal protection willincrease not only for low lying countries andisland states but also for large coastal citiesincluding London, New York and Tokyo.

The predictions are that the costs of floodingin the UK could increase by 15 fold by 2080,which would result in losses of over £20bn1.

Disturbance prevention provided by naturalregulating services such as saltmarshes couldcreate cost savings of tens of millions ofpounds.

Implications for commercial fishingImpacts of reduced marine productivity at thebase of the food chain will affect marinepopulations including commercially valuablespecies of fish.

The harvesting of marine organisms forhuman consumption is valued at £513m p.a.(2004) in the UK but this figure does notinclude the added value of fish processingand unreported catches.

Reduced access to raw materialsRisks and costs of extracting raw materials inmore unpredictable environments willincrease. UK offshore oil and gas salesamounted to £28.7bn in 2005, providingrevenus and taxes of nearly £10bn back tothe UK in 2005-06.

Changes in tourism and recreationopportunities Loss of important ecological habitats such ascold and warm water corals could result in£billions lost from important sectors of themarine tourism and recreational industries.

Marine recreational services in the UK havebeen valued at £11.77bn p.a (2004).

Less obvious goods and services

Loss of biodiversity and potentialfor biotechnologyUK Marine biodiversity is extremely valuableand it has been estimated to provide serviceswhich are valued over £800bn p.a2. Serviceswithin this figure include food provision,storm protection and climate regulation butmany of the services provided could not bevalued and are thus not included in thisestimate.

Blue biotechnology is one of the mostexciting emerging technology sectors withpotential to provide innovative solutions in anumber of industry sectors. The currentglobal market is worth $2.4bn which isprojected to grow at more than 10% p.a.

Changes to trade, shipping andsecurityCosts and threats to world shipping due toincreased risk of extreme weather events willincrease. Worldwide merchant shipscontribute $380bn3 in freight costs. Shippingservices used to carry cargo and passengersas well as vessel charter are worth £5bn4 tothe UK economy.

Increased potential and risks forrenewable energyCosts of damage repair and maintenance ofoffshore installations, including renewableenergy devices, will increase as severeweather events and wave size increase.

World industry in offshore renewables wasvalued at about £100m in 2004 and isforecast to grow to about £4bn by 2009. TheUK has one of the largest wave energyresources, which by 2020 could be worth£0.2bn.

Changes to physical-chemical-biological processes (e.g. nutrientcycles)The nutrient cycling support servicesprovided by the oceans is invaluable and thisservice could not be replaced by any humandesigned process.

Gas and climate regulation services providedby the oceans are valued between £420m -£8.47bn p.a. (2004).

CASE study:

Economic impacts

Researchers in Plymouth werecommissioned by Defra to produce areport on ‘An Economic Valuation ofUK Marine Biodiversity’ to supportand guide the Marine Bill.

Researchers have developed a goodsand services approach to look at theeconomic, cultural and biological valueof marine biodiversity.

These methods are being tested atcase study sites across Europe,including the Isles of Scilly andFlamborough Head in the UK.


The oceans have alreadyabsorbed 50% of CO2

emissions since theindustrial revolution.Whilst this has bufferedclimate change it ischanging the chemistry ofthe oceans by reducing pH.This process will continueas we increase ouremissions through burningfossil fuels, so that by2050 pH will fall belowlevels experienced bymarine ecosystems foraround 20 million years.This rapid input of CO2 ishappening much fasterthan the slowerneutralisation processes.Implications for the marineenvironment are:

Severe biological disruptions tomarine life (e.g. shellfish andcorals)

Effects on biological systems,processes and reactions

Reduced productivity for manyimportant organisms

Alterations to the interactionsbetween organisms

Reduction in the ocean’s abilityto absorb further atmosphericCO2

What is ocean acidification?


Surface ocean acidification is happening

now and will continue, as humans put

more CO2 into the atmosphere

What is ocean acidification?


The same man-made CO2 that we observe tobe the major greenhouse gas causing climatechange is also altering the chemical balanceof the oceans. This “the other half of the CO2

problem” has received little attention untilquite recently but it may turn out to be asserious as the more familiar global warmingissue.

The world’s oceans currently absorb onaverage about one metric tonne of CO2

produced by each person every year. It isestimated that the surface waters of theoceans have taken up over 500,000 milliontonnes of CO2 (500 Gt CO2), about half of allthat generated by human activities since1800. By absorbing all this additional CO2 theoceans have buffered the effects ofatmospheric climate change.

In the ocean, CO2 reacts with seawater toform a weak (carbonic) acid and results ingreater seawater acidity (expressed as areduction in pH). As levels of CO2 in theoceans increases so pH declines. Surfaceocean pH has already rapidly declined byabout 0.1 pH unit since pre-industrial times.This represents a 30% reduction in (alkaline)hydrogen ions.

If current CO2 emission trends continue oceanpH will fall further by as much as 0.4 pH units(from its current level of around pH 8.1) bythe year 2100 and 0.67 by 2300. It will taketens of thousands of years for oceanchemistry to return to that of pre-industrialtimes. These levels have not beenexperienced for at least the past 20 millionyears.

We do not fully understand the consequencesof this acidification for the productivity of theoceans but scientific forecasts include thefollowing impacts:

Severe biological disruptions tomarine life (e.g. shellfish andcorals)The ability to produce calcium carbonateskeletons in marine organisms (such ascertain species of plankton, sea urchins andcorals) will be reduced or even stoppedaltogether.

Effects on biological systems,processes and reactions Increased ocean acidity will have adetrimental effect upon the internal organs(digestive system, reproductive organs) ofmany marine organisms and will thereforereduce populations and even severely impactmarine biodiversity.

Reduced productivityThe growth of phytoplankton (the basis ofthe marine food chain and an importantelement in the global carbon cycle) will bereduced by more than 20%, with a similarreduction in the production of oxygen, whichcould lead to an insufficient food supply fromthe sea.

Alterations to the interactionsbetween organismsInteractions between organisms will changeand therefore alter the marine ecosystem.This may impair the oceans’ ability to deliverthe functions that benefit humans.

Reduction in the oceans’ ability toabsorb further atmospheric CO2Atmospheric CO2 is absorbed in surfacewaters by phytoplankton, in particularcoccolithophores (which are thought to be thelargest producers of calcite on the planet).When these organisms die their calciumcarbonate platelets, known as liths, rain downto the ocean floor where over geological timethey are buried. This locks away carbon in theocean sediments and in time can form vastgeological formations such as the white cliffsof Dover.

Changes to biological systems, theirproductivity and the interactions betweenmarine organisms are being observed and willimpair the oceans’ ability to absorbatmospheric CO2.

Since the scientific research of impacts ofocean acidification is just emerging or still inthe planning stage there will undoubtedly beimpacts and adaptations that have not yetbeen addressed or considered. Understandingthe impacts, predicting what future marineecosystems will look like and determiningfeedbacks to the functioning of the Earth’slife support system will undoubtedly be oneof the biggest challenges for marinescientists in future decades.

CASE study:

Ocean Acidification BergenExperimentPlymouth scientists travelled toBergen, Norway to undertakeinvestigations into the effect of oceanacidification on the productivity of ouroceans as part of Plymouth’s researchprogramme into ocean acidification.

The 3-week, large-scale mesocosmexperiment was organised tomanipulate the CO2 concentration inthe sea and explore how the marinemicroalgae and bacteria will respondto this more acidic environment.

Preliminary results show evidence ofhow vulnerable key food weborganisims are to small and largechanges in ocean pH.


There are conflicting viewsas to whether we canavoid the worst impacts ofclimate change or whetherwe now need to adapt tochanges beyond ourcontrol. The complexity ofEarth’s changing climate,affecting various regionsof the globe differently,presents a formidablechallenge to society andscience. Some challengeswe need to address are:

Understand changes causedby human activity as opposedto natural trends

Recognise the certainty ofocean acidification, but theuncertainty of its effect

Quantify the nature, rate anddistribution of climate changeimpacts in the ocean

Invest in sustainableapproaches to flood and coastalmanagement

Build on long-term monitoring

Improve models and futurepredictions to reduceuncertainty

Investigate risks and costs ofcarbon capture and storage

What are the future challenges?


Organisms and ecosystems are going to

have to deal with a number of major rapid

global changes at once!

What are the future challenges?


Understand changes caused byhuman activity as opposed tonatural trendsWe are increasingly concerned about theinfluence of human activity on marineecosystems. However, it is often difficult toseparate man-made impacts from ’natural’trends. Long-term monitoring programmescan help to solve these difficulties and toenable us to identify local and broad-scalechanges. For example, we need to investigatethe separate effects of climate and fishing onUK fish stocks and ecosystems.

Recognise the certainty of oceanacidification, but the uncertaintyof its effectThe study of altered ocean chemistry onmarine organisms is still in its infancy andscientists are currently using mesocosms(large volume natural seawater enclosures)dosed with future CO2 concentrations tostudy growth, physiology and production ofimportant climate gases by these organisms.

We know quite a lot about the short-termimpact of low pH on fish physiology, however,we know nothing about the long-term impactof pH reductions of 0.4-0.8 pH units.

The chemical changes that occur throughocean uptake of CO2 may also indirectly affectfish through impacting the planktonic andbenthic organisms which they rely on forfood. The consequences for marine foodwebs are not yet well understood but couldbe very serious.

Quantify the nature, rate anddistribution of climate changeimpacts in the sea, we need to:Accurately assess the current state of marineecosystems

Determine quantitatively how marineecosystems are changing

Identify ‘hotspots’ for future change [in theUK]

Identify the most vulnerable species andecosystems

Design dynamic marine protected areas toaccount for climate change

Invest in sustainable approachesto flood and coastal managementImprove understanding of changes in theoffshore wave regime in terms of magnitude,frequency and direction.

Improve understanding of changes in themagnitude and frequency of extreme events.

Develop new techniques for reducinguncertainties in determining the behaviour ofcoastal morphology beyond that currentlyobserved .

Build on long-term monitoringIn view of global change predictions there is apressing need for long-term monitoring tocontinue, in order to provide baselines fromwhich to assess the scale of future changeand predict potential consequences forbiodiversity and marine environmental ‘goodsand services’.

Long-term changes, such as those of climatechange, can best be understood using long-term data sets, which can be costly andrequire long-term investment (POST 2004).

Will over-exploited fish stocks ever fullyrecover against a backdrop of climate changeimpacts, or will gelatinous organisms (likejellyfish) come to permanently dominate theUK’s shelf sea ecosystems?

Improve models and futurepredictions to reduce uncertaintyWe need to develop probabilistic forecasts forfuture sea levels, as opposed to the scenarioscurrently available.

We also need to develop new and improvedecosystem models to help us forecast futureclimate change impacts. These models willalso help in developing better climate modelswhich can then incorporate the role andimpact of ocean biota into future climatechange scenarios.

CASE study:

Carbon capture and storage

Researchers in Plymouth are workingwith the DTI and Defra to investigatethe ecosystem risks associated withcarbon capture and storage in themarine environment.

For the UK the strata hundreds ofmetres below the North Sea are a primesite for CO2 storage. Studies will look atpotential impacts on marine ecosystemsand compare them to similar studies ofthe impact of increasing CO2 on marineecosystems to help inform UK policymakers.

Neither the UK, nor the internationalcommunity, currently possess thecapacity to answer these questions.Researchers from Plymouth areinvolved in a programme which aims tocreate this capacity.


The oceans play a criticalrole in climate change, butthey also represent thelargest living space on theplanet and containvaluable resources. Intaking steps to adapt to achanging world we canalso take advantage ofnew opportunities that theoceans offer and make themost of these to support asustainable future.Opportunities we areexploring include:

Carbon capture and storageWorking with the DTI and Defrato investigate the ecosystemrisks associated with carboncapture and storage in themarine environment

Potential of aquacultureDeveloping an ecosystemapproach to sustainability offood production involvingstudies in Europe and China

Energy from offshorerenewablesWave Hub is a groundbreakingproject in SW England to createthe UK’s first offshore facilityfor the testing and operation ofwave energy generationdevices

Marine biotechnologyWe are working with industrialpartners to identify sustainableand environmentally friendlyalternatives to health andbeauty products

Novel TechnologyCollaborating with industry todevelop autonomous sensorsfor measuring and monitoringmarine environmental impactsand climate change

What opportunities are available?


What opportunities are available?


Carbon capture and storageOur scientists are developing a UKexperimental facility and modelling capacityfor exploring the effects of high CO2

(including lowered pH) on UK shelf watersand to make an initial exploration of marineecosystem response to elevated CO2 eitherthrough ocean uptake of atmospheric CO2 orthrough leakage from geological stores.

Potential of aquacultureResearchers in Plymouth have long-standingworking relationships with colleagues inEurope and China. Work in China is helping todevelop better understanding of theinteraction between the Chinese (marine)aquaculture industry and the ecosystems thatsustain the resources.Researchers are also working with colleaguesin Portugal to apply new interdisciplinaryapproaches which combine natural and socialsciences. These programmes address thecomplex scaling issues inherent in integratedmanagement within a framework thataccounts for watershed interactions,ecological structure and human activities.

Energy from offshore renewablesThe South West of England RegionalDevelopment Agency supported Wave Hubproject, involving researchers from Plymouthand Exeter, will enable the testing of waveenergy generation devices through anelectrical infrastructure under the sea. Thewave hub is essential in helping to bridge thegap between production prototypes and fullcommercial wave farms. The project willsupport the UK’s drive to meet the challengesand achieve the goals of the new energypolicy including a 60% reduction in carbonemissions by 2050. Researchers in Plymouthand Exeter will use the facility to supportfurther research into wave energy generationand associated impacts.

Marine (blue) biotechnologyMicroscopic plants and bacteria in the seacontain unique suites of compounds ofbenefit to humans. One suite of compoundsprovides protection against the sun’s intenserays in the surface of the oceans and has

potential in a range of healthcare products.Researchers in Plymouth are working toidentify the most suitable conditions for highproductivity of these microalgae and bacteria.Collaboration with industry will facilitatetransfer of this knowledge and developmentsto healthcare and energy sectors.

Researchers in Plymouth are also developinginnovative ways of solving the dual issues ofmanaging excess CO2 outputs and increasingsupply of energy form renewable sources.Current studies are looking at removal of CO2

from flue gases and converting it on site intoa continuous supply of biofuels.

Novel TechnologyAmong a range of novel autonomous sensorsresearchers in Plymouth have developed anddeployed two novel sampling systems to helpcharacterise surface layers in the oceans’ anovel near surface sampling device (NSSD)and a microlayer sampling device (MLSD).New instruments are now being developedthat will allow us to map the fluxes of CO2

between the sea and the atmosphere. This isessential for the next generation of climatemodels being developed by the UK MetOffice’s Hadley Centre for Climate Change.

Ocean and human healthAn opportunity to develop a regionalCentre of ExcellenceThere is increasing awareness that theenvironment plays an essential role inensuring good human health. According tothe World Health Organization, the major risksinclude “...climate change, stratospheric ozonedepletion, loss of biodiversity... and stresseson food-producing systems.” Interactionsbetween living things and the environmentare incredibly complex and we are only nowbeginning to comprehend the magnitude ofthe problems for our future well-being thathuman activities have created. There arecontinued pressures from humandevelopment of the coastal zones and fromour use of these areas for leisure and tourism.Overall, we have a very poor understanding ofhow future climate change will affect thebehaviour of pathogens and pollutants in theseas around the UK.

CASE study:Wave Hub

Wave Hub is a groundbreakingrenewable energy project in SWEngland to create the UK's first offshorefacility for the testing and operation ofwave energy generation devices. Wavehub will provide an electricalinfrastructure under the sea into whichwave energy generation devices can beplugged and their outputs andefficiencies tested.

The project will support the UK’s driveto meet the challenges and achievegoals of the new energy policyincluding a 60% reduction in carbonemissions by 2050.

Wave Hub is supported by the SouthWest of England Regional DevelopmentAgency (SWRDA) and will involveresearchers from Plymouth and Exeterwho will use the facility to supportfurther research into wave energygeneration and impacts.


Illustration by industrial Art Studio - www.ind-art.co.uk

world - how increased atmospheric co why are the oceans...

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