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Note: This paper has been prepared uponrequest of the State Directorate for theProtection of Nature and Environment ofthe Republic of Croatia, and was writtenand edited by a group of experts from theState Directorate’s Office for the Adriatic,Rijeka, and the Regional Activity Centre ofthe Priority Actions Programme, Split.

Editors: Andrija Randić and Ivica Trumbić

Photographs: Ivo Pervan

Printed by: JAFRA, Split

ISBN 953-6429-14-4

For bibliographic purposes this documentmay be cited as:

State Directorate for the Protection ofNature and Environment of the Republicof Croatia: Coastal Area Management inCroatia. Zagreb, State Directorate for theProtection of Nature and Environment ofthe Republic of Croatia. 1998.

REPUBLIC OF CROATIA

THE STATE DIRECTORATE FOR THE PROTECTIONOF NATURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Zagreb, May 1998

Coastal Area Management in Croatia

ii


iii

CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTION: TRADITION OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................ 1

I.1 PURPOSE OF THE REPORT............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 1

I.2 HISTORY AND TRADITION OF COASTAL AREA PLANNING ANDMANAGEMENT IN CROATIA ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2

II COASTAL AREAS AND ISLANDS: POTENTIALS AND CHALLENGES ............................................................ 5

II.1 COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OF CROATIA .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5Natural characteristics...................................................................................................... 5Protection of nature......................................................................................................... 7Biological and landscape diversity ................................................................................... 8

II.2 POPULATION OF THE COASTAL REGION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10

II.3 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12Primary sector .................................................................................................................. 13Secondary sector .............................................................................................................. 14Tertiary sector................................................................................................................... 14

II.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15Water resources ............................................................................................................... 15Waste waters.................................................................................................................... 16Solid waste ....................................................................................................................... 16Sea .................................................................................................................................... 16Terrestrial ecology ............................................................................................................ 17

III PRACTICE OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN CROATIA................................................................................................................................................ 19

III.1 STRATEGY AND POLICIES ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19Legal framework, principal documents and attitudes .................................................... 19Accents and priorities ...................................................................................................... 21

III.2 REGULATION OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 21Accents and priorities ...................................................................................................... 23

III.3 COASTAL MANAGEMENT TOOLS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 23

III.4 ADMINISTRATIVE AND INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25General and special institutional frameworks for action ................................................ 25Implementation system.................................................................................................... 26Accents and priorities ...................................................................................................... 26

III.5 ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN COASTAL AREAMANAGEMENT ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 27Access to information on the environment, and public participation............................ 27

III.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 28

III.7 IMPLEMENTATION OF MANAGEMENT PLANS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 29

III.8 INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 30

III.9 EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROJECTS........................................................................................................................ 32Cres-Lošinj Archipelago.................................................................................................... 32Kaštela Bay ....................................................................................................................... 33


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1

I INTRODUCTION: TRADITION OF COASTALMANAGEMENT

I.1 PURPOSE OF THE REPORT

Coastal planning and management hasbecome a well established scientificdiscipline throughout the world. Accordingto numerous sources, about 60% of theglobal population currently live in coastalareas, i.e. in a strip reaching 100 km inlandfrom the coastline, and the tendency is offurther growth. At the same time, 65% of allcities with more than 1 million inhabitants,and most of economic activities areconcentrated in those same areas. It is notsurprising, therefore, that we now witness aglobal boom of a special interdisciplinaryand multidisciplinary profession dealingexclusively with that specific part of thenational territory: coastal area planning andmanagement. The Republic of Croatia iscertainly no exception, and, moreover, has a

long tradition of coastal planning andmanagement, where it has achievedenviable results.

Owing to the long history of coastalplanning in the Republic of Croatia, anumber of valuable coastal environmentshave been preserved in spite of greatpressures of urbanisation, industrialisationand tourism over the past decades. Croatianexperts and institutions have been veryactive in the international organisationsdealing with planning and protection of thesea and coastal areas, both within andoutside the United Nations system. Croatianexperts were actively involved in theformulation and implementation of theRegional Seas Programme of the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP), aswell as the Barcelona Convention and the


2

Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP). Shortlyafter gaining independence, the Republic ofCroatia has joined the BarcelonaConvention. Finally, Croatia hosts arespected international institution, centre ofexcellence dealing with coastal planning andmanagement, the Regional Activity Centreof the Priority Actions Programme (PAP/RAC)which operates within the MAP.

The objective of this publication is toconcisely present what has been achieved inCroatia in the field of planning, protectionand management of its coastal areas. Thewish is to achieve it through a briefpresentation of the basic human andnatural resources, relevant problems, andpossibilities of future development and useof those resources. This publication isneither plan nor study aimed at judging,praising or suggesting what should be donein the coastal area. The basic intention is topresent, as objectively as possible, the truesituation of coastal planning andmanagement in Croatia and the possibilitiesof this important scientific discipline, as wellas the institutional basis for tackling theproblems and challenges that the future hasin store. The population’s expectations aregreat, coastal resources are consideredamong the most important for theprosperity of the country, and the presentcapacities for their permanent managementare not negligible. All this leads to theconclusion that, with certain efforts, thecoastal area can be used yet remainpreserved, as the generations of Croatianshave been doing for more than a thousandyears. This publications will be just a smallcontribution showing what we have andhow we can further improve it. Theprofession of coastal planning andmanagement can provide great help inachieving that aim.

I.2 HISTORY AND TRADITION OFCOASTAL AREA PLANNING ANDMANAGEMENT IN CROATIA

The coast of the Republic of Croatia makes51% of the eastern Adriatic coastline. If weadd the coastline of the islands, the

Croatian coast accounts for 90% of the totallength of coast of the eastern shore of theAdriatic Sea. This illustrates how developedand rich in islands the Croatian coast is, nextonly to Greece in the Mediterranean.

The Adriatic Sea, deeply cut into theEuropean continent, has always representedan important link between the Middle Eastand western Europe. Its eastern coast,protected by numerous islands, providedsuitable maritime ways from theMediterranean to the Po Valley and Alpinepasses. As a result of those circumstances,the eastern Adriatic coast was inhabitedvery early, through Greek and Romancolonisation, when the first coastalagglomerations were created.

The eastern Adriatic coast and its hinterlandwere at the borderline between civilisationsand political forces: Illyrian and Greek,Roman and “barbaric”, western and easternparts of the Roman Empire, Rome andByzantium, eastern and western Christianity,and later between Christianity and Islam.Since the 7th century, the eastern Adriaticregion has been the field of mutualinfluences of Croatian, Roman and mid-European cultures.

Under such tumultuous historic conditions,40-odd larger settlements were formedwhich, in the early Middle Ages, turned intowell organised, fortified and economicallystable urban communities, small in thenumber of inhabitants (2,000-5,000), butvery important for their urban, physical andsocial qualities. These communities basedtheir administration, safety and organisationof everyday life on town statutes, enactedvery early, through which they took aparticular care of the urban space, soils,forests, water resources, landscapes, andfishery resources.

From the 10th to the 20th century, thosetowns, like the entire Croatian part of theAdriatic coast, were under the authority ofseveral different states (Byzantium,Mediaeval Croatian state, Croato-Hungarianstate, the Dubrovnik Republic, Venice,Austro-Hungarian Empire). The coastal strip


3

is separated from the immediate hinterlandby a chain of medium-high karsticmountains that spreads almost along itsentire length. Traffic connections along thecoast were very bad, as there was no coastalroad, just as there were no good connectionswith the hinterland. Thus, only several sitesalong the coast, where the configuration ofthe mountains allowed for communicationwith the hinterland, provided conditions forthe development of larger settlements. Itwas on those sites that larger coastal towns,Pula, Rijeka, Zadar, Šibenik, Split andDubrovnik were formed. These were centresof their respective regions, market placesand important harbours where goods wereexchanged between the hinterland andislands, and from where ships went to theopposite coast of the Adriatic, Venice,Ancona and Apulian towns, as well as toother Mediterranean ports. However, alluntil the second half of the 20th centurythere were no good roads connecting thecoast with the hinterland, or the coastaltowns between them.

During the 1950s and 60s, the economicgrowth was much stronger than in the 19thand the first half of the 20th century, andever growing numbers of tourists visited thecoastal resorts (Dubrovnik, Hvar, Lošinj,Opatija and others). All that requiredinterventions in the maritime and roadtraffic and infrastructure in order to enablethe development of the region as a whole,especially with regard to tourism.Construction was launched of a road to runalong the entire coast (the so called“Adriatic motorway”), modernisation startedof the road and railroad networks leading tothe hinterland, new ports were built,suitable for the use of motor vehicles whichhad become dominant in the transport ofpassengers and goods, water supplysystems were built, and a number of similaractions were taken.

With regard to the importance of thecoastal region for the whole country, theUnited Nations were asked for assistance infurther planning of coastal development. Asa result, the entire coastal region was

covered by a series of physical plans preparedover a period of 10 years, which contained anumber of elements that correspond to whatwe call today “sustainable development”.Those plans included:

• physical plans of the development of thesouthern Adriatic region, which coveredthe coast between the Albanian borderand Split (1969-1971 – Adriatic I)

• Co-ordination Physical Plan of the UpperAdriatic Region and its Hinterland, whichcovered the coast between Split and theItalian border (1971-1973 – Adriatic II)

A large number of national and internationalexperts of various profiles participated in thepreparation of those plans, supported bythe United Nations Development Programme(UNDP). That enabled for performingthorough studies of the resources of theeastern Adriatic region, and for assessingmore precisely development potentials,which in turn helped with making morerealistic plans of its economic, social andphysical development. Although in thepreparation of plans there was the intentionto protect and enhance the environment,the stress was primarily on the developmentcomponent.

In 1973, again in co-operation with UNDP,the project Protection of the HumanEnvironment in the Adriatic Region waslaunched (Adriatic III), with the basic aim ofharmonising to the maximum thedevelopment and protection needs. Thatproject is particularly important because itwas perhaps the first response to theconclusions of the First World Conferenceon Environmental Protection held inStockholm in 1972, and because it coveredsuch a large area (entire eastern coast of theAdriatic with immediate hinterland). Theproject dealt with a variety of problems,regarding air, water, soils, public health,waste waters, solid waste, noise, sea,ecology, land, vegetation cover, historicheritage, and tourism. Assessment wasmade of growth limits using conceptual andmathematical models, and of the relationsbetween the human activities and the various


4

components of the environment. Thatproject, in which 40-odd national scientificand professional institutions participated, aswell as some 20 leading internationalexperts engaged by UNDP, gave very preciserecommendations which greatly contributedto the fact that the eastern Adriatic region,including the land, islands and the sea, isstill one of the best preserved coastal areasof the European part of the Mediterranean.All of the above mentioned plans (Adriatic I,II and III) contained concise recommendationsfor physical and environmental management(especially Adriatic III), but those were notobeyed to the full, since the then currentpolitical system did not allow for it.Therefore, the Adriatic region, even if one ofthe best preserved in the Mediterranean,suffered a certain amount of damage, dueto badly planned and/or uncontrolledtourism construction, urban spreading, andinadequate location of roads in somesegments of the coast.

5

II COASTAL AREAS AND ISLANDS: POTENTIALSAND CHALLENGES

II.1 COASTAL ENVIRONMENT OFCROATIA

Natural characteristics

Relief and soils

By its position, the Republic of Croatiabelongs to the central European, Adriatic-Mediterranean and Panonian-Danubiangroup of countries. It covers an area of87,677 km², of which 56,610 km² are land,and 31,067 km² coastal sea, while thesurface area of the Adriatic watershed is22,134 km².

The coastal region of Croatia is an Adriaticarea showing all phenomena typical of alarge part of the Mediterranean, especiallyof its European shores. Developed relief withmountain chains in the immediate vicinity ofthe coastline, sometimes at just 10-oddmetres, and numerous islands (1,185),interchanges with flat stretches.Geographically, the islands are classified in718 proper islands, 389 rocks (top abovethe water), and 78 ridges (top below thewater). There are two large peninsulas, Istriaand Pelješac. Generally, the coast is rockywith frequent pebble drifts, while sandbeaches are rather less common. The totallength of the coastline is 5,835 km, of which1,777 km belong to the coast of themainland, and 4,058 km to the islandcoasts, which makes the Croatian coast themost indented in the Mediterranean.

The principal natural feature is the hillykarstic base. The mountainous coastal beltoften keeps the dominant influence of thesea within just several kilometres inland. Thekarstic base lacks any significant earthlayers, and the vegetation cover is relativelyscarce, except in some river valleys andkarstic fields. The soils are shallow andskeletal (rendzinas, black and eroded brown

soils on limestone and dolomite bases).Deeper soils (red) can be found only locally.

Climate and vegetation

The most important climate zones of theregion are:

• The zone of moderate tropical climate(Mediterranean or sub-tropical) whichcovers the coastal and island areas ofDalmatia, as well as the southern parts ofthe Rab and Lošinj islands.

• The zone of moderately cold climatewhich covers the entire coast facing theVelebit mountain, the Kvarner region andthe peninsula of Istria, including theadjoining islands.

Generally, the climate is characterised by dryand hot summers, and mild and rainywinters, and a high number of sunny andclear days. Such climatic conditions arefavourable for vegetation (cooler and rainierareas in the northern Adriatic, and thewarmer areas in the south, variety of micro-climates, etc.).


6

Table 1: Largest rivers of the Adriatic basin

RIVER LENGTH (km) SURFACE AREA OF RIVER BASIN (km²)total in Croatia total in Croatia

EMPTIESINTO

ADRIATIC Neretva 225 20 11,798 430 AdriaticBASIN Cetina 101 101 1,468 1,468 Adriatic

Krka 73 73 2,088 2,088 AdriaticZrmanja 69 69 907 907 AdriaticMirna 53 53 458 458 Adriatic

The forest cover of the Adriatic regionbelongs to the Mediterranean type, exceptfor the border zones of the mountainoushinterland, which belong to the Euro-Siberian - North-American forest type. Overthe centuries, the vegetation cover hasdegraded, so that today, about 2/3 of thearea are occupied by degraded maqis,garrigues and rocky plains. Along withindividual sites covered in autochthonousBlack pine there are relatively large areas ofAleppo pine forests within the zone of theHolm oak, mostly in the southern Adriatic.Forests of Holm oak have been preservedonly at few locations (on some islands).

Hydrography of inland waters

All inland waters of the Adriatic watershedreflect the hydrographic features of karst,with poor surface and rich undergroundhydrography, which results in a capriciousnature of the natural distribution of fresh

waters. Almost all rivers flowing into theAdriatic Sea, as well as other surface (lakes)and ground waters are of such quality thatthey can be used for water supply, i.e.represent potential sources of drinkingwater. Surface waters are also used forhydro-energy purposes. Apart from Neretva,all rivers are fast and short, with greatvariation of flow. Great quantities of rainfallreach deep layers. A part of those watersreappears on the surface in the form ofsprings in karstic fields only to disappearagain under ground through karstic sinkholes (the longest of those water coursesare the rivers Lika and Gacka). However,most of the ground waters flow underground directly into the sea, sometimesunder the sea surface creating submarinesources. Local ground waters accumulate ina number of islands, but during the dryperiod, sea water intrusion often occurs dueto over-exploitation.

Table 2: Largest lakes

SURFACE AREA(km²)

HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL(m)

MAXIMUM DEPTH(m)

NATURAL LAKESVransko (Biograd)ProkljanskoVransko (Cres)Mljetska lakesBaćinska lakes

30.711.1

5.82.01

1.9

0.10.516

05

425744632

ARTIFICIAL LAKESPeruča (on Cetina)KrušćičkoButonigaLokvarskoBajersko

1.33.92.52.10.5

360554

41770730

64-

1740

7


7

Permanent lakes are not particularlynumerous. There are 10 natural and artificiallakes which cover a total surface of 73.51km². These lakes are of tectonic, karstic,glacier or riverine origins. For the purpose ofusing the water courses for the productionof electricity 5 artificial lakes have beenbuilt, as well as a number of smallerretentions for water supply or irrigationpurposes. The largest artificial lake, Vransko,near Biograd, which is also a significantornithological reserve, covers a surface of30.7 km, but its maximum depth is of 4 m,so it does not contain large quantity ofwater. Another lake, of the same name butsituated in the island of Cres, 74 m deep, isthe richest fresh water lake and the largestcryptodepression of Croatia. It is a naturalphenomenon with a highly sensitive balanceof water courses which prevent sea waterintrusion into the lake. The Blue and the RedLakes near Imotski are unique hydrographicphenomena in karst, and have beendeclared natural monuments.

Sea

Along most of the Croatian coast, thecoastal sea is separated from the openwaters by a series of islands. The Adriatic isa relatively shallow sea, with average depthof 239 m, it is warm and has a high salinity.Even on the places where it is somewhatdeeper near the shore it is separated fromthe open sea by a submarine barrier whichdoes not affect the passage of even thelargest ships, but influences the watercirculation. Depending on the season, seacurrents, winds and vicinity of the shore, thesea temperature varies throughout the yearin both horizontal and vertical directions (inwinter, in the north-western part near thecoast the sea temperature is 8°C, and in thesouth-eastern 16°C), the average salinity is38.3‰, slightly growing towards the south.Near shore the salinity is lower due to freshwater inflow from the land. The highestdegree of transparency is found in theSouth-Adriatic Pit (56m), while along thecoast the average value is of 20 m,decreasing towards the north. The seacurrents arrive from the Ionian Sea and run

along the eastern coast towards north-west.Since the coast is very developed, withnumerous bays, islands, sea passages andcanals, there are numerous and considerabledeviations, as well as local diversions fromthis general direction. The exchange ofwaters of the Adriatic Sea is slow.

There are great differences in the primaryproduction of the organic matter: while thesouthern part is a practically unproductivesea, the northern part of the Adriatic (thebay of Istria-Triest-Venice) has one of themost intensive primary productions of thewhole Mediterranean. This results in greatdifferences in the occurrence of pelagic fish.The Croatian part of the Adriatic is poor infish as compared to other seas, and evenwith some other parts of the Mediterranean.

Protection of nature

Parts of the coast and the sea are protectedby the Law on the Protection of Nature.Karst makes a specific geomorphologicstructure of the coastal strip and itshinterland. The Dinaric karst, registered as apart of the world’s natural heritage (locustipicus), is a particularly sensitive systemrequiring special attention with regard topreservation of drinking water resources. Inthe coastal region, there are 107 protectedobjects (83 areas, and 24 individual trees,smaller groups of trees, or very small sites),of which 33 objects of nature have beenselected and classified in 8 protectioncategories. The largest part of the protectedsurface regard the national parks and parksof nature the structure of which illustrateswell the wealth and great diversity of thenature in Croatia.

National parks (Brijuni, Paklenica, Kornati,Krka, Mljet) are large areas of particularnatural, cultural, scientific, educational,aesthetic, tourist and recreational values,encompassing one or more preserved orinsignificantly modified eco-systems. In thenational parks, no activities are allowed thatcould threaten the original flora and fauna,or the hydrographic, geomorphologic,geological and scenic values. The only worksallowed are those aimed at maintaining or


8

establishing the natural balance. Threenational parks are on islands (Kornati,Brijuni, and Mljet) including the surroundingsea, one illustrates the interesting featuresof karstic hydrogrpahy and morphology(Krka), and one is a typical mountain areawith interesting vegetation and relief(Paklenica). In the immediate hinterlandthere are two more national parks, Plitviceand Risnjak.

Natural parks (Velebit, Telašćica, Biokovo)are natural or partly cultivated areas withpronounced ecological, aesthetic, tourist andrecreational values, in which only activitiesthat do not threaten their significantcharacteristics are allowed. Among theseparks, two are mountains (Velebit andBiokovo), and one is on an island (Telašćica).

Strict reservations (Rožanski and Hajdučkikukovi on the Velebit mountain) are areaswith unchanged or insignificantly changednature, and are intended exclusively forscientific research which does not changebio-diversity or the original state of thenature, and which does not threaten thefree course of natural processes.

Special reservations are areas in which oneor more unchanged components of thenature are particularly pronounced (plant oranimal species, relief, waters, etc.), andwhich are of special scientific significance orpurpose. Thirteen land and marine objectshave been covered by this form ofprotection.

Park-forests are natural or planted forestsof great scenic value, intended for relaxationand recreation, in which only maintenanceworks are allowed. Two forest complexes onthe coast have been protected under thiscategory (Šijana, Marjan).

Protected landscapes are natural orcultivated zones of high aesthetic orcultural-historic value, or which are typicalof a certain area. The canyon of the Cetinariver, Pakleni and Badija islands, VidovaGora hill, and Saplunara cove have beencovered by this form of protection, and noactivities are allowed there that coulddamage their appearance and beauty.

Monument of nature is an individualunchanged part or group of parts of theliving or non-living nature, of scientific,aesthetic or cultural-historic value. Amonument of nature can be geological,geomorphologic, hydrographic, etc., it canbe a rare specimen of tree or group of trees,or a small botanical or zoological site. Onthe monument and its surroundings noactivities are allowed that could threaten itsfeatures and value. The small islands ofBrusnik and Jabuka, as well as the Zlatni ratcape have been protected as monument ofnature.

Monument of park architecture is anartificially formed zone (garden, botanicalgarden, arboretum, town park, tree alley, agroup of trees or an individual tree, or anyother form of garden or park formation) withhigh aesthetic, stylistic, artistic, cultural-historic or scientific value. The Trstenoarboretum is one of larger objects protectedby this category.

Apart from the above mentioned objects ofnature, the Velebit mountain has beendeclared biosphere reserve within theproject Man and Biosphere, launched byUNESCO in 1978.

According to the law, all spontaneouslygrown plants and wild animals found in anational park, strict reservation, and specialreservation, as well as animals living in cavesenjoy protection, even if they do not belongto protected plant and animal species.

The protected objects of nature in thecoastal region cover a total area of 2,863km², or 65% of the area covered by all theprotected objects in the Republic of Croatia,which illustrates the great value, as well assensitivity of the coastal and island areas.

Biological and landscape diversity

One of the most important features of thecoastal and island region is the biologicaland landscape diversity, reflected innumerous plant and animal species, theircommunities and habitats, as well as in ahigh percentage of endemic species that isdue to the geographic position, mild


9

Mediterranean climate, and expressly karsticrelief, on predominantly calcareous base.The region hosts some 3,500 plant species,12 species of amphibia, 34 species ofreptiles, about 200 species of nesting birds,79 species of mammals, 64 species of freshwater fish, while the sea is home to 407species and sub-species of fish, 660 benthicalgae, 4 species of marine meadows, andseveral species of marine mammals.

In order to protect that wealth of plant andanimal species, a list was made of rare andendangered species (The Red Book). Thecoastal and island flora and fauna areespecially rich in endemic species of greatinterest for natural sciences: Tertiaryendemic relicts (Degenia velebitica), glacialrelicts and neo-endemic species (Dianthus,Leucanthemum, Campanula, Cantaurea, ...).A part of the endemic fauna inhabitsunderground karst habitats (caves andcaverns) and distant Adriatic islands. It wasin those habitats that numerous endemicspecies were identified of Invertebrata andVertebrata, the Proteus anguineus being themost interesting.

The ichthyofauna of the rivers of theAdriatic basin is generally considered amongthe most significant in Europe. There are 64fish species, of which 40 are Mediterraneanendemics, and 11 can only be found inCroatia.

Among the rivers, the Neretva river deltastands out because of its size, as well asbecause of a great diversity of vegetation,and a wealth of endemic fauna (Invertebrataand fresh water fish), great numbers ofinsects, especially butterflies, mammals, andparticularly numerous birds. Three hundredand ten bird species have been noted there(of which 115 nesting birds, and 35 aquaticbirds). Therefore, the ornithofauna ofNeretva has been included in the List ofWetlands of International Importance(Ramsar Convention, 1971).

The landscapes of the Croatian part of theeastern Adriatic can be grouped in twogeneral types, coastal and insular. Withinthose two types we distinguish two types of

coast, steep and rocky, and gently slopingwith pebble, and rarely sand beaches.Significantly different from the rest of thecoast is only the Neretva river delta, verylarge and developed, created by the actionof the river and occasional flooding. Tocertain extent, the same applies also to theCetina river.

The rocky karstic base and sometimesdramatic topography resulted in highlydeveloped coastline of the islands, withnumerous bays, coves, rocks and reefs.Unlike the islands, the coastal segments arerather strait with little space between thesea and the mountains behind. Exceptionsto that are only several deep bays in theIstrian peninsula, the Kaštela Bay, the areaof Cavtat, and the river mouths of Zrmanja,Krka and Ombla. Of the two largepeninsulas, the smaller one, Pelješac,topographically and climatically belongs toislands, while the larger one, Istria, makes aseparate unit, characterised by a gentle hillyslope, gradually descending from the steepeastern shores to the shallow and gentlyinclined western coast.

Strong coastal barriers are made of Učka,Velebit, Kozjak, Mosor and Biokovo,mountain chains rising steeply from thecoast. Velebit, in the northern Adriatic, risespractically from the sea, leaving minimumconditions for life on the coast. Mosor andKozjak, in the central Adriatic, border thewide Split-Kaštela plain, rich in water andfertile soils where intensive life dates back topre-historic times. Biokovo, also in thecentral Adriatic, with its slopes suitable forgrowing fruit and olive, with frequent smallsprings, and beaches formed by erosion,offers ideal conditions for intensivedevelopment of tourism.

The western Istria, Ravni kotari (plainsbetween the rivers Zrmanja and Krka), theSplit-Kaštela plain and the Neretva riverdelta are the areas most suitable foragriculture. Here we can also add smallsegments of coast and the immediatehinterland where the soil brought by stormwaters or produced by erosion gathered interraces made by forest felling and


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supported by walls. Those terraces are verysuitable for vineyards, which produce highquality wines.

Unlike the mainland, the islands are mostlykarstic and hilly, and only rarely do the hillsreach higher than 500 m above the sealevel. Karstic fields in small valleys and in thebottoms of bays, as well as the terracescreated by centuries of hard work, aresuitable for vineyards, and make theprincipal characteristic of the man-madelandscape of the islands. By the naturalfeatures, the islands can be divided in bareand forested. Generally speaking, the southAdriatic islands are characterised by thickevergreen maquis with sporadic thickets ofbarberry. However, these areas, as well asabandoned terraces, are increasingly invadedby the Aleppo pine, which has recentlysettled in the islands. The central Adriaticislands, dominated by the Kornati group,are predominantly bare and rocky, and onlyin the zones sheltered from strong winds,rare grass sprouting from broken rocksenables breeding of sheep and goats, orshallow soils enable growing of olive, whilethe highly developed marine landscapeabounds in fish. The Kvarner islands, Lošinj,Cres, Krk and Rab, unlike all other islands inthe region, have more water, but due toexposition to northern winds, have forestsonly in protected zones, which containsome typically continental species, andvineyards can also be found in places.

II.2 POPULATION OF THE COASTALREGION

The total number of inhabitants in Croatia,according to the 1991 census, is 4,784,265.The administrative and territorial constitutionof Croatia is based on counties, municipalitiesand towns (21 counties, 122 towns and 416municipalities).

Seven coastal counties, i.e. those thatinclude segments of coast, account for littleless than 44% of the total surface area ofthe country (24,696 km²). Heterogeneous byspatial reach and relief, some counties, likethe County of Dubrovnik-Neretva, have amarkedly coastal-insular character, one is

almost entirely situated on a peninsula(County of Istria), most of them have vasthinterland, while the County of Lika-Senj hasa markedly continental character with littledeveloped coast, but is a highly importantlink between the northern and southernparts of Croatia.

In 1991, the coastal counties had 1,580,213inhabitants (little more than 33% of thetotal population of Croatia), living in 58towns, 153 municipalities and 2,483settlements, with the overall populationdensity of 64 inhabitants per km², which isbelow the Croatian average of 85inhabitants per km². Among the coastalcounties the most densely populated are thecounties of Split-Dalmatia (105 inhabitantsper km²) and of Primorje-Gorski kotar (90inhabitants per km²), while the least denselypopulated is the county of Lika-Senj with 16inhabitants per km², which makes it also theleast densely populated county of Croatia.

Modest natural prerequisites have limitedthe economic development of the islands. Inthe time of greatest prosperity of shipping,fishing and vine growing (late 19th and early20th centuries) the 66 inhabited islands ofthe Croatian part of the Adriatic had a totalpopulation of 160,000 inhabitants. In thethird quarter of the 20th century thatnumber dropped to 94,000, which meansthat the island population was almosthalved in less than a century. In thecontinental part of the coast, the situationwas completely different. In the sameperiod, the towns of Pula, Rijeka, Zadar,Šibenik and Split have grown into harboursand industrial centres which have attractedthe population of the immediate hinterlandand the islands, so that their population hasmore than triplicated. Dubrovnik, Makarska,and especially the Istrian coastal towns havegrown into important tourism centres, whilethe general trend of population migrationfrom the hinterland to the coast initiatedthe growth of other coastal settlements aspermanent or temporary homes of that newpopulation.

The basic demographic trend, observed overthe last several decades, is reflected in a


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reduced population growth rate, withdepopulation of islands and hinterland, andpopulation growth of the settlements in thenarrow coastal strip. The gravitation force ofthe macro-regional centres, Split and Rijeka,stimulates migrations towards the countiesof Split-Dalmatia and of Primorje-Gorskikotar from the surrounding counties.Another result of this trend is the growth ofurban and decrease of rural population.

Table 3: Ten largest towns of the Republicof Croatia*

Town No. of inhabitants accordingto 1991 census

Zagreb 867.717Split* 200.459Rijeka* 167.964Osijek 129.792Zadar* 80.355Karlovac 70.950Pula* 62.690Sisak 60.884Slavonski Brod 58.531Šibenik* 55.842

* Coastal towns in the table are marked by asterix

The population growth rate index for thecoastal counties in the period 1971-1991(112.77) is above the Croatian average(108.09). The fastest growth was recordedin the counties of Split-Dalmatia and ofPrimorje-Gorski kotar. Of the totalpopulation of the coastal counties, urbanpopulation accounts for 61.41%, while forthe whole country that index is 54.74%. Thepopulation of the coastal towns growsconsiderably faster than the total coastalpopulation.

The distribution of towns by size shows theexistence of two strong regional centres,Split and Rijeka, and relatively few medium-size towns. Although the Croatian coast ofthe Adriatic has a long and rich urbantradition, its urbanisation was somewhatbelated, due to various historic and politicalreasons. The recent decades brought astrong litoralisation trend, stimulatedespecially by the construction of touristcomplexes and entire settlements composed

of secondary homes along the coast. Thattrend slowed down in the period 1991-1997, but its revival can now be expected.Accordingly, we can expect problemsrelevant to the protection of theenvironment, especially of its natural andman-made values, as well as problemsrelevant to urban expansion, and urban andother infrastructure.

The greatest migration pressure, caused bythe outbreak of hostilities in Croatia, wasabsorbed by the large and medium-sizetowns. It is estimated that, the number ofinhabitants of Split has grown in the sevenyears after 1991 by almost 30,000, of Rijekaby more than 18,000, of Zadar by morethan 24,000, of Pula by little under 15,000,and of Dubrovnik by almost 10,000. Thenegative aspects of war migrations are theincreased depopulation of hinterlands,additional pressure of the coastal urbaninfrastructure, and changes in the culturalidentity of towns. The positive aspect is thatthe towns gained younger population anddifferent reproduction norms which couldsecure higher growth rates in the future.


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According to the Blue Plan Mediterraneanscenarios for the period 2000-2005, furtherurbanisation in the region can be expected(with the growth in proportion of urbanpopulation in the total population to 70-80%), as well as a slower growth of activepopulation, which will get gradually older.The possible lack of younger population inlabour force should be partly compensatedby feminisation of the active population.

II.3 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

Over the last 50 years, the economy ofCroatia has gone through transformationfrom agricultural to industrial, and thenfrom industrial to tertiary economy. Today,the structure of the gross domestic productof Croatia is similar to that of marketeconomies: approximately 25% industry,10% agriculture, and 65% tertiary sector.Traditional industrial activities played therole of accelerator to the economic growth,and are now giving way to capital-intensiveactivities. The nominal GDP for 1996 wasabout 19 billion US$, and the GDP per

capita was around US$ 4,500. It is estimatedthat the private sector creates more than50% of the GDP. In the beginning of 1998,the number of persons in paid employmentwas 1,250,000, while the number ofpension beneficiaries was 925,000. Theunemployment rate varies between 18%and 19% of the active population.

In the 1990s, the transformation of theCroatian economy was accelerated by thetransition from central-planning to marketeconomy, through privatisation andrestructuring of the economic sector. A verystrong negative impact on the economy wasproduced by the aggression on Croatia in1991. In the period 1989-1992, the GDPwas almost halved, and in the second halfof 1993 the monthly inflation rate reached30%. However, owing to the stabilisation andprivatisation programmes of the CroatianGovernment, the GDP and industrialproduction started showing growth in thesecond half of 1995. A considerable part ofeconomy was privatised, and after 1993, theinflation rate has not exceeded 5% per year.


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The level of economic development variesgreatly from one coastal county to another.Of the four Croatian counties with above-average domestic product per capita in theperiod 1971-1991, three were on the coast:the county of Istria and the county ofDubrovnik-Neretva, markedly oriented totourism, with complementary industrial andagricultural production, and the county ofPrimorje-Gorski kotar in which the tertiaryactivities account for more than 2/3 of thedomestic product. Less developed counties,which have lost a considerable number ofworking-age and active population, retainedactivities of lower profitability and efficiencyadequate for the structure of the remaininglabour force. Among the counties with lessdeveloped economies there are primarilythose including a large hinterland: thecounty of Lika-Senj, one of economicallyleast developed in Croatia, the county ofZadar, and the county of Šibenik-Knin. Thecounty of Split-Dalmatia, although a regionwith strong industrial and tourism sectors,has been lagging behind the averagegrowth rate of the Croatian economy overthe last decades.

In the 1990s, the economy of the coastalcounties shared with the rest of Croatianeconomy the transitional processes andactivity under war conditions. Traffic andenergy supply isolation of a majority ofcoastal counties additionally aggravated theeconomic situation. As a consequence, theeconomic image of the coastal counties hasbeen changed: the number of persons inpaid employment dropped from 513,176 in1990 to 386,602 in 1992, with furtherdecrease of employment over the followingyears. The share of industry in the domesticproduct dropped, and the share of tradegrew. In the war years, there was norevenue from tourism, threatening the areasoriented exclusively to tourism.

Primary sector

Agriculture

Agriculture is characterised by a constantdecrease of the share of the rural in thetotal population: in 1991, that share was

8.56% for the Republic of Croatia, and forthe seven coastal counties it was 3.42%(approximately 54,000 persons in agriculturalhouseholds).

In 1996, the agricultural land coveredapproximately 55% of the total surface areaof the 7 coastal counties, with several areaswith high potential agricultural productivity(Ravni Kotari, Neretva river delta). MildMediterranean climate is particularly suitablefor growing grapes, olives, fruit andvegetables, flowers and typical Mediterraneanplants. A diminishing trend has been notedin the cultivation of traditional Mediterraneanspecies (grapes, olives) which give way toother species which are less labour intensiveor more profitable.

The trend reflected in a decrease ofagricultural population and of the surface ofcultivated land in the coastal region isfurther stimulated by the re-orientation ofthe land owners to tourism. The use of theagricultural land in the vicinity of urbancentres has to a large extent been changedfor the needs of secondary or tertiaryactivities, or turned into secondary homesettlements.

Livestock production

Livestock production is more pronounced inthe hinterlands of the coastal counties,owing to its hilly-mountainous orientation(sheep, goats). In 1993, the number ofsheep in the coastal counties made morethan ¾ of the total number of sheep inCroatia, while the corresponding ratio ofcattle was less than 12%, and for pigs lessthan 3%. Individual sector dominates thelivestock production.

Fisheries

Fishing is a traditional branch of agriculture,which now shows a pronounced trend ofdecrease in the catches of sea fish, Molluscaand Crustacea (from 48,822 t in 1987 to17,347 t in 1996). The largest part of thecatches regards the pelagic fish, where thelargest share is of pilchard. Alongsidefishing, the marine fishery is made of rearingmarine organisms (fish and shellfish). In


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1995, 25 farms were registered, of which 17in the islands and 8 on the mainland. Theseproduced 1,600 t of marine fish, 600 t ofmussels, and 50,000 oysters.

Secondary sector

Industry and mining

After the 2nd World War, Croatia had a strongand rather constant industrial growth.However, that growth was oftenaccompanied by wrong decisions regardingthe siting of factories, which hadparticularly harmful effects in the coastalcounties. A large number of factories weresited in the narrow coastal strip,disregarding their effects on other economicactivities, natural resources and landscape.The process of de-industrialisation of theCroatian economy can be noted since 1987;the overall industrial production volumeindex was constantly dropping between1987 and 1995, to show a certain recoveryin 1996. The growth of industrial productionin 1997 was 6.8%. At the same time, thenumber of persons employed in industryshows an even faster decrease, so that thechain index of productivity constantly grewin the period 1991-1996. The positive aspectof de-industrialisation is the closing down ofdirty industries in the coastal region, andcreation of potentials for new economicactivities to be harmonised with therequirements of environmental protection.

In 1992, the industry and mining of thecoastal counties participated with some29% in the total value of sale of industrialproducts in Croatia. From the point of viewof industry, the most important coastalcounty is the county of Primorje-Gorskikotar, followed by the counties of Split-Dalmatia and Istria. In the industry as well,we can note regional concentration; thelargest industrial capacities are locatedaround the largest urban centres, Rijeka andSplit.

Shipbuilding is a traditional branch ofindustry in which Croatia plays an importantpart at the global level. Shipbuilding isevenly distributed in the counties of Split-

Dalmatia, Primorje-Gorski kotar and Istria.Marine transport is also a traditionaleconomic activity of the coastal counties,with markedly fluctuating income duringthe 1990s. In 1996, six large shippingcompanies with more than 1,000 employeesrealised and income of more than US$500,000,000, with the fleet capacity ofmore than 3.5 million DWT.

Tertiary sector

The growing re-orientation of economytowards the tertiary sector has been one ofthe principal processes in the coastal regionover the past two decades, and it is highlyprobable that this trend will be continued inthe future. Trade, hotels and restaurants,tourism, transports and other tertiaryactivities account for an above-averageshare of the economy of the coastalcounties, both in the structure of persons inpaid employment, and in its contribution tothe domestic product of the Croatianeconomy. The counties of Dubrovnik-Neretva and of Primorje-Gorski kotar aregood examples of tertiarisation of economy:in 1991, of the total number of persons inpaid employment, the tertiary sectoremployed 72.6% and 66.3%, respectively. Atthe same time, the tertiary sector of thosetwo counties made 71.9% and 65.7% of thetotal domestic product, respectively.

Tourism

In the second half of the 1980s, tourismsecured between 3.5 and 5.3 billion DEM oftourist consumption, of which 65-70%originated from foreign tourists' consumption.Tourism participated in the total domesticproduct of Croatia with 10-12%, andprovided employment for 180,000 persons,directly and indirectly.

The total accommodation capacity ofCroatia in 1990 amounted to 862,653 beds,of which 830,981 belonged to the coastalcounties. Of the total number of touristbeds in the coastal counties, 287,502 werein camping sites, 129,673 in hotels, 68,785in company vacation facilities, 57,537 intourist settlements, 262,626 in private


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accommodation facilities, and 24,858 inother forms of accommodation facilities. In1992, the total number of tourist beds inthe coastal counties dropped to 537,418,i.e. to approximately 2/3 of the capacityrecorded in 1990. The most notable dropwas noted in the company vacationfacilities, where the number recorded in1992 amounted to just 11.5% of thenumber in 1990, and in the privateaccommodation sector (20%).

The number of tourist overnight stays in thecoastal counties dropped from about 49million in 1990 to little more than 9 millionin 1992. All the coastal counties recorded in1992 1-3% of the number of overnight staysin 1990, except the Primorje-Gorski kotarand the Istria counties, where thatpercentage amounted to 22% and 36%respectively. Since the year 1993, thenumber of tourist overnight stays has beenshowing a gradual and stable growth.

The tourism sector of Croatia has acomparatively large tourism superstructure,but considerable capital investment will berequired for its modernisation. Along withthe transformation of ownership structure,it is necessary to create a new identity forthe tourism sector. The generous, ecologicallyvaluable environment is the one strategicresource of Croatia that should contributeto a long-term growth of tourism.

Transport and communications

The total length of roads in the coastalcounties amounted, in the year 1992, to10,879 km, of which 9,258 with asphaltpaving. The density of the road network,especially of modern motorways, is stillinsufficient. Croatia is planning to build1,600 km of four-lane motorways, mostly inthe next decade, which should overcomethe bad connections between the northernand southern Croatia.

Of 9 airports in Croatia, 7 are in the coastalregion (Split, Dubrovnik, Zadar, Pula, Rijeka,Brač and Mali Lošinj). Sea ports, bothpassenger and cargo, are located in acontinuous succession along the entireAdriatic coast. The most important cargoports are those of Rijeka and Ploče. Thetraffic in Croatian ports dropped from29,042,000 tons in 1987 to 13,875,000 tonsin 1996. The traffic of 10 million passengerswas recorded in 1996, and shows tendencyfor growing.

The telecommunication network of Croatiais one of the best among the countries intransition (29 telephone lines per 100inhabitants).

II.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The coastal-insular region is among themost important potentials of Croatia. Apartfrom the traditional fishing, agriculture andnavigation, tourism and industry are alsowell developed in the region, using itscomparative advantages, but sometimeswith negative environmental effects. In thesummer months, the population of thecoastal region multiplies several times,which can not remain without impact onthat particularly sensitive ecological system.

Water resources

The rivers flowing into the Adriatic Sea, aswell as other surface waters (lakes) are ofsuch quality that they can be used for watersupply. All these waters are limpid, and canonly occasionally get turbid. The water coursesare very clean in their upper parts, while


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moderate to high pollution appears in theirlower parts, i.e. where they flow into the sea.

Groundwaters in some urban areas arepolluted by households and industries,while elsewhere there is slight pollution byagriculture. The dominant source of pollutionare the solid and liquid wastes, from economicactivities or any other source, such aswashing of dirty surfaces and road network,erosion and washing away of the soil, use ofpesticides and fertilisers in agriculture, illorganised dump yards for urban waste,sludge, etc., as well as accidental pollutiondue to lack of attention or care.

Waste waters

The main recipient of waste waters is thesea. However, before discharging, the wastewaters are treated in a number of smallercommunal treatment plants which usuallyapply preliminary treatment, and only rarelya complete mechanical treatment with longsubmarine outfalls. Tourist facilities (hotels,villages, camping sites) have their ownplants for biological treatment of theirwaste waters. For industrial plants there areonly individual treatment plants. The largestquantities of waste waters in the Adriaticbasin originate from the areas of Split,Zadar, Pula, Rijeka and Šibenik. Disposal ofhousehold waste waters into inappropriateseptic tanks, or into porous karsticunderground creates great problems forsettlements without a sewerage network.Over the several few years, great effortshave been made to resolve the problem ofwaste water disposal, and we can alreadynote considerable results.

Solid waste

In the entire coastal region there is not oneacceptable dumping site that would enablecontrolled disposal or modern treatment ofsolid waste. Accumulation of solid waste isnot related only to urban areas and touristfacilities. It appears on excursion sites,organised and wild camping sites and bays.The age of the dumping sites is between 20and 40 years, and, in general, their locationwas selected without any professional

background or documentation, and is mostlyin abandoned mining sites (quarries, bauxitemines, etc.), in karstic holes near forests andinhabited areas, as well as on the rocks bythe sea. Very often, the wastes are burnedwithout sufficient control, sometimes causingforest fires, and the discarded waste threatens,both directly and indirectly, the environment(air, waters, sea, soil), human health, andliving conditions of plants and animals. Inthe recent times, measures have been takento establish regional dumping sites.

Sea

The quality of the largest part of the AdriaticSea (over 95%) is exceptionally wellpreserved. A continuous monitoring of thesea water quality on more than 800 beachesshows more than satisfactory results andmeet the strictest standards. Only theaquatoriums of the principal harbours and apart of large urban agglomerations withinadequate sewerage outfalls are threatened.

Several sites in the Adriatic have beenexposed to strong pollution due to illogicaldisposition of dirty industries (parts of theRijeka and Kaštela bays, and the Šibenikbay), as well as due to spilling at oilterminals, discharges of oily waters fromships, discharges of waste waters from theoperative surfaces in large harbours (Rijeka,Split-Solin, Ploče), and disposal of used oilsand fuels from smaller vessels.

A threatened part of the Adriatic Sea ofinternational importance is the northernAdriatic area, i.e. the shallow bay of Istria-Triest-Venice. Due to a relatively smallvolume of sea water and great inflow ofhighly polluted north-Italian rivers, as wellas to a high concentration of economicactivities on the coast, the natural cycle ofsome biogenic elements has been greatlydisturbed. Aware of the importance of itsmost valuable resource, the sea, theRepublic of Croatia makes great efforts,both organisational and financial, aimed atpreserving its quality. Within the StateDirectorate for the Protection of Nature andEnvironment there is a separate Office forthe Adriatic which co-ordinates the activities


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on the protection of the Adriatic. Croatiawas one of the first Mediterranean countriesto enforce a national contingency plan incases of accidental sea pollution. Twooperations centres have been established(Rijeka and Split) and equipped not only forcases of emergency, but also for everydaycare for the coastal sea.

Terrestrial ecology

Forest cover is the most important elementof stability of the land eco-systems, crucialfor the dynamics of the global climate andfor the bio-geochemical cycle. Loss of bio-diversity in some forest eco-systemsdiminishes their resistibility, and is causedby disappearance, fragmentation anddegradation of all forest types. The size offorest habitats diminishes as a consequenceof human activities: urbanisation, constructionof roads, electric lines, and, especially in thelast years, frequent forest fires in thesummer months, caused by irresponsiblebehaviour. That phenomenon almostsurpasses the positive effects of natural andartificial reforestation. The fires reduce the

soil fertility (decrease in organic mattercontent, interruption of the biological cycleof elements, etc.), and increase itserodibility. The share of wood cut becauseof the action of insects and diseases in thetotal mass of the cut wood is much smallerthat the share of human activity. However,an important project to rehabilitate coastalforests is being implemented now with thesupport of the World Bank.

Landscape

The exceptionally valuable and significantnatural landscape of the Adriatic region isthreatened by quarries, bauxite mine holes,etc. which represent considerable landscapedegradation. The same applies for numerousindustrial plants, infrastructure objects,permanent and tourist settlements built inurban and suburban zones. New parts oftowns with all accompanying infrastructure(in the immediate coastal strip) wellharmonised with the macro-landscape are atrue rarity.

Regardless of protection, some parts of thenature are exposed to negative influences,


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such as illegal housing and expansion ofconstruction areas, wastewaters fromhouseholds, industries and agriculture,felling and burning of the existingvegetation, hunting and uncontrolledmountain climbing, problems relative to thepreservation of submarine habitats, conflictsbetween economic activities, and a generalnegative impact of human activities.

Biological and landscape diversity

In the recent times, some anthropochoresand new animal species have beenintroduced to the region, deliberately orinvoluntarily, such as Caulerpa taxifolia algafound in the aquatories of the islands ofHvar, Krk and Rab, the Californian trout,mongoose, elk, mouflon, etc. However, thosecan not replace the extinct autochthonousspecies, and the adjustment of some speciesto new habitats is uncertain. The experienceteaches about their hostility aimed atconquering new life space leading to gradualimpoverishment of the autochthonous floraand fauna.

Due to the economic activities of men, somebiotopes, vegetal and animal communitieshave disappeared from this region, someparts of which now belong to alarminglythreatened habitats, such as some grazingfields, meadows, aquatic and wetlandhabitats, and habitats bordering the sea(coastal rocks, reefs, sand and pebblebeaches).

Of the 407 species and sub-species of fishliving in the Adriatic Sea (18 protected), 64are threatened by fishing and disappearanceof habitats.

As a consequence of sea pollution,accelerated eutrophication sometimes occurs,especially in the eastern part of the Kaštelabay and in the northern Adriatic, which isaccompanied by changes in the contents ofthe plankton community, blooming of somephytoplankton organisms, hypoxia andanoxia, and mortality of marine organisms.At the same time, the number of species isdiminished, as well as the number of themembers of individual species, and thecontents of benthic communities changes.

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III PRACTICE OF COASTAL MANAGEMENTIN CROATIA

III.1STRATEGY AND POLICIES

Legal framework, principal documentsand attitudes

The recognition of the global and specificimportance of the coastal region has acontinuity in the Croatian politics at alllevels: state, sectoral and local. In spite ofthat, there are no special legal formsregarding the management of the coastalregion as a whole. Some basic provisions onprotection and restrictions are contained inthe Law on the Protection of theEnvironment, Law on the Protection of theNature, and the Law on the Protection ofCultural Monuments, and some specificprovisions are provided by sectoral laws,such as the Maritime Code. The totality ofthe natural and man-made physical structurehas been defined most comprehensively bythe Law on Land-Use Management whichregulates physical planning and defines theobligation of making regulations on theprotection and management of the coastalregion as an area of special interest for theState (this regulation, however, has not yetbeen made).

Physical plans comprise the development ofsettlements and infrastructure, conditionsfor land use, and environmental protectionmeasures. The coastal region of the CroatianAdriatic is covered by physical plans basedon a rich experience in regional planningand a strong professional and scientificbasis1. Those plans contain development

1 Large regional plans of the Adriatic areas from the1960s, the Physical Plan of Croatia, physical plans ofthe national parks, physical plans of themunicipalities that were 30 in the coastal region,and urban plans. Those plans are replaced by newdocuments defined by the new territorial and

objectives with the principles of andguidelines for the protection of coastalresources, including the borders of theprotected coastline belt. However, the plansare accompanied by general regulationswith insufficient obligations and withoutsufficiently strong instruments ofmanagement and implementation.

After the Republic of Croatia gainedindependence, the Parliament of Croatiaadopted several strategic documents whichcontain regulations relevant to the coastalareas. Those are:

1. Declaration on the Protection of theEnvironment of the Republic of Croatia(1992). This was the first synthesisdocument adopted in Croatia asindependent state, prepared on the basisof the National Report on Environmentand Development, which advocatespreparation of special programmes andtaking immediate measures aimed at theprotection of the Adriatic coastal andmarine areas, and preservation of thevalues and attractiveness of the Adriaticlandscapes.

2. Tourism Development Strategy (1993).The Ministry of Tourism aimed its prioritiesto a better exploitation of the availablepotentials with improved quality ofservices and richer tourist offer in thecoastal and hinterland areas. It advocatesa thorough transformation of the sector.

3. National Programme of theDevelopment of Islands (1997). Theprincipal reasons behind and purpose ofthis programme are to maintain life on

administrative constitution of Croatia and the Lawon Territorial Constitution. Those are: Strategy andProgramme of the Territorial Constitution of theState, physical plans of the counties (of which 7 arecoastal), physical plans of municipalities and towns(113 coastal), and urban plans of urban centres.


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the islands, to stimulate demographicrecovery and economic development, andto preserve the harmony of natural valuesthrough small-scale, but well organisedand long-term investments.

4. Land-Use Strategy of the Republic ofCroatia (1997). This is the fundamentaldocument for land-use planning, whichunifies sectoral strategies and programmes,synthesises them, and thus represents theonly document that tackles all aspects ofland use. It defines the Croatian Adriaticregion as a physically large unit ofpreserved biosphere and special values.Among the large number of directives itgives, the following are important for thecoastal region:

• the obligation to use the landrationally, to stop the urban spreadingto the most valuable coastal stretches,to carefully select locations formarinas, to assess the carryingcapacity of the environment,

• the need to transform the economy inorder to harmonise it with the specificfeatures of the coastal environment, topreserve the value of the agriculturalland, and to rehabilitate traditionalactivities,

• the increase of the areas of protectednature from 7.5% to 15% of the totalsurface area of the country, where alarge portion belongs to the coastalregion.

The document orders further research andenvisages the preparation of an integratedplan for the management of the coastalregion as a whole (respecting the alreadyadopted programme for the islands).

Apart from the above mentioned, otherdocuments have been prepared that, amongothers, deal with the development andprotection of coastal areas: DevelopmentStrategy of Croatian Agriculture, TrafficStrategy, National Programme ofProtection of the Cultural Heritage,Programme of Development andOrganisation of the Croatian EnergySector. The latest Report on the State of

the Environment in the Republic ofCroatia (1998) gives an accurate and wellorganised review of the state and processeswith relevant directives.

The Government of the Republic of Croatiahas launched the preparation of the Strategyof Future Development of the Republic ofCroatia. Also in course is the preparation ofthe Strategy of Environmental Protection.

At the local/county level, activities have beenintensified on the preparation of thephysical plans of the counties and otherdocuments dealing with coastal areas(Development Strategies have beencompleted for the counties of Primorje-Gorski kotar, and of Split-Dalmatia).

A comprehensive approach to the coastalstructure and the Croatian marineorientation has been greatly aided byvarious professional/scientific studies andthe published results of a number ofprofessional/scientific symposiums dealingwith the valuation of the Croatian part ofthe Mediterranean region, especially thenational parks and the islands.

A great contribution to the promotion ofthe idea of the integrated coastal areamanagement, and to the establishment ofits theoretic and practical frameworks wasprovided by the Priority Actions Programme,Regional Activity Centre, through its variousactivities and publications. A training courseorganised in February 1998 re-confirmedthe importance of physical planning incoastal areas, but also pointed at the under-developed management institutions andmechanisms.

Of particular importance is themethodological approach to the valuationof coastal resources applied in the projects(some implemented in international co-operation) for the Kvarner and Kaštela bays,the Cres-Lošinj islands, and therehabilitation programme for the Bakar bay(after the closing down of the coke plant),as well as in the preparation of thedocuments “Protection of the marine andcoastal strip of the County of Primorje-Gorski kotar” and “Management of the


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Public Marine Property of the County ofSplit-Dalmatia”. The main purpose of thoseactivities is the recognition of the naturaland man-made structure, and theclassification and evaluation of the coastalareas according to various criteria.

All the documents and activities point outthe well preserved, multifarious and high-quality natural environment of the Croatiancoast of the Adriatic which enables it tomeet various recreational, scientific, research,and similar interests. At the same time, it isan area of ever growing concentration ofpopulation and economic activities (especiallytourism). Therefore, the developmentconcepts and policies are oriented towardsconsolidation of the spatial development ofthe coastal region. Best suited for thatpurpose is a poli-centric development modeland a balanced distribution of developmentcapacities on the coast and in thehinterland. At that, it is necessary to protectthe valuable agricultural land, naturalcoastal forests (threatened by fires), andsecure coastal space for recreationalcomponents of tourism and activitiesfunctionally related to the sea.

Accents and priorities

The state intervention aimed at qualitativechanges in the economy, and atrehabilitation of devastated parts of thecoastal region brought considerable results,such as: improved traffic connections of thecoast and the islands with other parts ofCroatia and the rest of Europe, as well asimproved water-supply and sewerageinfrastructure; closing down of harmfulindustries in the Bakar bay and Šibenik;improved management of the nationalparks and preparations for physical plans ofthe natural parks; reconstruction ofsettlements and removal of otherconsequences of war destruction sufferedduring the year 1991, which particularlyregards the towns and cultural heritage ofthe southern part of the Croatian coast (themost outstanding example is Dubrovnikwith surroundings, where apart from wardamages, earthquake also struck).

The general policy of improvement ofenvironmental quality is implemented alsothrough activities of the Tourism Associationof Croatia, and by joining a Europeanproject of protection of the environmentand the sea promoted by the Foundation forEnvironmental Education Europe (FEEE), andthe Blue Flag programme which monitorsthe quality of the sea for bathing, and thelevel of equipment of beaches and marinas.

Increased interest in making good use of thecomparative advantages of the coastalregion brings about several issues:

• regulation of the sea use for aquacultureand construction of marinas;

• prevention of urban spreading along thecoastline, directing the new constructionto the existing urban zones, andinfrastructure equipment of the region;

• protection of the immediate coastal stripfrom building and securing public access;

• achieving optimum size of plots asopposed to the trend of making the lotswith the motivation of a higherexploitation of the coastal zones;

• prevention of environmental pollution;

• blocking all degradation processes in thelandscape, and

• prevention of illegal housing andmitigation of the effects of the one thatalready occurred.

III.2REGULATION OF URBANDEVELOPMENT

Processes and features of coastal urbanstructure

The litoralisation process of the Croatiancoastal region has not burdened the coastexcessively, and the population concentrationsare below the Mediterranean average. Themajority of coastal population lives on themainland part of the coast, while the islandsare far less populated.

The largest part of the engaged coastbelongs to the strong urban agglomerationsof the Kvarner bay and central Dalmatia


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where the effects are best visible ofpopulation immigration and concentrationof economic activities, primarily shipbuildingand harbour capacities. The Kaštela andBakar bays, and the town of Šibenik aredrastic examples of industrialisation bypolluting industries. Outside those areas,there is an almost continuous succession ofsettlements and smaller towns, interruptedonly by stretches of steep coast (such as thecoasts under the mountains of Velebit andBiokovo), with a tendency of furtherspreading along the coast.

The urban structure and planning indicatorsof the coastal towns were analysed in eachgeneration of urban plans, and it has beendone systematically for a majority ofCroatian towns, including the coastal ones.

The statements and conclusions areparticularly relevant for smaller and medium-size towns. The structure is dominated byhousing and isolated tourist zones whichparticipate in the total urban area with upto 50%, and, as a rule, contribute to thehigh percentage of green and recreation

areas. The density varies between 20 and 50inhabitants per ha, with the value growingwith the size of the town. The historic coresare mostly well preserved, as well as thecoastal stretches in their vicinity. New partsof towns, with primarily housing andbusiness purposes, are directed away fromthe sea, and the large tourist (hotel) andrecreational complexes are isolated from thetypical Mediterranean urban context.Individual building, motivated by the familytourism aspirations, follows the coastline,and when all the space is used up it spreadsto the coastal hinterland. The businesszones and harbours in larger towns sharethe coast with the town centres, whileindustry found itself surrounded by theurban body, often at the very coastline, onlyto be relocated to the outskirts at laterstages.

Development visions from the earlier urbanplans have been realised only in fragmentsand in a spatial discontinuity. That causedgreat difficulties in equipping the areas withurban infrastructure and services. But it


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produced some positive affects as well. A lotof free space remained, while a relativelyloose urban structure was formed,unburdened and adapted to the morphology,with considerable portion of green areas.Owing to the state ownership over the landin the previous system, the urban space wasnot burdened by urban rent interests and wasthus mostly saved from over-exploitationthrough new building. Private initiative wasprimarily oriented to the zones where it waspossible to buy land. Large areas of formerstate-owned agricultural land, particularlynumerous in Istria, hindered settlementspreading. However, the attractiveness ofthe small towns situated in the immediatehinterland has not yet been exploited andrepresents a barely recognised potential.

In spite of all the negative impacts of fasturbanisation and growing irregular buildingactivities it can be said that the towns of theCroatian coast have preserved their typicalenvironmental features. Today, that is bothadvantage and challenge.


The time of tourism stagnation due to the1991 war was used in the towns for re-construction of infrastructure, especially thesewerage systems, which resulted inconsiderable improvement of the sea waterquality in harbours and at the beaches, aswell as in a general improvement ofenvironmental quality. The results are evenmore impressive when we consider theoverall economic difficulties and lack offunds. With regard to the conservation ofhistoric areas, the dominant activity hasbeen the systematic work on the valuation,documentation, restoration and recovery ofthe built heritage of the towns damagedduring the war (Šibenik, Zadar, andespecially Dubrovnik).

The coastal towns are now living theprocesses of re-urbanisation, closing of non-efficient and highly polluting industries,property transformation of the principaltourist capacities, making up for thedeficient urban infrastructure, improvementof traffic connection, both via the sea and

with the hinterland, and a continuousimprovement of historic cores, where thelargest part regards the rehabilitation of thecultural monuments. Fortunately, theCroatian coastal towns, especially the smallones, have preserved sufficient traditionalelements to provide guarantees that theirenvironmental identity will be maintainedand improved.

III.3COASTAL MANAGEMENT TOOLS

Traditionally, physical plans were the mostpowerful tool of coastal area managementin Croatia. Although their implementationdid not always succeed in achieving theplanning goals, and sometimes those goalswere not in the function of optimalprotection and development of coastalareas, the physical plans have the greatestmerit for the fact that large parts of thecoastal region have remained wellpreserved.

On the other hand, absence of acomprehensive set of implementation tools,which, apart from physical plans, includesother possibilities of regulating constructionon the coast, resulted in the occurrence ofillegal construction. That phenomenon isparticularly pronounced in large urbanagglomerations along the coast, where itregards primarily the houses of urbanimmigrants, and at less populated stretchesoutside the urban agglomerations wheresettlements of leisure houses prevail. Thegreatest problem is represented by theabsence of integration of implementationinstruments of planned construction. Thus,for example, a house built without abuilding permit can, as a rule, getconnections to the electricity, water-supply,sewerage and telephone networks.Inspection services do not always show highefficiency in solving these problems. A resultis that some of the most valuable areasalong the coast are now highly threatened,and their value for some future purposesconsiderably reduced.

Land-use reports for the coastal counties areprepared at regular intervals, alwayspointing at the problem of illegal housing


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and suggesting measures for its solution.However, those measures are not alwaysapplied, and when so, not consequently.One of the reasons for such situation lies inthe fact that a radical solution would causeserious social problems, especially in urbanagglomerations. On the other hand, thecoastal administration does not alwaysapply efficient rehabilitation measures thatwould enable the inclusion of the illegalhousing into the physical plans, giving thepossibility of legalising the houses.

The protection of the coastal belt isregulated by instruments at several levels.First, there is the protection of the publicmarine property (a 6 m wide strip) wherestrict limitations are applied and which isentirely treated as state property. Building isallowed only exceptionally. Public marineproperty can only be used on the basis of aconcession granted for a limited period oftime. Although the implementation of theregulations on the public marine propertystarted only recently, it has alreadyprovoked controversy. The earlier law on theland-use planning included the obligation ofdefining a protected coastal strip 500 mwide. That instrument was used in thepreparation of detailed plans which werecompulsory for each construction withinthat strip. Since many plans have remainedin force, the provision on the protectedcoastal belt has remained in force in manyareas.

Integration of the environmental componentinto sectoral policies is still not widespread.Thus, for example, even if Croatia is a touristcountry, its tourism strategy still doesn'tinclude the definition of areas for more orless intensive tourism building. Accordingly,there is no policy of economic stimulation oftourism building in some zones aimed atimproving tourism activities in hithertoundeveloped areas. The situation is similarin other economic sectors. The onlyexception is the stimulation of building inthe areas that have to be reconstructedafter war destruction, but there are very fewsuch areas in the coastal region.

The use of economic instruments in thedevelopment of coastal areas has beenrather limited. Mostly, the traditionalinstruments are used, such as fees andcharges for certain resources. There is alsothe possibility of giving fines forenvironmental pollution, but these are notalways accompanied by adequate inspectionservice. The use of sophisticated instrumentsis still in its beginnings. Certain efforts aremade in order to define appropriate levelsof urban rent, but everything is still at thetheoretical level. The application of thepolluter-pays principle is also in itsbeginnings.

Spreading information on the state, qualityand value of the environment has startedonly recently. At that, an important role isplayed by NGOs. Unfortunately, their activityhas a campaign character, and the generalpublic notes it only in conflicting situations.An important role in public awarenessraising is played by the State Directorate forthe Protection of Nature and Environment,which implements a large number ofactivities.

At the planning level, a certain lagging isnoted in the development of the planningprofession and introduction of modern tools


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and techniques of coastal planning. Thatsituation can be attributed to the transitionprocesses in the society that encompassedplanning as well. Most of the large planninginstitutions which had important roles in thecoastal planning between the 1960s and80s, have disappeared. Most of the plannersare employed today in small companies thatsee their primary interest in surviving andremaining on the market, while smallpossibilities are left for the development ofplanning and management tools andtechniques. The situation is slowly stabilisingnow, and significant improvements areexpected in the immediate future.Somewhat better results can be observed inthe use of GIS for the needs of coastalplanning and management. Most of themunicipalities, and the state enterprisesmanaging the infrastructure, have digitisedtheir databases. There is, however, theproblem of Integration of those databases.

The application of EIA in assessing theenvironmental effects of individual projectsis obligatory. There is a large number ofcompanies and consultants specialised inapplying this tool, using the latest methods.The use of EIA has been regulated by thelaw on land-use planning and a special setof regulations. However, these make nodifference between the projects in thecoastal region and the others, which wouldrequire special consideration. The applicationof the Strategic Environmental Assessmentin the coastal area management has not yetbeen taken into consideration.

III.4ADMINISTRATIVE ANDINSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE

General and special institutionalframeworks for action

In the Republic of Croatia there are nospecial organisational or legal forms ofintegrated management of coastal areas.Specific tasks of coastal resources protectionand development orientation are performedwithin the State organisations and sectoraland other institutions. Protection of thenature and the environment, and land-use

planning are separated institutionally2. Itcan, therefore, be said that the regulationauthority, development planning andenvironmental protection authority aredispersed to several places and a largenumber of institutions, which createsproblems of co-ordination, and overlappingof activities, and calls for simplification ofthe procedures.

With regard to activity in the coastal region,the following ministries and Stateorganisations are important:

• Ministry of Physical Planning, Buildingand Housing for the tasks of monitoringthe processes going on in theenvironment, physical planning andimplementation of plans, as well asurban-planning and building inspections.

• State Directorate for the Protection ofNature and Environment acts in thedomain of protection of various segmentsof the environment, including inspectionand co-ordination of monitoring. TheDirectorate has a detached departmentsituated in Rijeka, the Office for theAdriatic.

• Ministry of Development andReconstruction prepares and managesthe State development programmes andrestoration processes. It is constituted ofvarious directorates, among which thereare the Directorate for RegionalDevelopment, and the Centre for theIslands.

• Ministry of Maritime Affairs, Transportand Communications performs, amongothers, the tasks relevant to themanagement of the marine property.

• Ministry of Culture – Directorate forthe Protection of Cultural Heritage actsin the domains of research, categorisationand protection measures. It has departments

2 Physical planning as an integrated approach todevelopment and environmental protection has beenlegally regulated in Croatia since 1973, immediatelyafter the Stockholm Conference. Since 1994, theenvironmental protection has been separated into aspecial domain with the relevant law.


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in Rijeka, Zadar and Šibenik, and is also incharge of the town conservationinstitutions in Dubrovnik and Split.

Within their mandates, other ministries alsoact in the coastal region: Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry, Ministry ofEconomy (comprises two important sectors:energy production and ship building), Ministryof Tourism, State Hydro-meteorologicalInstitute, State Hydrographic Institute inSplit, and various public enterprisesoperating within the sectors of waters,forests, roads, etc.

The State Assembly of Croatia (theParliament), as the highest representativebody in the country, has boards for land-useplanning and environmental protection,tourism, economy, and navigation, trafficand communications.

The documents relative to land-use planningand to environmental protection at theState level are evaluated by the StateCouncil for Land-Use Planning and theCouncil for the Environment.

The land-use planning system comprisesCounty Institutes for Land-Use Planningwhich are in charge of the preparation ofland-use plans at the county level, andOffices for Land-Use Planning whichimplement the plans. Within the units oflocal self-government there are departmentsin charge of land-use planning3.Environmental Protection and other sectorshave similar constitution.

Implementation system

Planning permission is a key act in theimplementation of plans, and is issued on

3 Within the right guaranteed by the Constitution onthe local self-government and government, and theLaw on Local Self-government and Government(“Narodne novine” official gazette of the Republicof Croatia, No. 90/92), the citizens decide, amongothers, on land-use planning, urban planning,arrangement of settlements, communal services,and on the protection and enhancement of theenvironment. Units of local self-government are thetowns and municipalities, while the local self-governments and governments are the counties.

the basis of land-use planning documentsand the opinion of the Directorate for theProtection of Nature and Environment,which bases its approval on environmentalimpact assessment, resulting from appropriatestudies, which are usually prepared after thelocation has been selected.

Interventions and concessions in the publicmarine property (made of at least 6 m widecoastal strip) are regulated by the MaritimeCode. When taking decisions, it is necessaryto secure harmonisation with physical plansand regulations on environmental protection.

The possibility of acquisition of property byeminent domain is regulated by the Law onEminent Domain, and applies only to thebuilding of objects of interest for the State.Lack of similar instruments at the local levelis a hindrance to achieving public intereston the coast.


The ever growing investment dynamics in thecoastal region can hardly be followed by theplanning, management and implementationsystems, while the rather complex procedureof providing the necessary documents is noteasily understood by investors and the unitsof local self-government.

The tasks of regional planning and localmanagement tasks relative to land-useplanning are performed in 7 counties. Thoseoffices offer professional help to towns andmunicipalities, but face great difficulties atthat, due to lack of qualified staff. Ofcourse, the situation is much better in largertowns where, apart from strong countyinstitutes there are also other institutions(universities, institutes, and offices).

In Croatia, the awareness is maturing of thefact that efficient management of coastalresources requires the introduction of aglobally promoted method of a strategic andnot partial approach to the environment.The optimism is fed by a highly developedscientific-professional basis, the everimproving forms of formal co-ordinationand informal co-operation among therelevant experts and institutions (withinCroatia and at international level).


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III.5ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTALORGANISATIONS IN COASTALAREA MANAGEMENT

First initiatives by non-governmentalorganisations aimed at environmentalprotection in Croatia appeared towards theend of the last and in the beginning of thiscentury, in the form of activities on theprotection of Croatian natural and culturalheritage. The first such association wasfounded in 1898 in Dubrovnik, called “Dub”with the objective to promote thedevelopment of Dubrovnik and itssurroundings. A little later, the Associationfor the Protection of Historic Heritage wasfounded, followed by a number of similarassociations in various coastal towns. Themost tangible result of the activity of thoseassociations was the proclamation of thefirst national parks in Croatia, the PlitviceLakes in 1914, and in 1928 Paklenica andsome other areas, but only by a law oflimited duration. Since 1969 particularlyactive has been the Croatian EcologicalAssociation, both in the scientific field andin raising environmental awareness.

In the late 1980s, there were 60-odd “greengroups”. Some of them even had politicalambitions. Later, new NGOs were founded,and today the most important is the naturefriends movement “Our Beautiful Homeland”(“Lijepa naša”), which is the NGO with thegreatest number of members and with thestrongest professional component, operatingin the whole of Croatia. In co-operation withthe Ministry of Education and Sports of theRepublic of Croatia, the Movement is tryingto revive and modernise the century-longtradition of environmental protection inCroatia.

At present, there are about 180 NGOs inCroatia, dealing with environmentalprotection. These have been mostly foundedin urban centres, but ever more often suchorganisations appear outside the towns,especially in the islands. The awareness andinterest of the general public has beenconstantly growing since the late 1980s,although the awareness of the importance

of the environment was present in theAdriatic region immediately after theStockholm Conference, on the basis ofwhich, the Project on EnvironmentalProtection in the Adriatic Region (ProjectAdriatic III) was launched in 1972, in co-operation with the United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP).

Four Conferences on the Protection of theAdriatic played an important role in theevolution of the public awareness on theneed for the protection of the Adriaticenvironment. The Conferences also stimulatedlaunching of various appropriate activities,such as construction of sewerage systemsand waste water treatment plants in thecoastal region. The basic recommendationof the Conferences is that it should beabstained from building plants andintroducing technologies that could seriouslythreaten the Adriatic region, so, uponactions taken by local authorities, investorsrenounced to the construction of severalsuch plants (thermo-nuclear power plant,factory of magnesite sinter, thermo-electricpower plant). For the chemical industry atOmišalj in the island of Krk, protectionmeasures were applied, and environmentalimpact monitoring has been performedcontinuously for 12 years.

Access to information on theenvironment, and public participation

The Law on the Protection of theEnvironment of the Republic of Croatia(“Narodne novine” No. 82/94) defines thatthe basic aims of environmental protectionare achieved, among others, by informingthe general public on the state of theenvironment, and by its participation in theenvironmental protection. The Law alsoorders that the general public has to beinformed in good time, and periodically, onany case when the prescribed limits ofenvironmental pollution have been exceeded.

Efficient access to information on theenvironment requires the establishment of aclear system of regulations, which shouldprovide procedural and institutionalguarantees and appropriate application


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programmes. Therefore, the Republic ofCroatia has actively participated in thepreparation of the Convention on Accessto Information, Public Participation inDecision Making and Access to Justice inEnvironmental Matters which particularlystresses the importance of a free access ofthe general public to the information on theenvironment, with appropriate inclusion ofNGOs.

III.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTASSESSMENT

In the Republic of Croatia, environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) is an integral partof pre-investment activities for the projectsthat could cause considerable environmentaldamage, and the Law on Physical Planningand Land-Use Management of 1980,introduced the obligation of performingthat procedure. The new Act onEnvironmental Impact Assessment wasprepared on the basis of the Law on theEnvironmental Protection.

Land-use management and environmental

protection policy has been implemented inthe Republic of Croatia for a relatively longtime now. Already in the period between1966 and 1978, projects of land-usemanagement and environmental protectionof the Adriatic region were implemented inco-operation with the United NationsDevelopment Programme. Those projectsintroduced EIA already in mid-70s, when theconstruction started of large industrialplants on the coast, and the preparation ofEIA was not regulated legally.

The name EIA appears in the Law on PhysicalPlanning and Land-Use Management whichobliged the investors into projects that, bytheir existence, construction or operationcould damage the value of the environment,to prepare environmental impactassessments. The contents of EIA weredefined in the appropriate Regulations,adopted in 1984.

Since it become legal obligation, some 200EIAs have been prepared in Croatia,regarding large-scale infrastructure works(roads of higher order, electricity supply


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systems, gas lines), hydro-electric andthermo-electric power plants, industrialplants, and marinas.

The initial opposition of the investors, dueto the increased investment costs andlonger preparatory activities, grew intoacceptance of the legal obligation, since theresults of EIA application showed that atimely and well planned investment intoenvironmental protection measures wasmore rational and financially justifiable thanrecovery of devastated environment.

III.7 IMPLEMENTATION OFMANAGEMENT PLANS

In this phase, Croatia is making inventoriesof state and re-considers the earlierconcepts in all fields of activity. Owing to itsgreat value and increasing interest itattracts, the Adriatic coastal region is in thecentre of attention.

Achievement of relevant goals andevaluation of coastal area managementresults can partly be interpreted through theimplementation of physical plans. So, forexample, the Physical Plan of Croatia hasbeen implemented rather consequently withregard to large infrastructure and protectedareas. Directives for the use and protectionof other areas (including the protection anduse of the sea) were implemented withvariable effects on the local plans, especiallywith regard to the land use.

In the physical plans of the (former)municipalities, for example, islands wereconsidered as planning and managemententities, as their territories equalled those ofthe corresponding municipalities. Now, theislands are divided in several smallermunicipalities and towns, and each of themshould, in theory, have its own plan. Thismay cause difficulties in the management oftheir environment. Therefore, recommendationwas made to treat an island as a planningentity, or at least that common criteria bedefined for environmental planning andmanagement.

The physical plans of the national parks arethe most consequently implemented of all

such plans, including a well organisedinternal management system. Problems regardthe satisfaction of the needs of the populationof the local settlements, and the tendencytowards larger tourist accommodationcapacities within the borders of the parks.

Land-use plans of settlements (general anddetailed) were mostly based upon acomprehensive approach to planning ofurban systems (although often tooambitiously), but showed considerabledivergence in the implementation.

The Physical Plan of Croatia defines theminimum width of immediate coastal stripof 21 m. The local-level plans containedmore detailed regulations, but due to a lackof common criteria, those were quitedifferent from one area to another. Thosemeasures failed to produce any significantresults, since the fact that the building wasmoved away from the coastline did notautomatically secure public access to thecoast, nor was the coast arranged forrecreational or other purposes.

All documents in force contain regulationson the protection of the natural coast andon the rational land use, directingdevelopment activities to the hinterland.This tendency is often challenged at the locallevel where individual interests motivated byquick profit collide with long-term interestsand principles of sustainable development.

Preliminary results for counties show thatbuilding areas take approximately 30% ofthe coastline. The assessment for the entirecoast are in the region of 1,000 km (20%).

The insular part of the region participateswith most of the total length of thecoastline, but the percentage of the buildingzones on the islands is much lower than onthe mainland. Thus, the islands representthe best preserved environment with thelargest share of free, mostly natural coast. Itis estimated that since the 1960s, when theintensive building started, the landoccupation on the coast has increased 5times. In some coastal municipalities andtowns on the mainland the building zones


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cover almost the total length of thecoastline, and are almost fully developed.

Tourist complexes outside the settlements,planned, built, and acting as separatemanagement entities, have secured necessarydistance from the shoreline, appropriateinfrastructure, and controlled bathing andrecreation areas, much better than zones forindividual building. However, with respectto the plans, about 50% of the areas haveremained unrealised.

Although marinas in general represent highquality solutions, they have unfortunately,rather often and without particular reasons,occupied the most valuable parts of bays.

Spatial and functional dispersion of thelarge traffic systems such as the HarboursSystem of Rijeka (composed of 4 spatiallyseparated units) suits the types of Croatiancoast, especially where there are highconcentrations of economic activities andlimited space.

Small towns in the immediate hinterlandhave been almost completely ignored by theinvestors although the plans included themin the overall development scheme. Recentinitiatives in Istria and islands for therehabilitation of small urban centres,vineyards, and traditional activities, with astrong stress on ecological orientationsound promising.


A stronger impetus of the coastal economyis yet to come. At present, a general reductionof harbour traffic together with the generalreduction of economic activities havebeneficial effects on the environment.However, that diminishes the financialpotentials of the community which alsoreduces the potentials for effective resourcemanagement.

In the coastal region, building of smallfamily units for tourism became thedominant form, which is, in principle, anacceptable and generally supported model.However, the management system is notsufficiently prepared to cope with suchinitiatives when they turned into a mass

phenomenon. Today, it is necessary tointroduce a strict control of buildingthrough a reduction of building areas,especially if infrastructure and other serviceshave not been provided. A large degree ofillegal building in the areas where building ispossible confirms the slow reaction of themanagement system.

The ideas expressed in the new fundamentaldocuments are already being implemented,which particularly refers to the Strategy ofLand-Use Planning. It is expected that theapplication will soon start of the results ofnew studies performed for the purposes ofcoastal area management following themethods promoted within internationalactivities and conventions on theMediterranean4. The central issue of the newgeneration of development documents isobjective valuation of the resources and theestablishment of measurable valuecategories. It is estimated that the physicalplans of the counties, as a new (regional)planning form, will play an important role insetting criteria for the use of coastalresources, and in the creation of a basis forthe management of ecological andfunctional entities which surpass the locallevel. It is already certain that it will not beenough unless appropriate instruments aredeveloped, such as rents and taxes relativeto the attractivity of sites and the status ofland, and unless active forms of action areadopted, such as programmes, stimulation,directives, subsidies, etc.

III.8 INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

The international co-operation aimed atenvironmental protection and land-useplanning of the Adriatic region started inmid-1960s through the environmentalprotection projects for the Southern andUpper Adriatic, implemented with the helpof the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP).

4 The analytical part of the State Strategy of Land-UsePlanning, the National Report on the Implementationof the Agenda 21 (1997), and the latest Report on theState of the Environment in the Republic of Croatia.


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The principal activities in the Adriatic aimedat environmental protection with internationalco-operation are implemented within theMediterranean Action Plan of the UnitedNations Environment Programme (MAP-UNEP), and its centres, all within theBarcelona Convention for the Protection ofthe Mediterranean Sea against Pollution(1976, 1996) and the related Protocols: TheProtocol for the Prevention of Pollution ofthe Mediterranean Sea by Dumping fromShips and Aircrafts; The Protocol ConcerningCo-operation in Combating Pollution of theMediterranean Sea by Oil and Other HarmfulSubstances in Cases of Emergency; The Protocolfor the Protection of the Mediterranean Seaagainst Land-based Sources; The ProtocolConcerning Mediterranean Specially ProtectedAreas; The Protocol for the Protection of theMediterranean Sea against PollutionResulting from Exploration of theContinental Shelf and the Seabed and itsSubsoil; and The Protocol on the Prevention ofPollution of the Mediterranean Sea Resultingfrom the Transboundary Movement ofHazardous Wastes and their Disposal.

Croatia hosts the Regional Activity Centrefor the Priority Actions Programme, whichahs been acting for almost 20 years withinthe Mediterranean Action Plan-UNEP. Theprincipal activity of the Centre is integratedplanning and management of coastal areas.The Centre has developed intensive andfruitful co-operation with all of theMediterranean countries and theirgovernmental and non-governmentalinstitutions, through organisation ofseminars, workshops, conferences and trainingcourses, as well as through exchange ofexperts. Special stress has been placed atthe implementation of the MAP CoastalArea Management Programme. Particularlygood co-operation has been established withthe Regional Marine Pollution EmergencyResponse Centre for the Mediterranean Sea(REMPEC), situated in Malta.

Croatia actively participates in the work ofother UNEP-MAP bodies, such as theCommission for Sustainable development,and is also signatory of the Agenda 21 forthe Mediterranean.


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The Mediterranean Technical AssistanceProgramme (METAP), which is implementedby the World Bank, European InvestmentBank, European Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment and UNDP, financed severalstudies aimed at resolving importantproblems of environmental protection(waste waters, solid waste, environmentalmanagement).

The Croatian Ministry of Maritime Affairs,Transport and Communications, and theharbour authorities co-operate with IMO inthe implementation of a number ofinternational conventions: InternationalConvention on Prevention of Pollution fromShips (1973), with the relevant Protocol of1978, called MARPOL (1973, 1978);Convention on the Prevention of Pollution ofthe Sea by Dumping, the London“Dumping” convention of 1972; Conventionon the Responsibility for Transport of HarmfulSubstances by Sea (1990); InternationalConvention on the Preparedness, Action andCo-operation in Cases of Pollution by Oil(1990), the 1992 Protocol on amendmentsto the International Convention on theEstablishment of an International Fund forCompensation for Damages Caused by OilSpill (1971).

In the year 1974, co-operation on theprotection of the Adriatic was established inthe form of a joint Croatian-Italian-Slovenian Commission for the Protection ofthe Adriatic. The Commission acts throughvarious working groups: co-operation andjoint activities in cases of accidentalpollution of the Adriatic Sea; separatenavigation system, i.e. establishment ofnavigation routes; Master Plan of theAdriatic; monitoring of the state of theAdriatic and its protection.

Croatia participates in the activities of theEuropean Association for sustainableDevelopment of Islands “INSULA”, in theproject “GILDA”, an initiative for economicand ecological co-operation of Croatia, Italy,Slovenia, Albania, Greece and Austria(countries of the Adriatic basin) with regardto the passenger and goods traffic in theAdriatic Sea.

We should also point out the participationin the work of the Committee for theEnvironmental Protection Policy of theUnited Nations Economic Commission forEurope (UN/ECE), and in the process“Environment for Europe” within thepreparations for the Conference ofEuropean Ministers of EnvironmentalProtection (Luzern - 1992, Sofia - 1995,Aarhus - 1998), as well as the co-operationwith the European Environmental Agencyon the preparation of the Report on theState of Environment in Europe (DobrisAssessment).

Of particular importance are the activitieson the implementation of the UNconventions: the Framework Convention onClimate Change, the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and therelated protocols, the Convention onEnvironmental Impact Assessment in aTransboundary Context, and the Conventionon the Protection and Use of TransboundaryWatercourses and International lakes, aswell as in the preparation of the Conventionon the Access to Information, PublicParticipation in Decision-making processes,and Achieving Legal Protection inEnvironmental Issues.

Co-operation has also been established withthe Foundation for Environmental EducationEurope (FEEE), and the Blue Flag programmefor beaches and marinas.

III.9EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFULCOASTAL MANAGEMENTPROJECTS

Cres-Lošinj Archipelago

The purpose of the proposed managementplan for the Cres-Lošinj archipelago is todesign an operational instrument for theprotection of the natural, cultural andhistoric resources. The objective of this draftmanagement plan is to provide guidelinesto decision-makers at the state andmunicipality levels for the conservation ofthe vitally important and irreplaceable eco-systems, and the cultural resources, whilecontributing to the realisation of an


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ecologically and economically sustainabledevelopment for the benefit of the localpopulation.

The plan studies technical, institutional,protection, social and economic aspects ofthe Cres-Lošinj archipelago protection. Itprincipal aims are:

a) Protection and management of the eco-systems and habitats of the area, as wellas its flora and fauna;

b) Protection and management of the naturalresources (water, soil, biological) andcultural heritage in the context ofsustainable multiple goals. Thisunderstands a synthesis of the bio-diversity protection with the needs of thegrowing population and the relatedtourism, urban and agriculturaldevelopment; and

c) Evaluation of similar development plansfrom the point of view of environmentalprotection and sustainable development.This includes a critical assessment of theireconomic viability, effects on the societyand on the environment.

The plan provides the implementationframework, and launches a process that allthe interested parties will be able to join. Italso proposes to the authorities a practicalstrategy, a technical methodology and aflexible approach to the existing institutionalarrangements, in order to secure sustainabledevelopment and the protection of thenatural and cultural heritage of the area andits surroundings. The management planoutlines measures for the protection ofthose areas, as well as appropriatemanagement measures. The plan is currentlyin implementation.

Kaštela Bay

The area of the Kaštela bay, in the vicinity ofSplit, was one of the largest "hot spots" inCroatia. In the period after the 2nd WorldWar, as a consequence of the then currentpolicy of intensive industrialisation, a numberof large industries developed around thebeautiful, semi-enclosed bay. Such industrialdevelopment brought about intensive

urbanisation and immigration into the townof Split. Uncontrolled discharging ofuntreated waste waters, both industrial andurban, into the bay caused intensivedegrading of the bay's eco-systems.

In mid 1980s, an initiative was launched torehabilitate the state of the bay. Partners inthat activity were the local communities, theUniversity of split, a large number ofscientific institutions and experts. A nationalprogramme of bay rehabilitation wasinitiated, supported by UNEP, MAP and PAP,and very soon support was offered by theMETAP programme implemented by theWorld bank. The common action and jointfinancing by all the partners resulted in alarge number of basic studies, and thefundamental programme of the protectionand rehabilitation of the bay. Thatprogramme served for the preparation ofthe "Integrated Programme of theConstruction of the Kaštela Bay SewerageSystem", which was supported by the WorldBank and European Bank for Reconstructionand Development. Activities on theimplementation of the plan were sloweddown in early 1990s by the war in Croatia,but regained impetus after the war ended.The banks have granted the loans, and thebeginning of works on the construction ofthe sewerage network is expected soon.

A special agency has been established forthe implementation of the project whichgives it special importance. The agencyenjoys support and guarantees of the fourinterested municipalities, and of theGovernment of the Republic of Croatia. Ithas to be pointed out that the project wasconceived on a commercial basis, and thatthe feasibility study showed that the loanscan be paid back without any statesubventions, but only from the profit gainedfrom the water prices. The project alsoenjoys support from the majority of thelocal population which offers additionalguarantee for success.

Even on the Mediterranean scale this projectcan be considered as one of the mostsuccessfully examples of projects where the


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initial action of the local and internationalpartners was followed by projectimplementation through considerableengagement of both international and localsources of financing.

The State Directorate for the Protection of Natureand Environment is a governmental body incharge of environment of the Republic of Croatia,considered to be its principal developmentresource. As an independent body, it isresponsible for the implementation of laws,formulation of regulations for their application,surveillance, and other administrative andprofessional tasks relative to the generalenvironmental protection policy aimed atcreating favourable conditions for achievingsustainable development; protection of the air,soils, waters, sea, flora and fauna, bearing inmind the totality of their interactions; proposing,promoting and monitoring measures aimed atimproving environmental protection.

Within the State Directorate for the Protection ofNature and Environment there is a special officefor the sea, which has the main task to protectthe sea, and the coastal and insular areas of theRepublic of Croatia.

? opportunity to consider and reassess programme ... · pdf filelegal framework, principal...

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