1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

4. [S John tends [VP' to shout]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

4. [S John tends [VP' to shout]]

6. [S John [VP' was killed]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

4. [S John tends [VP' to shout]]

6. [S John [VP' was killed]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

How does LFG capture

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

4. [S John tends [VP' to shout]]

6. [S John [VP' was killed]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

How does LFG capture•the difference between 1 and 2,

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

4. [S John tends [VP' to shout]]

6. [S John [VP' was killed]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

How does LFG capture•the difference between 1 and 2,•the non-argument status of the subject of 4,

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

4. [S John tends [VP' to shout]]

6. [S John [VP' was killed]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

How does LFG capture•the difference between 1 and 2,•the non-argument status of the subject of 4,•and the semantic role of the subject of 6?

1. [S I forced him [S PRO to be kind]]

2. [S I believed [S him to be kind]]

3. [S NP seems [S John to shout]]

4. [S NP tends [S John to shout]]

5. [S Bill [VP killed John]]

6. [S NP [VP was killed John]]

1. [S I forced him [VP' to be kind]]

2. [S I believed him [VP' to be kind]]

4. [S John tends [VP' to shout]]

6. [S John [VP' was killed]]

Phrase structure analyses in Lexical Functional Grammar:

Phrase structure analyses in traditional transformational grammar:

How does LFG capture•the difference between 1 and 2,•the non-argument status of the subject of 4,•and the semantic role of the subject of 6?

Answer: Don’t operate on the trees,but annotate them with relevant informationabout syntactic functions and semantic arguments.

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

AP

to

V

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

AP

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

believed

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to V

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

believed

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

tends

shout

VP'

TO VP

V

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

believed

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

tends

shout

VP'

TO VP

V

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

was

Bill

VP

V PP

NP

killed

by P

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

believed

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

tends

shout

VP'

TO VP

V

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

was

Bill

VP

V PP

NP

killed

by P

INF

’FORCE ‹SUBJ OBJ XCOMP›’PRET

XCOMPOBJ

SUBJ

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

believed

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

tends

shout

VP'

TO VP

V

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

was

Bill

VP

V PP

NP

killed

by P

INFINF

XCOMPOBJ

SUBJ

’FORCE ‹SUBJ OBJ XCOMP›’PRET

XCOMPOBJ

SUBJ

PRETBELIEVE ‹SUBJ XCOMP› OBJ’

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

believed

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

tends

shout

VP'

TO VP

V

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

was

Bill

VP

V PP

NP

killed

by P

PRES

SUBJINF

INF

XCOMP

INF

XCOMPOBJ

SUBJ

’FORCE ‹SUBJ OBJ XCOMP›’PRET

XCOMPOBJ

SUBJ

TEND ‹XCOMP› SUBJ’

PRETBELIEVE ‹SUBJ XCOMP› OBJ’

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

forced

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V NP

S

NP

I

believed

kindbe

him

VP'

TO VP

V AP

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

tends

shout

VP'

TO VP

V

to

VP

V

S

NP

John

was

Bill

VP

V PP

NP

killed

by P

PRES

SUBJINF

INF

OBLag

XCOMP

INF

SUBJ

XCOMPOBJ

SUBJ

’FORCE ‹SUBJ OBJ XCOMP›’PRET

XCOMPOBJ

SUBJ

TEND ‹XCOMP› SUBJ’

PRET

KILL ‹OBLag SUBJ›’

BELIEVE ‹SUBJ XCOMP› OBJ’

The functional information in the annotations

is represented in a separate functional structure

(f-structure), in the form of an attribute-value graph:

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pret

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pretf1 (SUBJ) = f2

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pretf1 (SUBJ) = f2f2 (CASE) = nom

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pretf1 (SUBJ) = f2f2 (CASE) = nomf1 (SUBJ)(CASE) = nom

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pretf1 (SUBJ) = f2f2 (CASE) = nomf1 (SUBJ)(CASE) = nom

f2

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pretf1 (SUBJ) = f2f2 (CASE) = nomf1 (SUBJ)(CASE) = nom

f2

Alternative notation:

(f1 TENSE) = pret(f1 SUBJ) = f2(f2 CASE) = nom(f1 SUBJ CASE) = nom

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pretf1 (SUBJ) = f2f2 (CASE) = nomf1 (SUBJ)(CASE) = nom

f2

Alternative notation:

(f1 TENSE) = pret(f1 SUBJ) = f2(f2 CASE) = nom(f1 SUBJ CASE) = nom

(f1 OBJ) = (f1 XCOMP SUBJ)

SUBJPRED ’I’CASE nom

TENSE pret

OBJ

PRED ’HE’CASE oblNUM sg

XCOMPSUBJPRED ’LEAVE‹ SUBJ › ’

PRED ’FORCE‹ SUBJ OBJ XCOMP ›’

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1 f2

f5

f6

Describing parts of the structureby means of equations

f1 (TENSE) = pretf1 (SUBJ) = f2f2 (CASE) = nomf1 (SUBJ)(CASE) = nom

f2

Alternative notation:

(f1 TENSE) = pret(f1 SUBJ) = f2(f2 CASE) = nom(f1 SUBJ CASE) = nom

(f1 OBJ) = (f1 XCOMP SUBJ)

How to incorporatef-structure information

into a grammar

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

Index the c-structure nodes

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3f4

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3f4 (f3 OBJ)

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3f4 (f3 OBJ)f5

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3f4 (f3 OBJ)f5 (f3 XCOMP)

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3f4 (f3 OBJ)f5 (f3 XCOMP)f6

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP:3

V:4 NP:5

S:1

NP:2I

forced himVP':6

to leave(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3f4 (f3 OBJ)f5 (f3 XCOMP)f6

Instantiate the metavariables:Replace them with f-structurevariables based on the node indices.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2 f1f3

f3f4 (f3 OBJ)f5 (f3 XCOMP)f6

The tree has done its job:Forget it.

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

Collect the instantiated equationsinto an f-description

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

Solve the equations in any orderto constuct an f-structure

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

F-structure for I forced him to leave

Solve the equations in any orderto constuct an f-structure

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

F-structure for I forced him to leave

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f3

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f3

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f3

f4

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f3

f4

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f5

f3

f4

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

XCOMP

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

XCOMP

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

XCOMP

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

XCOMP

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

XCOMP

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

XCOMP

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

OBJ

XCOMP

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

(f4 PRED) = 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'(f4 TENSE) = pret(f4 OBJ) = (f4 XCOMP SUBJ)

(f1 SUBJ)f2f1f3f3f4(f3 OBJ)f5(f3 XCOMP)f6

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

F-structure for I forced him to leave

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

Notice: The f-structure hasfewer levels than the c-structurebecause of the nodes annotatedwith =↓

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

The relation is called a projection relation.

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

The nodes in the tree and the elements of the f-structurenow stand in a many-to-one relation:

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

The relation is called a projection relation.A set of nodes which project the same f-structureare said to constitute a functional domain.

A functional domain

Let us now move from

I forced him to leave

to

I believed him to leave

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

forced: ( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP

V NP

S

NPI

forced himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = 'FORCE‹( SUBJ)( OBJ)( XCOMP)›'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

All we need to change is the lexical entry:

S -> NP VP

VP -> V (NP) (VP')

believed: ( PRED) = ’BELIEVE‹( SUBJ) ( XCOMP)›( OBJ)'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

VP

V NP

S

NPI

believed himVP'

to leave

( SUBJ)

( OBJ)

( XCOMP)

( PRED) = ’BELIEVE‹( SUBJ) ( XCOMP)›( OBJ)'( TENSE) = pret( OBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)

All we need to change is the lexical entry:

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED 'FORCE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 OBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›'

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

This leads to the following change in the f-structure:

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED ’BELIEVE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›(f4 OBJ)'

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

This leads to the following change in the f-structure:

SUBJ

TENSE pret

OBJ

XCOMP SUBJ

PRED ’BELIEVE‹(f4 SUBJ)(f4 XCOMP)›(f4 OBJ)'

f1f2

f6

f3

f4

f5

This leads to the following change in the f-structure:

The only change is in the mapping between syntactic functionsand argument positions, as expressed in the value of PRED.The syntax as such is unchanged.