CHAPTER 1: THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE

INTRODUCTIONAlthough this class is an AP class, or simply a Gifted/Honors World History class, passing an exam is not the only objective. Learning for learning’s sake is also the goal. This class has many remarkable and awe inspiring things to teach you, from the wonders of the Ice Age to the perils of Global Warming. From the horrors of Genghis Khan to the beautiful sights and sounds of Buddhism. Thus, I will try to balance the needs and requirerements of the AP test with all of the other marvelous and brilliant spectatctles of the world.

This class is not so much about history as it is about today, with an emphasis on how and why it got that way. For it is virtually impossible to understand the world today without studying and analyzing the various cultural, religious, economic and social charcteristics that helped us get here. We must stand on the shoulders of giants all of us.

Finally, woe to the man or woman who does not study the past, for the old adage is in fact true: “History repeats itself!” Don’t be that person.

Do you want to see the results of an uneducated population:1. 50% of Americans don’t believe in Global Warming.2. Over 70% of America’s inmates cannot read above a 4th grade level.3. 86% of college graduates did not know that the ‘Emancipation Proclamation’ freed the

slaves.4. 50% of college graduates did not know we have 3 branches of government5. 10% of college graduates think judge judy is on the Supreme Court6. THE WORST STATISTIC: 50% of Americans DON’T EVEN VOTE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

So u see, this class is more than just an AP or World History class.

PART 1: THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSEThe question of how the universe began has been plaguing humankind since beginningless time. Humanity has difficulty addressing and understanding the concept of infinity. They like to see the world in finite terms, with a beginning and an end. Yet, energy can neither be created nor destroyed. How do u explain that?!

Science has a consensus (agreement) regarding exactly how the present universe mathematically and physically came into being; the Big Bang. More on that down below. What lies outside the known universe, however, or how this process is even possible, should be left to the little philosopher inside each of us. Good luck!

SPACE FACT #1: Did u know that the faster you go the slower time passes?! If you were to travel the speed of light to the next star, Alpha Centuari 4 light years away, you would get back in just a few months but everyone on earth would have aged 200 years!!!!!!!!!!

SPACE FACT #2: The heavier elements in your body; iron, magnesium, even carbon, could only be made in the nuceli of starts. Same thing goes for really heavy elements like gold, platinum and plutonium. We are all of us literally stardust!

SPACE FACT #3: Black holes are formed when starts about 1,000,000 times as big as our sun collapses in on themselves. The ‘hole’ created is so string that not even light can escape. So where dopes it go, and why does every galaxy seem to have a black hole in the center, including our very won Milky Way?

SPACE FACT #4: Do u believe that life exists elsewhere in the universe? Did u know that we can see 100,000,000,000 galaxies and that eachgalaxy has 100,000,000,000 stars? By the way, how does NASA determine if a star has planets when they are so far away and planets don’t make their own light?

TIME-LINEThis universe is roughly 13 billion years old. How do we know that? Because the Hubble Telescope way up in space can see the oldest light and the oldest radiation in the universe.

13 billion years ago: The universe as we know it was purported to have been created by the Big Bang; a massive explosion. Originally, the theory goes, the universe was a single point, containing all the energy and matter that we have today, and immediately expanded into the 13 billion light year journey we see before us. It took 100,000 years for the energy and matter to cool enough to form atoms and electrons. Galaxies did not begin to form for another billion years and the Milky Way did not form for a couple of billion years after that. Finally, 13 billion years later we get Starbucks.

4.5 billion years ago: The planet Earth was created. At first, it was extremely hot and volcanic with only minimal oxygen and no life to speak of, not even bacteria. The volcanoes and lava of the earth were forming the land while the atmosphere was not suitable for plants or animals. There wasn’t even ough oxygen to support microorganisms.

4,000,000,000 years ago: The moon broke off of the Earth when a meteor hit us. We find out it is made of cheese! Scientists hope to find liquid water on 2 of Jupiter’s moons and one of Saturn’s: Ganymede and Titan, and also Europa. Actually, Europa is our best hope of finding water in the solar system and we will be sending a probe up there in the year 2020. This will be a huge leap for humankind and I can’t wait!

1,000,000,000 years ago: Oxygen and the first single celled organisms appear. Bacteria follow. The planet is still too hot for any major life, unfortunately. Scientists belive that many of the elements neceessay for life, like water or oxygen, may have come here on asteroids and emteros from within or outside of the solar system.

650,000,000 years ago: The first fish and the first worms appear (Also Freshmen). Amphibians and reptiles follow. (Did u know that sharks and crocodile are pre-historic, meaning that they were around 500 million years ago?)

350 million years ago: The first dinosaurs appear. (should we clone them?)

65 million years ago: The dinosaurs are wiped out when a giant meteor wipes hits the Earth in present day Mexico. The resulting ash blocks out the sun killing all the plants and as a result the meat-eaters as well. Cockroaches survive!

7 million years ago: The closest relative to modern day humans appears. The age of homo-sapiens is upon us. Humans keep evolving and about 400,000 years ago Neanderthals appear (also called Cave-men).

2.5 million years ago: We start using tools. That’s why it’s called ……..THE STONE AGE!!!!!!!!!!!!! It is also known as THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD (Paleo comes from the Greek and means ‘ancient’) THIS IS AN AP VOCAB WORD!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

500,000 years ago: we discover fire.

250,000 years ago : modern humans appear.

WE ALL LEAVE AFRICA100,000 years ago: Archaeological evidence tells us that humans leave East Africa. In fact, all human ancestors come from Africa. How do we know that? Because that’s where every single one of the oldest human skeletons were found. Humans then begin their migration to the rest of the planet.- To the Middle East 100,000 years ago- To Asia 70,000 years ago- To Europe 40,000 years ago- To America 30,000 years ago- To south America 15,000 years ago- And to the Pacific islands about 3,000 years ago

60,000 years ago: modern homo-sapiens (humans) kill off all the Neanderthals. Can U think of why______________________

30,000 years ago: The first cave paintings are found in France. They are about men, women and animals. This is really the first proof of culture or art.

20,000 years ago: We start to make clothes (Soon we will have Hollister, the Gap and sagging pants!)

AP NOTES: BIG GEOGRAPHY

The term ‘Big Geography’ refers to the global nature of world history, how the whole world is just one big place and that we’re all interconnected!

P.S. You’ll notice that the notes use a lot of AP language . This is very important cuz the AP Exam uses its own verbage and it’s own phrases. Bing able to read and understand them is thus VERY important.

During the Stone Age (the Paleolithic Period) people lived in very small groups (maybe 20-25 people) that structured all social, political activity. These bands of people also exchanged people, ideas and goods.

Humans also developed increasingly diverse and sophisticated tools- including the use of fire- as they adapted to new environments. Basically, as people moved into colder, or warmer, environments, they made new tools to deal with them. Whether it was tropical jungle, cold tundra, grassy savannah, or even desert, humans were mobile and had to adapt to the changing environments. Fire is a great example of this. What is fire used for: Creating warmth, scaring off animals, making smores 100,000 – 10,000 YEARS AGO (THE ICE AGE): The world is in the middle of an ice age where creatures like the wooly mammoth and saber-toothed tiger roam. Half of the planet is covered in snow and ice. THIS ICE-AGE ONLY ENDS ABOUT 10,000 YEARS AGO!!!!!

Most people were hunter-gatherers. That is, they either looked for, or hunted for, food. Eventually we will get kingdoms and pastoralists or nomads, but not yet. There are no farms, there are no cities and there are definitely no empires yet. This is all thus PRE-HISTORY!!

In addition, men and women were basically treated equally because EVERYONE had to work together to look for food, whether that be hunting meat or gathering fruit and berries. This of course all changes when the ice melts and we become a PATRIARCHAL planet. Men start to assert control and never really let it go. Or do they?

1. Groups were very small. Only 20-25 people called KINSHIP GROUPS Why do you think groups were so small?

_____________________________________

2. Life expectancy was only 30 years old. Why do you think that is?_____________________________________

3. Today, women live 4 years longer than men. Why do you think that is?

FUN FACTS:- Did you know that primates (Gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans) and humans are 98%

genetically identical!

2002: A human like skull is found in Chad, Africa. It is 7,000,000 years old and is nicknamed Toumai (meaning “hope of life” in the local dialect). It is mostly primate but starts to look human.

1974: The first upright skeleton is found in Ethiopia. It is named “Lucy” after the Beatles song, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. It is about 4 feet tall, a female, and walks on 2 legs. This is a major transition from primate to modern humans.

o Definition: Hominid: beings that walk upright, on 2 legs. From this point forward scientists keep finding species that have some traits of primates and some of modern humans.

A WORD ABOUT EVOLUTIONFor those of you who question the scientific foundation of evolution it is imperative that you use only scientific reasoning in your arguments. In this class, and in life in general, it is not sufficient to simply say “Because I said so”. We must be logical, we must be accurate and we must be open to new ideas.

Not only are we 96%-98% genetically identical to primates but evolution is actually happening all around us. For example, do you know why the HIV virus is hard to kill? Because it keep evolving. It reproduces so quickly that each new generation has an immunity to a drug we just created. That’s why people with AIDS have to take many different drugs ta the same time, to account for all of these genetic mutations.

This has been going on for a long time. In fact, our tailbones are called vestigial structures because they serve no purpose and yet are left over from ancient animals. So are our appendixes which are absolutely useless. Actually, we have even found whales with legs from 500 million years ago (have u ever seen one running a marathon?). They then evolved for life in the sea out of necessity and natural selection!! And there are many more examples we’ll look at in class. Natural selection is the idea that only the strongest will survive and so only those genes that are helpful will be passed down to future generations. This was first reported by Charles Darwin in his book “Origin of Species”.

We can look at humans in 2017 as well:1. It seems that people who live way up in the mountains, like the Incas in the Andes

or the Tibetans in the Himalayas, have a genetic mutation that allowed their red blood cells to carry more oxygen.

2. Did you know that desert-dwelling people, like the Arab caravans of the Middle East or the people of the Sahara in Africa, have a genetic variance that allows them to stay cooler in the daytime and warmer in the evenings.

3. And some people who live in the tropics, like Hawaii or the Polynesian islands, have a genetic mutations that makes sure they don’t lose too much salt when they sweat.

AND YET LOOK AT ALL THE DIVERSE CREATION MYTHS AROUND THE WORLD

1. According to the Navajo Indians the world was created by people who lived underground and were forced to the surface by a great flood.

2. In the Bible it is written that god created the world in 6 days and then rested on the 7th day

3. In ancient Greece they believed there was a cosmic egg which gave birth to the gods, then earth, and then the sky.

4. In Russia, near Siberia, some people believed there was a great ocean, with the gods setting fire to most of it, thereby exposing the land.

QUESTIONS:A. Why do you think each culture has a ‘creation myth’?

B. Why are they all different and what does this say about human beings in the first place?

HISTORICAL PERIOD 1: 10,000 BCE – 600 BCEHere are the AP World History Historical Periods:

HISTORICAL PERIOD 1: Stone Age – 600 BCEHISTORICAL PERIOD 2: 600 BCE-600 CE

HISTORICAL PERIOD 3: 600-1450HISTORICAL PERIOD 4: 1450-1750HISTORICAL PERIOD 5:1750-1900

HISTORICAL PERIOD 6: 1900-2016 ** We will learn about the difference between BCE and CE later!!

THE LAST ICE-AGE ENDS 10,000 BCE100,000 years ago the planet was in the middle of its last ice-age. (Actually, the Earth goes through ice ages every once in a while, and the next one is due about……….NOW! No,

actually in 90,000 years or so). This ice age only ended about 10,000 years ago and this is what allowed human beings to settle down and start to form villages.

If you look at a map, you find that Russia and Alaska are REALLY close together. Only about 125 miles separates them. Well, during the last ice age, this body of water froze up and became a land bridge named Beringia. This land bridge is how people and animals came from Asia to North America.

Today, they are separated by a body of water known as the Bering Straits and it is where the Discovery Channel films ‘The Deadliest Catch’. (Yum, Crab!).

THE ICE-AGE ENDS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!10,000 years ago the last ice age finally ended (Finally!).

Human beings LOVED this because it meant that they could finally stop being hunter-gatherers and start settling down. You see, when the ice melted it exposed something reallyyyy cool; soil. That’s right, dirt!!!!

You see, with this dirt human beings found that they could plant stuff like fruits and vegetables and domesticate animals like chickens and cows for food. This is known as the Agricultural Revolution. It is also when the Paleolithic Period, or the Stone Age, ended and turned into the NEOLITHIC PERIOD (Neo comes from the Greek also and means ‘new’)

AP VOCAB: THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD- The 3 most common plants for food in the world: corn, wheat and soybeans- The 3 most common domesticated animals in the world are cows, pigs and chickens.

Then come goats, sheep and ducks. - In 2015, 80% of the world eats bugs as their #1 source of protein but that’s another

story. (Remind me to show u a video of bug-eating)

Well, once people started settling down and farming, people stared to build villages and cities. Eventually these cities would become countries and even Empires. Small villages to…..cities to……..war…..to large empires!!!!!

The first countries, agricultural communities, or core and foundational civilizations, are 1. The Middle East: Mesopotamia in the Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys

2. Egypt in the Nile River Valley3. India: Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in the Indus River Valley

4. China: Shang in the Yellow River or Huang He Valley5. Africa: Sub-Saharan Africa

6. South America: Olmecs in Mesoamerica7. Chavin in Andean South America

** Agricultural communities had to work cooperatively to clear land and create the water control systems needed for crop production, drastically affecting environmental diversity.

Pastoralism also appears (AP VOCAB) . These are people who move around with their animals. There are many examples of pastoralists in the world today; the Masai in Africa, sheepherders in New Zealand. Even cowboys in the Midwest. They keep livestock like cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and their animals are their wealth.

Pastoralism actually developed in Afro-Eurasia (Africa, Europe and Asia), in the grasslands, and when the people and the cattle overgrazed the land, they negatively affected the environment. This inevitably lead to deforestation, soil erosion and the like. Unfortunately, the mpre humans play with the environment the closer we get to Global warming.

BTW: On almost any AP essay u can use environmental consequences to explain what happened.

And every area will also have some kind of ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT The population in the year 1900: 2 billion!! The population in the year 2015: 7 billion!! The population in the year 2050: 10 billion!! (Uh-Oh!)

Sad Facts about Climate Change: - The world’s oceans have already risen by about 9 inches in the last 100 years.- The United Nations has predicted at minimum a one foot sea level rise by the year

2100 and a maximum of six feet!- The oceans have also already lost 2% of their oxygen- The oceans are so warm that 87% of the coral reefs near Australia have died in some

areas.- The North Pole is almost completely free of ice in the summer!- Good luck!!! Because pastoralists will move around a lot they will also be the ones who develop and disseminate (spread) new weapons and new modes of transportation.

They also started inventing stuff like this new Neolithic technology The wheel

PlowsMettalurgy (making metal)

PotteryWoven textiles (clothing)

Wheeled vehiclesFacebook

**Technological innovations will lead to improvements in agricultural production, trade and transportation.

SOME PROBLEMS….Pastoralism and agriculture led to more reliable and abundant food supplies, which of course increaseds the population. This leads to what is known as specialization of labor , including new classes of artisans (craftsmen) and warriors, and the development of elites (rich vs. poor). This rich/poor problem will plague humanking all the way up till….today!

THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION (AGRICULTURAL REVOUTION) GIVES US THE FOLLOWING

A) Economic Classes Upper ClassMiddle ClassLower Class

EVERY country has an economic caste system!

A) Social Classes: EVERY country has an SOCIAL caste system!Pharaohs, Kings, or Leaders

The priestsWarriors or Generals

The farmersThe elites and other wealthy citizens

The peasantsThe slavesPre-IB kids

B) Specialization of labor. Different jobs: we needed the following: - Leaders- Farmers- Diggers- Potters

- Water specialists- Soldiers

- Animal specialists- Clothing weavers

- Sophomores for target practice- All of these early peoples also had to control irrigation systems to get water to these

plants.

This is important too: Every single country we study will ALSO have these different social and economic classes. Who is on top? Who is on the bottom? Is it decided by $$$$$, by race, by birth?

A. LONG RESPONSE QUESTION: Does America have social classes?

B. LONG RESPONSE QUESTION: Does America have an economic caste or class system?

PATRIARCHYDo u think that men and women are treated equally here in the United States? What about in other countries? Europe? The Middle East? Does Christianity treat men and women equally? What about Islam? Judaism?Patriarchy is the idea that men control women. It exists EVERYWHERE on the planet, on EVERY COUNTRY ON EARTH!!! The only question is: to what extent?

In the Stone Age men and women were treated basically the same. Everyone had to look for food, everyone had to move around a lot, and everyone died young. This all changed with the end of the last ice age and the Agricutural Revolution. Now, men have control! (except in my classes where girls rule and boyz drool!)

THIS IS A MAJOR POINT: During the Stone Age men and women had to work together to survive. With the advent of cities and empires, however, men started to assert a much more superior or imbalanced role. This resulting PATRIARCHY can be seen all over the world today: Afghanistan, South America, Russia, India …even the United States.

For example, did you know that for every dollar a man gets for a job a woman only gets 78 cents for the same job!! In Latin America it’s as low as 60 cents. This means that every single country we study, every single empire, will all have varying degrees of male superiority and patriarchy. Until one of the girls in the pre-IB program becomes President, right?!

**EVERY COUNTRY IN THE WORLD IS PATRIARCHAL, IT’S JUST A MATTER OF HOW MUCH

You want PROGRESS ladies? Here’s PROGRESS:1) Women outnumber men in Law Schools for the 1st time in American History as of 20162) As of 2013 Medical School graduate are 51% Men/49% Women! (Kaiser Family

Foundation)

American CEO’s who are female 20171. Facebook- Sheryl Sandberg

2. General Motors- Mary Barra3. Yahoo- Marissa Mayer

4. PepsiCo, Inc.Indra K. Nooyi 5. IBM Virginia M. Rometty, International Business Machines

6. MAYBE YOU!!!!!!!!!!!!! (I get a discount at ur company )

QUOTE: “What would you do if you weren't afraid?” ― Sheryl Sandberg book, Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead

COUNTRIES WITH FEMALE PREZ OR PRIME MINSTER 1. Iceland2. England-Margaret Thatcher 1980’s----Theresa May 20173. Canada4. Greece5. Nepal

9. America- Nope and the Senate only has 20/100 women.P.S. If U want to learn more about this subject, and you don’t want to wait till you take my class senior year, just look at the ‘Feminism’ chapter under IB History on my website: shtrakhmansworld.weebly.com

THEN, 5000 years ago urban societies developed and laid the foundations for new civilizations…

All civilizations will have the following:1. Trade (what and with whom).

2. Armies, navies or whatever3. Cities and powerful states which inevitably become the centers of everything

4. Large societies 5. agricultural surpluses (extra food) that created specialization of labor

6. religious hierarchies (the Priets, the kings etc.)7. record keeping (Pinnacle )

8. warfare (new technologies and urban defense)9. Rulers usually said they were related to GOD!!!! (divine connections to power)

10.complex institutions like political bureaucracies

** A BUREAUCRACY is just an organized system of government. For example, even Plantation High School has a bureaucracy: If I want something I have to ask the Assistant Principal who has to ask the Principal. Maybe the Principal even has to ask Superintendent Runcie and then maybe he has to ask the Legislature in Tallahassee or even Governor Rick Scott.

EVERY country has CULTURE, except for Plantation 1) Language2) Literature

3) Myths or stories and writing4) Religion

5) Monumental buildings and architecture6) Art

7) Laws

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS:1. LONG RESPONSE QUESTION #1: Explain the transition humans went through as the

world moved from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic Period? In other words, what happened with humans after the last Ice Age ended

2. LONG RESPONSE QUESTION #2: Do u think that America spends too much $$$ on NASA? After all, we have a lot of problems here on Earth that need attention?

Women were treated equally to men because everyone had to work together. This is known as ‘Gender Equality’. This is in contrast to the ‘Patriarchy’ that exists today. Men start to run the show ONLY when human beings start to settle down and make war.

3. LONG-RESPONSE QUESTION #3: Do you think men and women are treated equally in America today? Why or why not?

4. LONG-RESPONSE QUESTION #4: Do you think women should be allowed equal access to the military, including submarines and Special Forces? Why or why not?

PART 2: SHORT ESSAY QUESTION:Two animals that lived during the last Ice Age were the wooly mammoth and the saber toothed tiger. Of course, both are now extinct because when the ice melted the planet got too warm for them.

Scientists have recently discovered a frozen and fossilized wooly-mammoth in the snows of Siberia. They think that they can extract a little bit of blood from it and use the DNA to clone the wooly mammoth.

ESSAY QUESTION: “Should we clone a wooly mammoth and bring back an extinct species?” Why or why not? 1-2 pages

(This can be typed or hand written)

PART 3: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS:EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA

Mesopotamia is located in the Middle East, where Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan are today. Egypt is in North Africa near the Sahara Desert, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.

CULTURE: EGYPT VS. ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA Egyptian Architecture: The PyramidsMesopotamian Architecture: Different kind of pyramids called Ziggurats

Egyptian Religion: Polytheistic (Osiris, Anubis, Horus)Mesopotamian Religion: Polytheistic, although the Persians will give us our 1st monotheistic religion soon.

Egyptian government: Pharaohs - The Pharaohs said that they were cousins of the Gods, and thus had ‘divine right to

rule’. U will see this a lot throughout history: rulers and leaders saying that they had God’s permission to rule.

Mesopotamia: Kings who were friendly with but not related to God

Egyptian Writing: HieroglyphicsMesopotamian Writing: Cuneiform (the very first written language on Earth)

The Mesopotamians will also give us the very first book and the very first inscribed, or written, set of laws.

A. The Epic of Gilgamesh book. It is an epic, or really long poem, that was carved on a set of stone pillars. It tells of a monster, Gilgamesh, who did battle with the gods. It is currently at the British Museum in London since England conquered so much of the Middle East before World War One.

B. The Code of Hammurabi: The world’s 1st laws which created “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”.

The Mesopotamians were also responsible for the very first system of codified (written down) or standardized laws , called the Code of Hammurabi. These legal codes reflected the existing social hierarchies of the time (like slaves having no rights) and facilitated (made easier) the rule of government over people. By giving us “An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” the Code of Hammurabi essentially gives us “The Death Penalty”.

*Of course Mahatma Gandhi once said, If it is true that we should have an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, then the whole world will be blind and toothless!”

CRAZY LAWS OF THE CODE OF HAMMURABI If we think you committed a crime we’ll throw you off a cliff into a river. If you

survive, hey you’re innocent. If you die well, you were obviously guilty. This is also how I catch cheaters!

If you steal another man’s slave, we will kill you! If a son hits his father we cut his hands off.

CLASSWORK/HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENTS 1. How do we know that all of humanity originated in Africa?

2. What does the term ‘Big Geography’ mean?

3. What is another term for Paleolithic Period and why?

4. What happened with humans 100,000 years ago?

5. What does the term ‘hominid’ mean?

6. Define ‘Pastoralism’ and explain why it’s so important:

7. What is the difference between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Ages?

8. Define ‘Domestication of plants and animals’:

9. Why do you think ‘Patriarchy’ ended and women became treated like 2nd class citizens?

10.What were some environmental effects of all this planting and human growth?

11.Define ‘Specialization of Labor’: Define ‘Social Hierarchy’ Define ‘Economic Classes’PART 2: SHORT ESSAY QUESTION

SHORT ESSAY QUESTION #1: The Law Code of Hammurabi gave is the Death Penalty and in 2017 it is legal in 25 states in America, Florida being one of them. Do you agree or disagree with the Death Penalty and why? You may have to do your own research for this.

PART 3: EXTRA CREDIT ASSIGNMENTThe Sumerians gave us the WRITTEN WORD. Use the ‘Cuneiform’ worksheet to

write a Sumerian poem about life in Mesopotamia 5,000 years ago. I have construction paper and art supplies over on the table.

Here’s my poem:

Sun or rainThe reeds still grow.

Work and pain,slavery is all I know.

*PLEASE MOVE ON TO THE 5 AP THEMES CHART AND CHAPTER 2**There will ALSO be a Crossword Puzzle assignment that I will have ready 4 u.

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