1. 2 memory encoding: taking in information memory storage: retaining information in memory ...
TRANSCRIPT
1
Memory
2
Human Memory
Memory encoding: taking in information Memory storage: retaining information in memory Memory retrieval: accessing stored information
Encoding specificity principle says that retrieval of specific memories will be more successful when cues that were present in encoding are present when retrieving Context-dependent memory – the tendency for information to be better recalled in the context in which it was first learnedState-dependent memory – Idea that people have an easier time recalling information when in the same physical and psychological state as when they learned it
3
Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory Three-Stage Processing Model of Memory
External Events
Stage 1
Sensory Memory
3-4 SecondsIconic MemoryEchoic Memory
see
smellhear
feel
taste
Stage 2
Short-term/working Memory
30 seconds
Stage 3
Long Term Memory
Unlimited spaceConsolidation
Encoding
We pay attention to important or
interesting information
RehearsalPhonological Loop
Elaborate RehearsalMnemonic Devices - Acrostics- Acronyms- Visualspatial
Sketch- Chunking
EncodingRetrieving
4
Long-Term Memory BreakdownDeclarative Memory
(Explicit) • Memory of facts and
experiences• Key phrase “knowing that”• Memory of facts =
Semantic Memory • Memory of experiences =
Episodic Memory• Deeply emotionally
charged memories = Flashbulb Memories• Where were you
when the Twin Towers fell, when JFK died, Michael Jackson died
Procedural Memory (Implicit)
• Memory of skills and procedures• Tasks that we perform
without thinking: how to tie our shoes, how to drive a car, how to ride a bike• Often learned through
shaping (step by step learning)
5
• Hierarchies: systems in which concepts are arranged from general to more specific• Concepts: mental representations of
related things; could be physical objects, events, organisms, or abstract ideas• Prototypes: common examples of
the concept. For example, if the concept was “bird” a prototype could be “robin”
• Concepts broken into 3 levels• Superordinate (broadest
category) = Building• Basic (more specific level) =
Business• Subordinate (examples of basic)
= Dentist Office
How We Organize MemoriesHierarchies & Schemas
6
• Semantic Networks: More irregular and less strict hierarchies; link multiple concepts together.• For example, in a semantic network, the
concept of “bird” can be linked to “fly, feathers, wings, animals, vertebrate, penguin, robin, sky” all of which could be connected to several concepts. • Schemas are preexisting frameworks that
exist that allow us to organize and interpret new information.
• Script: the specific things we associate with an event, person, or item
• For Example: A script for “elementary school” may include• Teachers• Young students• Principal• Classrooms with desks and chairs
How We Organize MemoriesHierarchies & Schemas
7
Visual Difference of Hierarchies & Schemas
Hierarchies Schemas
Superordinate Concept
BasicConcept
Subordinate Concept
Automobile
Car
Ford Taurus
Car
Wheel
BreaksDome light
Drive Engine
Road
16 4-door
8
• Interference Theory: Believes that memories held in STM or LTM may be pushed aside by other memories
• Proactive Interference: when something we learned earlier disrupts new information we are trying to learn• Trying to remember your grandparent’s new phone number, but you keep messing it up with their old one.
• Retroactive Interference: when something we have recently learned disrupts the recall of old information• Someone asks for your old address and it is blocked because our new address interferes with our recall of it.
Things That Can Cause Issues With MemoryProactive InterferenceRetroactive InterferenceMisinformation EffectDecay Theory
9
• Misinformation Effect: when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event. •We forget what actually happened so we fill in the blanks with what we think did, leading to inaccuracies
• Decay Theory: The idea that over time our brains physically decay leading to memory loss
• Serial Position Effect: we are more likely to forget the middle items in a list than those at the beginning for the end• Primacy effect: the tendency to recall items learned first• Recency effect: the tendency to recall the last items learned
Things That Can Cause Issues With MemoryProactive InterferenceRetroactive InterferenceMisinformation EffectDecay TheoryInterference Theory
10
Motivated Forgetting: Memories Hidden from Awareness Sigmund Freud Theorized
that the psychological defense mechanism of repression, or motivated forgetting, banished threatening material from the consciousness
Amnesia: Memories Lost or Never Gained Retrograde Amnesia – the
loss of memory of past events
Anterograde amnesia – the loss of the ability to form or store new memories
Possible Reasons for ForgettingRepressionRetrograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia
11
Ways to Improve Memory• Mnemonic Devices: memory
tricks used when encoding memory information that aid in retrieval of information• Acronyms: A word formed
from the first letters of each one of the words in a phrase or list of terms • “CART” could be used to
remember items to get at the store: Carrots, Apples, Radishes, and Turnips
• Acrostics: A sentence formed with the first letter of each word referencing the first letter of a list of terms• “My very educated mother
just sent us nine pizzas” referred to the order of the planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto
• Phonological Loop: the use of verbal repetition of information to deepen memory retention.
• Chunking: grouping items together to allow for more material to be learned
• Visualspatial Sketchpad: the creation of a visual image to improve memory• Mental map of your house is an
example
• Context-Dependent Memory: The idea that we retrieve information better when in the same location it was obtained
• State-Dependent Memory: The idea that things are more easily recalled when we are in the same physical and mental state when the information was encoded. • So if you were really tired when
you hid a gift, you would be more likely to recall where you put it if you were really tired.