1 plankton ecology and productivity productivity and plankton abundance limiting factors spatial and...
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Plankton Ecology and Productivity
Productivity and Plankton Abundance Limiting Factors
Spatial and Temporal Distribution
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Primary Production Primary Production:
The rate of formation of energy-rich organic products from inorganic material
Usually refers only to photosynthesis, although it also includes chemosynthesis
Gross Primary Production: The total amount of primary production
Net Primary Production: The total amount of primary production after the
algae respires (available for higher trophic levels)
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Measuring Primary Production Usually expressed as g C/m2/yr or
something similar (C/unit area/unit time) integrated over the entire water column to
the bottom of the euphotic zone Euphotic zone: the depth to which light
will penetrate (photosynthesis will occur)
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Measuring Primary Production
Oxygen Technique Oxygen released during photosynthesis is
used to estimate productivity Includes the addition from photosynthesis
and the subtraction from respiration But how do we separate photosynthesis
from respiration
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Light/Dark Bottle Technique
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Measuring Primary Productivity Oxygen Technique Radiocarbon
Radioactive 14C is used as a tracer in the uptake of bicarbonate during photosynthesis
Preferable technique in areas of low productivity
Bottles containing phytoplankton and 14C are placed under optimal light conditions (not in situ)
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Measuring Primary Productivity Oxygen Technique Radiocarbon Satellite Color Scanning
Satellite scanners estimate the relative standing stocks which are then used to estimate changes in production
Chlorophyll density is calculated from the ratio of the reflectance of blue to green light
Relationship between pigment concentration and primary production varies geographically
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Satellite Scanning
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Measuring Primary Productivity Oxygen Technique Radiocarbon Satellite Color Scanning Probe Fluorometer
Productivity is estimated by measuring the fluorescence obtained from phytoplankton
Photosynthetic pigments fluoresce when exposed to UV light
Deployed in the water column and measures photosynthesis directly
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Factors Affecting Primary Production
Limiting Factors: Terrestrial Systems Light Temperature Nutrient Concentration Soil Water
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Factors Affecting Primary Production Light (Quality and Quantity)
Light between 400-720 nm is absorbed by various photosynthetic pigments
Chlorophyll a Accessory pigments absorb at a wide range
of wavelengths
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Light Quality and Quantity
Light penetrates to different depths based on the angle of incidence (and seasonality)
Light of different colors penetrates differently Depth to which light penetrates is a function of
the depth of water, amount of phytoplankton, transparency of the water and the differential absorption by other things (e.g., sediments, organic matter)
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Light Quantity and Quality
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Photosynthesis vs. Light Intensity
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Differences Among Species
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General Trends
Light inhibition (photoinhibition) is caused by too much light saturating the photosynthetic centers (generating too much energy which then has to be disposed of) -- this can damage the cell.
Also ultraviolet radiation at surface is damaging.
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Depth vs. Production
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Compensation Depth
Depth where for a given algal cell, photosynthesis = respiration
Individual – not population level property Net Production = 0 Usually where light is 1% of the surface
intensity, maybe 150 m Varies spatially with water clarity
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Compensation Point/Depth
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Photosynthesis and light
Commonly, when faced with too much mixing below the compensation depth, cells will lower their metabolic rate or form cysts (resting stages) which can last through the poor conditions.
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Factors Limiting Primary Production Light Nutrients
Needed for enzymes, energy stores, energy carriers and structure
Nitrogen and phosphorus are often limiting; Diatoms also need SiO2
Uptake of nutrients is an active process – often works against a concentration gradient
Yet, it is concentration dependent
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Nutrients on Land versus Sea
Agricultural soil=0.5% N
This allows 50 kg dry wt wt P.P. per cubic meter
This N reservoir allows plants to live for many years
Ocean waters = 0.00005% N
This allows 5 g dry wt P.P. per cubic meter
This only allows for short-lived plants
Nutrients often become limiting
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Needs for Nitrogen Necessary for the production of proteins,
nucleic acids, and ATP In most habitats, N is the limiting nutrient Supply
Runoff or Atmospheric Deposition Recycled
Ammonium Phytoplankton Zooplankton
(Excretion)
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Phosphorous
Critical to energy cycling – i.e., ATP Usually less limiting than N, but there
are exceptions Coral reefs: carbonate sediments adsorb P
from the water column
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How do we determine if a nutrient is limiting?
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Uptake Rate vs. Concentration
At low external concentration – uptake depends on concentrationAt high external concentrations – uptake is saturated
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Seasonal Succession of Algae
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Restoring Nutrients Problem:
Light – available near the surface Nutrients– down deep where there is no
light How do we get the nutrients to the
Euphotic Zone? Thermocline/Pycnocline: influences the
degree of mixing between surface waters and high nutrient bottom water
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Thermocline Effects
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Tropical
Polar
Temperate
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High Nutrient (Nitrate) – Low Chlorophyll (HNLC)
Eastern Tropical PacificSub-Polar North PacificSouthern Ocean
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Evidence for Iron Limitation in ETP• Macro-nutrients at non-limiting concentrations• Small-scale bottle and microcosm experiments• Natural additions of iron from land nearby
Galapagos Islands
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IronEx IIronEx II
Southern Ocean
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Factors Limiting Primary Production Light (Quality and Quantity) Nutrients Turbulence
As water is mixed, not only will nutrients be carried up, but also algal cells will be carried downward
Wind induced turbulence often extends down to 200 m – yet, photic zone is shallower
If mixing extends below the critical depth, net production will be negative
Especially prevalent at high latitudes
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Depth of Vertical Mixing
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Compensation vs. Critical Depth Critical Depth
Depth where Gross Photosynthesis = Total Plant Respiration
It is a characteristic of the population Compensation Depth
Characteristic of individual cells As long as the population (on average) is
mixed above the level of the critical depth, the population will have a + net production
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Spatial Distribution of Phytoplankton Geographical Variation
Latitudinal variation
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Spatial Distribution of Phytoplankton Geographical Variation
Latitudinal Differences Regional Differences
Continental shelf and open ocean upwelling areas are most productive
Shallowness of coastal areas enables the regeneration of nutrients
Estuaries: High in nuts, but usually turbid which reduces the depth of photosynthesis
Central oceans and gyre centers are nutrient poor
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Relative Contribution
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Geographic Variation in Types
Oceanic environments are dominated by small species
Large Diatoms and Dinos are common near shores, but rare in the open sea
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Temporal/Spatial Distribution of Phytoplankton
Geographic Variation Seasonal x Geographic Variation
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Winter Spring
Summer Fall
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Factors Limiting Primary Production Light Nutrients Turbulence Zooplankton Grazing
What is the relationship between production and consumption?
Do herbivores remove microphytoplankton production as fast as it is formed?
What percentage of production is taken up by consumers?
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Production-Consumption Lag
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Nutrient Recycling How does zooplankton grazing
stimulate production? Metabolized algal cells –
releases nutrients Bacterial consumption releases
“nutrient stocks” Does herbivore pressure limit
plankton productivity – i.e., is there top-down control?
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Temperate Seas North Atlantic Light varies seasonally Thermal structure of the
water column changes seasonally
Mixing produces two blooms each year
PhytoZoops
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Tropical Seas Light is available year
round Thermal stratification last
year round Productivity is low, yet
constant Deepest compensation
depths What causes the brief
peaks and lags?
PhytoZoopl
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Polar Seas Productivity is restricted to
a short period in the polar summer
Snow cover disappears long enough to allow light to enter the water
When light is available for long periods-bloom occurs
Nutrients are not limiting and strong stratification never occur
PhytoZoops
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Phytoplankton Seasonal Succession Patterns
Temperate waters: small, rapidly growing diatoms in spring give way to larger diatoms in summer. Dinoflagellates dominate in late summer and fall, and small diatoms become dominant again in winter.
Tropical waters: dinoflagellates dominate year around
Polar waters: only summer diatom production
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Geographical Comparisons of Primary Productivity
Tropical Seas1) Well lit all year
2) Thermal stratification all year
3) Low nutrients in surface waters
4) Productivity low but constant year round
Temperate Seas1) Light varies seasonally
2) Seasonal stratification
3) Mixing in winter replenishes nutrients
4) Major PP spring peak, with minor peak in fall
Polar Seas1) Well lit in summer2) No stratification
3) Nutrients unlimited
4) PP only in ice free summer
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Temporal/Spatial Distribution of Phytoplankton
Geographic Variation Seasonal x Geographic Variation Small Scale Patches
Plankton tend to occur in patches Few meters to hundreds of km Samples are often highly variable – “True
Replicates?” What causes a patch????
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