1 praxis ii: principles of learning & teaching k-6 & 7-12 review session
TRANSCRIPT
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Praxis II: Principles of Learning & Teaching
K-6 & 7-12Review Session
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Overview of the Principles of Learning & Teaching Exam
Designed to assess a beginning teacher’s knowledge of a variety of job-related criteria
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Principles of Learning & Teaching at a Glance
2 hour test 12 short-answer questions and 24
multiple-choice questions Format: 4 case studies, each with 3
constructed-response questions and 24 multiple choice questions
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Principles of Learning & Teaching at a Glance
Includes 4 case studies, each presenting a particular teaching situation• For each case study, you will respond to 3
short-answer questions
• 12 short-answer questions will cover all of the content areas• Each short-answer question will be scored on a
scale of 0-2
• Each case study with short-answer answers will require ~25 minutes –budget your time!
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Principles of Learning & Teaching at a Glance
Plan on ~25 minutes per case study Allow ~10 minutes to answer each of the
two sections of multiple-choice questions• Multiple-choice questions are not associated
with the case studies
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Content Categories
Students as Learners (~35%) Instruction and Assessment (~35%) Communication Techniques (~15%) Teacher Professionalism (~15%)
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Content Categories
Students as Learners (~35%)• Student development & the learning process
• Students as diverse learners
• Student motivation and the learning environment
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Content Categories
Instruction and Assessment (~35%)• Instructional strategies
• Planning instruction
• Assessment strategies
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Content Categories
Communication Techniques (~15%)• Effective verbal and nonverbal
communication
• Cultural and gender differences in communication
• Stimulating discussion and responses in the classroom
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Content Categories
Teacher Professionalism (~15%)• The reflective practitioner
• The larger community
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Student as Learners
Student Development and the Learning Process• Knowing each theorist’s major ideas and
being able to compare and contrast one theory with another
• How can these theories be applied to teaching practice
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Student as Learners
Student Development and the Learning Process – Important theorists• Albert Bandura
• Jerome Bruner
• John Dewey
• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky
• Howard Gardner
• Abraham Maslow
• B.F. Skinner
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Student as Learners
Albert Bandura• Social learning theory: Theory that
emphasizes learning through observation of others
• Social cognitive theory: Theory that adds concerns with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectation to social learning theory
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Student as Learners
Albert Bandura• Social cognitive theory distinguishes between
enactive and vicarious learning• Enactive learning is learning by doing and
experiencing the consequences of your actions (self-regulation of behavior, goal directed behavior, self-monitoring)
• Vicarious learning is learning by observing others
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Student as Learners
Albert Bandura• Four elements of observational learning
• Attention
• Retention
• Production
• Motivation and reinforcement
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Student as Learners
Jerome Bruner• Promoted the concept of discovery learning by
encouraging teachers to give students more opportunity to learn on their own.
• Discovery learning encourages students to think for themselves and discover how knowledge is constructed
• Discovery learning is learning in which students construct an understanding on their own
• Related to Piaget and Dewey’s views
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Student as Learners
John Dewey• Viewed problem solving according to the
scientific method as the proper way to think and the most effective teaching method
• Schools should teach learners how to solve problems and inquire/interact with their natural and social environments
• Every learner attempts to explore and understand his/her environment
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Student as Learners
Jean Piaget• Organization – ongoing process of arranging
information and experience into mental systems or categories
• Schemes – mental systems of categories and experiences
• Adaptation – adjustment to the environment
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Student as Learners
Jean Piaget• Adaptation – adjustment to the environment
• Assimilation – fitting new information into existing schemes
• Accommodation – altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information
• Equilibration – search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment
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Student as Learners Jean Piaget
• Operations – actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions
• Four stages of cognitive development • Sensorimotor – 0-2 yrs – involves the senses and motor
activity• Preoperational – 2-7 yrs – stage before a child masters
logical mental operations• Concrete operational – 7-11 yrs – mental tasks tied to
concrete objects and situations• Formal operational – 11-adult – mental tasks involving
abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables
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Student as Learners
Jean Piaget• Goal of education should be to help children
learn how to learn
• Importance of developmentally appropriate education
• Individuals construct their own understandings
• Value of play
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Student as Learners
Lev Vygotsky• Sociocultural theory – emphasizes role in
development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society
• Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking & behaving) through interactions
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Student as Learners
Lev Vygotsky• Zone of Proximal Development – phase at
which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support
• Scaffolding – support for learning and problem solving. The support could be anything that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner
• Private talk
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Student as Learners
How might a teacher apply some of Leve Vygotsky’s ideas about scaffolding and direct instruction in the classroom?
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Student as Learners
Howard Gardner• Theory of Multiple Intelligences
• Linguistic (verbal)
• Musical,
• Spatial,
• Logical-mathematical
• Bodily-kinesthetic (movement)
• Interpersonal (understanding others)
• Intrapersonal (understanding self)
• Naturalist
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Student as Learners
What does Gardner’s work on multiple intelligences suggest about planning instruction?
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Student as Learners
Abraham Maslow• Humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging
from lower-level needs for survival and safety to higher-level needs for intellectual achievement and finally self-actualization
• Self-actualization – fulfilling one’s potential
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Student as Learners
What does Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggest for motivation for learning in the classroom?
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Student as Learners
B.F. Skinner• Operant conditioning – a form of learning
whereby a response increases in frequency as a result of its being followed by reinforcement• When behaviors are followed by desirable
consequences, they tend to increase in frequency
• When behaviors do not produce results, they typically decrease and may even disappear altogether
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Student as Learners
Erik Erikson• Eight stages of psychosocial development
• Developmental crisis – conflict between a positive alternative and a potentially unhealthy alternative
• The way in which the individual resolves each crisis will have a lasting effect on that person’s self-image and view of society
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Student as Learners
Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages• Trust vs. mistrust
• Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
• Initiative vs. guilt
• Industry vs. inferiority
• Identity vs. role confusion
• Intimacy vs. isolation
• Generativity vs. stagnation
• Ego integrity vs. despair
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Student as Learners
Lawrence Kohlberg• Moral dilemmas – situations in which no
choice is clearly and indisputably right
• Stages of moral reasoning• Level I – Preconventional Moral Reasoning –
judgment is based own person needs and others’ rules
• Level 2 – Conventional Moral Reasoning – judgment is based on others; approval, family expectations, traditional values, laws of society, and loyalty to country
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Student as Learners
Lawrence Kohlberg• Stages of moral reasoning
• Level 3 – Postconventional Moral Reasoning – social contract and universal ethics
• Moral reasoning – the thinking process involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong
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Student as Learners
Carol Gilligan• Proposed a different sequence of moral
development, an Ethic of Care
• Individuals move from a focus on self-interest to moral reasoning based on commitment to specific individuals and relationships, and then to the highest level of morality based on the principles of responsibilities and care for all people
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Student as Learners
Constructivism – a theoretical perspective that proposes that learners construct a body of knowledge from their experiences—knowledge that may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality.
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Student as Learners
Metacognition – One’s knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes, and one’s resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory• Knowledge about our own thinking processes
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Student as Learners
Schemata (plural for schema) – In contemporary cognitive psychology, an organized body of knowledge about a specific topic• Basic structures for organizing information,
concepts
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Student as Learners
Transfer – A phenomenon whereby something that an individual has learned at one time affects how the individual learns or performs in a later situation• Influence of previously learned material on
new material
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Student as Learners
Bloom’s Taxonomy – a taxonomy in which six learning tasks, varying in degrees of complexity, are identified for the cognitive domain:• Knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
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Student as Learners
Make sure you can recognize the differences between lower-order and higher-order thinking in classroom activities, using Bloom’s taxonomy.
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Student as Learners
Intrinsic motivation – the internal desire to perform a particular task; motivation associated with activities that are their own reward
Extrinsic motivation – motivation promoted by factors external to the individual and unrelated to the task being performed; motivation created by external factors (reward or punishment)
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Students as Diverse Learners
Learning styles – characteristic approaches to learning and studying
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Students as Diverse Learners
Performance Modes• Concrete operational thinking (Piaget)
• Late elementary to middle school
• Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations
• Visual and aural learners
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Students as Diverse Learners
Gender differences Cultural expectations and styles
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Areas of exceptionality in student learning:
Visual and perceptual difficulties Special physical or sensory challenges Learning disabilities Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD);
Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Functional mental retardation
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Legislation and institutional responsibilities relating to exceptional students:
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) Inclusion Mainstreaming Least Restrictive Environment IEP – what’s included?
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Approaches for accommodating various learning styles, intelligences, or exceptionalities:
Differentiated instruction
Alternative assessments
Testing modifications
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Student learning is influenced by:
Individual experiences Individual talents Prior learning Language Culture Family Community Values
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Consider:
Multicultural backgrounds Age-appropriate knowledge and behavior The student culture at the school Family backgrounds Linguistic patterns and differences Cognitive patterns and differences Social and emotional issues
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Let’s practice…
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Identify and describe a strength and/or weakness in:
a lesson plan for meeting needs of individual students with identified special needs, as described in the case• Based on IEP goals?
• Age/level appropriate?
• Achievable?
• Accommodations needed?
• Other?
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Identify and describe a strength and/or weakness in:
the interaction between the teacher and students in terms of culturally responsive teaching• Is teacher aware of cultural implications?
• Does teacher appear to value culture?
• Does teacher include families?
• Does teacher understand culture?
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Propose a strategy for:
helping students with ADD problems stay on task
improving performance of students who don’t do well on homework, original compositions or other assignments
helping students for whom English isn’t the first language build literacy skills and improve in academic areas
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Propose a strategy for:
helping students see issues from different points of view
adapting instruction and/or assessment for an individual student with identified needs
building positive relationships with a student who is very turned off to school
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Propose a strategy for:
meeting the needs of a wide range of students (especially students with learning difficulties and students who are accelerated)
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Correlational relationship – the extent to which two variables are related to each other, such that when one variable increases, the other either increases or decreases in a somewhat predictable manner
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Causal relationship – explains why behaviors occurs
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Learned helplessness – a general belief that one is incapable of accomplishing tasks and has little or no control of the environment
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Self-efficacy – the belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Reinforcement – the act of following a particular response with a reinforcer and thereby increasing the frequency of that response
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Positive reinforcement – a consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the presentation (rather than removal) of a stimulus.
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Negative reinforcement – a consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the removal (rather than presentation) of a stimulus.
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Shaping – a process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations of a desired terminal behavior
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Extinction – In classical conditioning, the eventual disappearance of a conditioned response as a result of the conditioned stimulus being repeatedly presented alone
In operant conditioning, the eventual disappearance of a response that is no longer being reinforced
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Punishment – a consequence that decreases the frequency of the response it follows
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Continuous reinforcement – reinforcing a response every time it occurs
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Student Motivation and the Learning Environment
Intermittent reinforcement – reinforcing a response only occasionally, with some occurrences of the response going unreinforced
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Instruction and Assessment
Instructional Strategies The major cognitive processes associated with
student learning, including:• Critical thinking
• Creative thinking
• Higher-order thinking
• Inductive and deductive thinking
• Problem-structuring and problem-solving
• Invention
• Memorization and recall
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Instruction and Assessment
Major categories of instructional strategies, including:• Cooperative learning
• Direct instruction
• Discover learning
• Whole-group discussion
• Independent study
• Interdisciplinary instruction
• Concept mapping
• Inquiry method
• Questioning
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Instruction and Assessment
Direct Instruction• Madeline Hunter’s “Effective Teaching Model”
• David Ausubel’s “Advance Organizers”
• Mastery learning
• Demonstrations
• Mnemonics
• Note-taking
• Outlining
• Use of visual aids
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Instruction and Assessment
Student-Centered Models• Inquiry Model
• Discovery learning
• Cooperative learning (pair-share, jigsaw, STAF, teams, games, tournament)
• Collaborative Learning
• Concept models (concept development, concept attainment, concept mapping)
• Discussion models
• Laboratories
• Project-based learning
• Simulations
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Instruction and Assessment
Critical thinking – Evaluating the accuracy and worth of information of arguments.
Creative thinking – New and original behavior yields an appropriate and productive result.
High-order thinking – Thought that involves going beyond information specifically learned (e.g., application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation).
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Instruction and Assessment
Inductive thinking – Formulating general principles based on knowledge of examples and details
Deductive thinking – Drawing conclusions by applying rules of principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a specific solution
Problem solving – Creating new solutions for problems
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Instruction and Assessment Inquiry method – Approach in which the teacher
presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions
Discovery learning - Bruner’s approach, in which students work on their own to discover basic principles
Simulations – The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to simulation in which they were learned and difficult to apply in new settings.
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Instruction and Assessment
Cooperative Learning – An approach to instruction whereby students work with their classmates to achieve group goals and help on another learn.
Direct Instruction – An approach to instruction that uses a variety of techniques (brief explanations, teacher questioning , rapid pacing, guided and independent practice) to promote learning of basic skills.
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Instruction and Assessment
Discovery Learning – An approach to instruction whereby students develop an understanding of a topic, through firsthand interaction with the physical or social environment.
Concept Mapping – A diagram of concepts within an instructional unit and the interrelationships among them.
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Instruction and Assessment
Madeline Hunter “Effective Teaching Model” – • Get students set to learn
• Provide information effectively
• Check for understanding and give guided practice
• Allow for independent practice
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Instruction and Assessment
Mastery Learning – An approach to instruction whereby students learn one topic thoroughly before moving to a more difficult one.
Mnemonics – A special memory aid or trick designed to help students learning and remember a specific piece of information.
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Instruction and Assessment
• Methods for enhancing student learning through the use of a variety of resources and materials
• Computers, Internet resources, Web pages, e-mail
• Audio-visual technologies such as videotapes and compact discs
• Local experts
• Primary documents and artifacts
• Field trips
• Libraries
• Service Learning
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Instruction and Assessment
• Techniques for planning instruction to meet curriculum goals, including the incorporation of learning theory, subject matter, curriculum development and student development
• National and state learning standards
• State and local curriculum frameworks
• State and local curriculum guides
• Scope and sequence in specific disciplines
• Units and lessons
• Behavioral objectives: affective, cognitive, psychomotor
• Learner objectives and outcomes
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Instruction and Assessment
• Techniques for creating effective bridges between curriculum goals and students’ experiences
• Modeling
• Guided practice
• Independent practice, including homework
• Transitions
• Activating students’ prior knowledge
• Anticipating preconceptions
• Encouraging exploration and problem-solving
• Building new skills on those previously acquired
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Instruction and Assessment
• Measurement theory and assessment-related issues• Types of assessments
• Standardized tests – Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform procedures
• Norm-referenced – Assessment of students’ achievement in relation to one another
• Criterion-referenced – Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard
• Achievement tests – Standardized test measuring how much students have learned in a given content area.
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Instruction and Assessment
• Aptitude tests – Tests meant to predict future performance
• Structured observations
• Anecdotal notes
• Assessment of prior knowledge – reminding students of information they have already learned relative to a new topic
• Student responses during a lesson
• Portfolios – A systematic collection of a student’s work over a lengthy period of time
• Essays written to prompts
• Journals
• Self-evaluation – The process of evaluating one’s own performance or behavior
• Performance assessment – Assessment in which students demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a nonwritten fashion
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Instruction and Assessment
• Characteristics of Assessments
• Validity – The extent to which an assessment instrument actually measures what it is intended to measure.
• Reliability – The extent to which an assessment instrument yields consistent information about the knowledge, skills, and abilities one is trying to measure
• Norm-referenced – A score that indicates how a student’s performance on an assessment compares with the average performance of other students (I.e., with the performance of a norm group)
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Instruction and Assessment
• Criterion-referenced – A test score that specifically indicates what students know and can do.
• Mean - The arithmetic average of a set of scores. It is calculated by adding all scores and then dividing by the total number of people who have obtained those scores.
• Median – Middle score in a group of scores
• Mode – Most frequently occurring score
• Sampling strategy
• Scoring assessments• Analytical scoring – Scoring students’ performance on
an assessment by evaluating various aspects of their performance separately
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Instruction and Assessment
• Holistic scoring – Summarizing students’ performance on an assessment with a single score
• Rubrics – A list of components that performance on an assessment task should ideally include; used to guide the scoring of students’ responses
• Reporting assessment results• Percentile rank – A test score that indicates the
percentage of people in the norm group getting a raw score less than or equal to a particular student’s raw score.
• Stanine – A standard score with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2; it is always reported as a whole number
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Instruction and Assessment
• Mastery levels
• Raw score – A test score based solely on the number or point value of correctly answered items
• Grade equivalent score – Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples for each grade
• Standard deviation – A statistic that reflects how close together or far apart a set of scores are and thereby indicates the variability of the scores
• Standard error of measurement – A statistic estimating the amount of error likely to be present in a particular score on a test or other assessment instrument
• Scaled Score
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Instruction and Assessment
• Uses of assessments• Formative evaluation – An evaluation conducted
during instruction to facilitate students’ learning
• Summative evaluation – An evaluation conducted after instruction is completed and used to assess students’ final achievement
• Diagnostic evaluation
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Communication Techniques
• Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal communication techniques
• The effect of cultural and gender differences on communications in the classroom
Types of questions that can stimulate discussion in different ways for particular purposes• Probing for learner understanding
• Helping students articulate their ideas and thinking processes
• Promoting risk-taking and problem-solving
• Facilitating factual recall
• Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking
• Stimulating curiosity
• Helping students to question
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Profession and Community
The reflective practitioner• Types of resources available for professional
development and learning• Professional literature
• Colleagues
• Professional associations
• Professional development activities
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Profession and Community Why personal reflection on teaching practices is critical, and
approaches that can be used to reflect and evaluate
• The larger community• The role of the school as a resource to the larger
community
• Factors in the students’ environment outside of school (family circumstances, community environments, health and economic conditions) that may influence students’ life and learning
• Basic strategies for involving parents/guardians and leaders in the community in the educational process
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Profession and Community
• Major laws related to students’ rights and teacher responsibilities
• Equal education
• Appropriate education for handicapped
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Appropriate treatment of students
• Reporting in situations related to possible child abuse