1947 umpire manual
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WAR DEPARTMENT FIELD MANUAL
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WAR DEPARTMENT FEBRUARY 1 9 4 7
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WAR DEPARTMENT FIELD MANUAL
F M 105-5
This manualsupmedci FM
105-5, 10 March 19t4and FM 105-6, 30 May 1942
UMPIRE M A N U A L
DISSEMINATION OF RESTRICTED MATTER. No
person is entitled solely by virtue of h is grade or position to
knowledge or possession of classified matter. Such matter
Is entrusted only to those individuals whose official duties
require such knowledge or possession. (See also AR 380 5.)
United States Government Printing Office
Washington : 1947
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WAK DEPAETMENTWASH INGTON 25, D. C., 11 February 1947
FM 105-5, Umpire Manual, is published for the in formation and guidance of all concerned. [AG 300 .7 (1 N ov 46) ]
BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR I
O FFICIA L : DWIGHT D. EISENHOWEEChief of Staff
EDWAED F. WITSELLMajor General
The Adjutant General
D ISTR IBUT ION :
AAF (25) ; AGF (40); T (5) ; Dept (5) ; Base
Comd (2); Def Comd (2); AAF Comd (5) ;
Arm & Sv Bd (1) ; BU (2); Sp Sv Sch 2, 4, 6 , 7, 17, 44, 70 , 71 (5); A (5) ; CHQ (5); D (5) ;
B (3); E (2) ; Bn 2, 4, 6 , 7, 17, 44 , 71 (1); C 2, 4, 6 , 7, 17, 44 , 71 (1) ; AF (10); W (5); G (3);. 8(2).
For explanation of distribution formula, see FM 21-6.
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CHAPTER 1 . GENERAL.
Section I. General. Paragraph Page
Application---.-_---__---_-.-__-__- 1 1
Character of maneuvers-_-.-__---_-- 2 1Requirement for umpiring. _ _ .__--_-_ 3 2
Status of umpires-._-__-___----_- 4 2
Relations between troops and umpires. 5 2
Basis of umpiring-.____________..___ 6 3
Weather_--.---_-.-._.-..-.-_. 7 3
17. Umpire system.
Director.-------------------------- 8 . 4Organization of umpires,--.--_____.- 9 4
Recognition---...._______.._--__--_ 10 6Control---..._---------_--_.--_ 11 7Decisions--------.---------..------ 1 2 8Successive decisions..----.._------__ 1 3 1 0
III. Communications.
General.------------------------,. 1 4 11
Wire_____-----_-_--_---- 15 11
Radio ---------------------___ 16 11
Other communication facilities-..---- 1 7 1 2
CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM OF GROUND UMPIRING.
Section I. Fire power.
Infantry fire power-....--.--.___. 18 13Determination of infantry fire power. _ 19 14Effect of artillery on fire power.---_.. 20 16
Effect of tank self-propelled guns onfire power.-...--_-._-.._-__.._.. 2 1 1 7Effect of aviation on fire power....... 22 17
//. Losses.
General...---------------------_ 23 1 8Infantry___..___________ 24 20
It i
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CHAPTER
Continued
Field artillery..._...--..-..--..-. 25 22
Cavalry_________,_________ 26 22Vehicles,.-.__--. -___ 27 22 Antitank guns..-----__-_-__-_---.- 28 25Fire duels...._____.__.__.-._.. 29 26Aircraft.___..._._..-_.-..--..... 30 28
///. Delays.Obstacles--___-.-.._______. 31 43 Air attacks against bridges.---__-
-_- 32 45 Other delays and neutralization.___._ 33 50 Marking artillery fire.
General--.--.------------------.-- 34 51Code coordinates------------------- 35 53Procedure----.-.-------.--------.- 36 53Records--.----.-----.------------- 37 58Miscellaneous.
Chemicals---..--_--------------- 38 58Blank ammunition-_________________ 39 62Counterbattery intelligence.--------- 40 62Motor-vehicle lights-_---__----_-_-- 41 63Prisoners, weapons, and vehicles cap tured orruledoutofaction.------- 42 63
Artificial casualties-.-._----_--_--_- 43 64
CHAPTER 3. SYSTEM OF AIR UMPIR ING.
General.
Strength of air unit____-____... 44 66Equipment--_--------_--_--___---- 45 66Rate of operations_.-........._._. 46 66Umpire organization-_-____.__-____. 47 67Assignment of airplanes to umpires,-- 48 71Status of air umpires_____.-_____-__ 49 71Decisions..-----.-_-__--_-__--_-_-- 50 71.
//. Air fighting.
Method of assessment______________ 51 71Fighter aviation_-_-________._.__, 52 72Bombardment aviation__.__.__..._ 53 76Casualty aircraft.------------------ 54 76
iv
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CHAPTER
Air attack.
Identification-'-_-.._______.__..___. 55 77
U se of gas,__-__.--_____-____--_--. 56 77
Bomb loads..-........__......... 57 77
Lo w altitude attacks__............ 58 80
Grounded aircraft losses fro m bombing
and strafing attacks---.--......... 59 85
Radar station..........._-...-..... 60 91
Direction finder..--.-----__...... 61 92
Attack o n control centers and com
mand posts,.-------------------- 62 92
CHAPTER 4. UMPIRE PERSONNEL AND DUTIES.
Personnel.Director headquarters___._.-----__ 63 93
Umpires__.-..._.-..-----_----. 64 94
Duties of umpires.
General. _-__-_-_______--------- 65 97A ir umpires-__--__----.-__------- 66 98
Infantry rif le o r parachute battalion
umpire__-----_-__------_-------- 67 98
Field artillery battalion umpire---_._. 68 99
Company troop umpire-.-_-_-.__.-_ 69 101
Tank umpire --_-_----------_--.- 70 103
Antiaircraft umpire.--____--_--_--_- 71 1 04
Signal umpire-,-_________... 72 105
Fire umpire__.--- ...---. 73 1 07
CHAPTER 5. UMPIRE TRAINING.
General-.----.----_.__-------- 74 109
Program of umpire training.......... 75 109
Applicatory problems.-----__------. 76 111
Field maneuvers-------------------- 77 11 3
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RESTR ICTED
C H A P TE R 1G E N E R A L
Section 1. G E N E R A L
1. APPLICATIO N . This manual is specifically appli
cable to field maneuvers (two-sided). It may be used
in field exercises (one-sided), command post exercises,
and various other forms of applicatory training as ap
propriate.
2. C H A R A C T E R OF MANEUVERS.
a. Free. Each force should act as it chooses, subject
only to field orders received, to terrain restrictions, and
actions by the opposing force. Prohibited areas and
other terrain restrictions should be published to both
forces alike before a maneuver, preferably by over
printed map or overlay. A particular tract may be used
either actually or not at all; it may be used by assump
tion or constructively.
b. Continuous. An armistice or rest period during
a maneuver for example, at night lessens realism and
training value and will not be permitted.c . Realistic. A maneuver should continue until the
tactical action has developed fully and indirect as well
as direct results can be foreseen and evaluated. No time
limit should be placed on a maneuver; its termination
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should be left entirely to the judgment of the director.
3. REQU I R EMENT F O R UMP IR I NG . Maneuvers are the
highest form of training, short of actual combat.
Eealism in maneuvers requires painstaking umpiring inthe air, as well as on the ground. Actual combat
involves movement, fire, and physical contact of the
opposing forces (shock action). Movement can and
should be real, approaching combat conditions closely .
Fire must be simulated, or with blank ammunition,
and its effect determined and indicated by umpires.
Hand-to-hand combat also cannot be real, and opposing
troops are stopped short of physical contact. Thus,
except for movement, it is necessary that tactical prog
ress be determined and indicated by umpires, based onthe position and' fire power of the opposing units
involved.
4. S TATU S OF UM PIRE S . Although umpires are assigned
to units of the opposing forces, they are in no sense a
part of such units. The entire group of umpires is
superimposed on the maneuver as a whole. Umpires
are neutral in attitude and actions. Their decisions
express and interpret tactical facts.
5. RELATIONS BETWEEN TROOPS AND UMPIRES.
a. Troops must understand and conform to procedures
established for maneuvers, and accept decisions by
umpires without argument. However, troops may call
on umpires for decisions, when needed, and for clarification of decisions already made.
b. Umpires must avoid interfering with troops, and
must not reveal the position of troops by exposing
themselves unnecessarily. In general unit umpires will
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conform to restrictions imposed on troops of the unit
to which they are assigned.
The outcome of combat isessentially determined by the difference in the sums of
the combat strength of small units of opposing forces.
It follows that realism in maneuvers can be obtained
only by painstaking umpiring of the combat efforts
and results of all small unit action and a careful umpire
evaluation of the additive effect of such combat efforts
and results.
b. Umpiring is based on a studied and reasonable
accurate determination of three controlling factors.
(1) The firepower of the opposing forces to include
supporting arms and aviation. This will include the
availability and proper application at the decisive
point of the destructive power of combined arms andthe surprise with which it is delivered. (See pars. 18
through 22.)
(2) Losses of personnel and essential equipment
since they effect firepower of combined arms. (See
pars. 23 through 30.)
(3) Delays which effect movement, and ultimatelyfirepower in some degree. (See pars. 31 through 33.)
c . The great mass of umpires should be with or among
small units which are or will be in contact with the
opposing forces. Umpires at the headquarters of the
director or of large units should be held to a minimum.
Actual weather conditions will governall operations and umpire decisions. No assumption
will be made concerning visibility or concealment.
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Section II. UMPIRE SYSTEM
The director plans and conducts the
maneuver. Although he participates in the operationsof neither of the opposing forces, he acts as the superior
commander of both forces for the purpose of presenting
the situation, initiating and terminating the maneuver,
and giving such instructions as may be necessary. He
conducts the critique.
Umpires are di
rectly under the maneuver director. For large maneu
vers, assistant directors are necessary for the adminis
tration, assignment, and supervision of umpires, and
their transportation and equipment. For maneuvers
involving ground and air forces, the maneuver director
has under him a chief umpire who, in turn, has a groundumpire group and an air umpire group. (See fig. 1.)
b. Ground umpires are of three classes:
(1) Unit umpires, assigned to troop units with
duties as described in paragraphs 66 through 70.
(2) Fire umpires, who mark artillery fires on the
ground. (See par. 73.)
(3) Spot umpires, assigned specially to important
type targets such as bridges, defiles, and marshaling
yards, which are subject to air or ground attack afford
ing opportunity for disruptive results.
c . For the composition of minimum air umpire group,
see paragraph 47a.
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10. R E C O G N I T I O N , a. P ersonnel and motor vehicles.
(1)
Director and higher com- White helmet band Green flag,
manders and staffs and all or shoulder loop,
umpire personnel.
Observers___________ Green helmet band Green flag.
or shoulder loop.
(2)
Blue force___________ Blue helmet band * Blue marker.
or shoulder lo op.
Red force___________ Red helmet band*Red marker.
or shoulder lo op.
Correspondent ________ Green brassard "Blue (red)
with white letter marker.
C.
Photographer_-______ Green brassard 'Blue (red)
with white letter marker.
P.
(1) Armored vehicles in ac
tion will carry a painted or cloth band 12 inches wide
around the body of the vehicle as follows:
Blue force___________________ Blue band.Red force_-_-_ ___________. Red band.
This identification is inapplicable to unarmored vehiclesof an armored unit.
(2) If a vehicle is ruled out of action by an umpire,
the top will be covered by a large white cloth and a
smoke pot immediately ignited near the vehicle.
c . Airplanes, including field artillery liaison planes.
Blue force: 5-foot white band around fuselage between trailing
edge of wing and tail.Red force: 5-foot international orange band around each wing,
center of band one-third of way in from wing tips.
1 Of prominent size paint, placard, or sticker in front and rea.r,without obscuring permanent markings. This is IB addition to the blackflag displayed when the vehicle is ruled out of action. (See par. lla.)
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No vehicle whatever of the opposing forces is authorized to carry the green flag, exceptambulances evacuating actual casualties or returning
therefrom, and motor couriers under the provisions ofparagraph 63e.
When opposing units are in contact,
. and at other times when appropriate, control flags will
be used as follows:
White ______ Unit umpire All troops of the unit halt inplace while the flag is dis
played.
Blue* ____ Unit umpire Opposin g infantry may advance
toward the unit where the
flag is displayed, because
they have fire superiority.
If they do so the weaker
troops must withdraw corre spondingly or be captured.
Red _ Unit umpire_ Opposing infantry may~not ad
vance toward the unit where
the flag is displayed, because
they do not have firesuperiority.
Red with white Fire umpire or Artillery fire is falling within
center. field artil- 100 yards of the flag,lery battal
ion umpire.
Orange :_____ Gun crew_.__ Effective antitank gun is firing
from near the flag.Black _______ Vehic le ____ Every vehicle will carry a black
flag which will be displayed
prominently if the vehicle oraccompanying weapon is de
stroyed or ruled out of action.
Black and white- Fire um pire__ Lethal concentration of non-persistent toxic gas within
100 yards of the flag.
Inapplicable to arm ored elements except the red flag after dark.
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b. The following sizes are suitable:
White, blue, and red: Foot troops flag 4 by 4 feet; staff 8 feet.Mounted troops and armored vehicles flag 2 by 2 feet; staff
5 feet.Red with white center: Flag 2 by 2 feet; staff 5 feet.Orange: Flag 3 by 3 feet; staff 5 feet.Black and white: Flag 2 by 2 feet; staff 5 feet.Black: Flag2 by 2 feet; staff feet.
When opposing forces approach c on
tact and occasionally under other conditions a decision by umpires is required, in order that there may be,tactical realism. The procedure is as follows:
a. Umpires with opposing units display white flags,halting their units pending a decision. (See par. lla.)
Other unit umpires in the same locality also display
white flags, in order not to distort the tactical situation
unnaturally.
b. The umpires concerned then assemble promptly
and confer as to the situation of their units.
c. One of the following decisions should result:
(1) Neither force may advance. The white flagsare replaced by red flags along the fronts of both forces
(See par. Ha.)(2) O ne force may advance, and the other must
either withdraw correspondingly or be captured. White
flags are replaced by red flags along the front of the
stronger force and by blue flags along the front of the
weaker force. If the stronger force advances but the
weaker force does not withdraw, the action is halted
in time to avoid physical contact, and those elementsof the weaker force which are engaged actually are
declared prisoners of war. At the same time, the fire-
power of the attacker is reduced by the total firepowerof the captured force. In addition, the attacker is de-
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layed for 1 hour, less 10 minutes for each unit of the
unreduced ratio of fire superiority in excess of four.
Thus, if the ratio of fire superiority is 5%: 1, the delay is 45 minutes.
d. In case the umpires of one force disagree with
those of the opposing force, a compromise must be
reached promptly, in order that the maneuver may
progress. In case any umpire displays an inflexible
and unreasonable attitude, he should be reported to
director headquarters as soon as possible by other um pires who are familiar with the facts.
e. In case an artillery fire is reported which falls in
an area where white flags are being displayed, it will
be marked and umpires will credit it in determining
relative firepower. Except for determining relative
firepower, however, the artillery fire will be considered
as commencing when the white flags are replaced by colored flags.
f. If effective umpiring and ground decisions become
definitely impracticable on account of darkness, fr<?,
close terrain, or other conditions, red flags should be
displayed along the front of bo'th forces. Such action
is in no sense an armistice, but merely restricts move
ment in the degree necessary to prevent confusion.g. With respect to air attacks, ground umpires
(1) Assess losses of combat aircraft due to antiair
craft fire, except those due to concentrated caliber .3 0
fire.
(2) Assess losses to liaison aircraft flying at an
altitude of 1,000 feet or less, if subjected to 1,000 rounds
or more of caliber .30 fire at a slant range of 500 yardsor less.
(3) Aircraft losses are reported directly to the air
umpire and director headquarters.
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(4) Determine ground effects due to air action,
except attacks against airdromes. Such decisions must
be made and communicated to the units concerned aspromptly as possible, in order to impress troops with
the effect of aviation.
h. Air umpires and airdrome umpires make the fol
lowing decisions:
(1) Admissibility and validity of information, in
cluding photographs obtained by reconnaissance and
observation teams.(2) Losses of airplanes flying low over concentrated
caliber .3 0 fire.(3) Losses of aircraft in air fighting.
(4) Effects of air attacks on airdromes or other air
force installations.
(5) Lossas of aircraft attacking airdromes or other
air force installations.
In general, a decision
results in some change of dispositions by one or both
forces, in which case white flags must b e displayed again
and a new decision made. In other words, the combat
phase of maneuver consists of intermittent actions
marked by blue and red flags, separated b y the displayof white flags and the ensuing decisions.
b. The interruption of action, in order to permit decisions, delays the maneuver. Such delays, however,
counteract the natural tendency of maneuvers to pro
gress more rapidly than actual combat. Moreover, it isonly by frequent and considered decisions, based on
facts at points of contact, that a maneuver can afford
correct and useful training commensurate with the ef
fort and expense involved.
1 0
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Effectiveness of the umpire group
depends greatly upon the efficiency of means of c ommunication specifically provided for the use of umpires.
.Prompt dissemination of decisions, both to units in
volved in the tactical situation and to all umpires c on
cerned therewith, is essential to effective control and
the resultant realism.
b. Telephone and teletypewriter circuits must be c on
structed in the maneuver area prior to the field exer
cises. The signal officer of director headquarters will
assign radio frequencies, call signs, and nets in an ap
propriate signal operations instruction.
By wire signal communication, the direc
tors consult with the chief air and ground umpires andthe chief umpires of opposing red and blue forces.
Additional wire communications are provided in the
field for use of unit umpires in reporting decision to
chief umpires.
b. Teletypewritten communications are required be
tween chief air and ground umpires to permit rapiddissemination of impending air operations and the as
sessed results thereof.
e. All umpire wire facilities will be appropriately
marked "Off Limits to Troops" to insure use by au
thorized personnel only.
Radio nets link all major umpire headquarters. In addition, special nets are required for use
of artillery unit umpires and fire umpires; between
chief red and blue umpires and their subordinates; as
well as special nets required in particular tactical situa
tions (for example, control of mass armored attacks).
728970 17 311
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b. A . S umpire radio nets are subject to interception
by maneuvering troops, special care must be exercised
to preserve security through the use of codes, ciphers,and appropriately classified maps and photos.
Visualor aural communication means must be provided to
(1) Indicate air attacks.(2) Mark cessation of air attacks.
(3) Simulate firing.(4) Attract attention to the display of flags by fire
umpires and assistants or by unit umpires and assistants.
b. Lights, pyrotechnics, smoke pots or candles, port
able public address systems, as well as noisemakers
simulating the sound of firing are appropriate in thatthey add realism and assist umpires in controlling
tactical maneuvers.
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C H A P TER 2
SYST E M O F G R O UND UM P IRING
Section I. FIRE POWER
An infantry element
or any element acting as infantry should be permitted
to advance only when it has decisive superiority of fire,as compared with the elements immediately opposing it
frontally. This superiority never should be less than
2 to 1 , and generally should be 3 or 4 to 1 . If the de
fender has good cover and field of fire, or if the attacker
has little cover, there should be no hesitation in requir
ing a superiority of 5 to 1 , or even more.b. The tendency is to favor the attacker, permitting
him to advance with only a small fire superiority,
whereas war experience has shown conclusively that a
determined defender, well placed, can delay or even stop
a greatly superior force. However, in surprise attacks,
andespecially flank attacks, the defender may fail to
use his firepower completely, may be disposed so that
he cannot use it, or may be unable to control and co
ordinate it properly, due to surprise and lack of prepara
tion. In such cases, the attacker may be permitted to
advance with a nominal or apparent fire superiority no
greater than that of the defender, or even less.
c . The machine gun is especially effective in defense,
and every effort must be made to ascertain and weigh
fairly those which are effective in a given situation.
Machine guns should be supplied abundantly with
blank ammunition, and must fire sufficiently to reveal
their presence to opposing troops and to umpires.
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d. The situation may be such that a sound decisionc an be reached only by dividing the action into parts
which are distinct so far as firepower is concerned. Forexample, one company may attack ariother companyfrontally, which is one action and need not be divided.The firepower is about the same for both forces, and
the decision is a stalemate. But, if the attacking c om
pany employs one platoon frontally and two platoons
to envelop, the situation is quite different and must bedivided into two actions. The frontal attack is stopped,
but the enveloping attack quite possibly may be decisively superior in firepower and should be permitted
to advance. Thus the attacking company may be suc
cessful by virtue of its maneuver.e. Credit should be allowed for weapons which are
authorized but not yet issued, provided that trainedcrews are in proper positions and simulate action so
far as possible. It is desirable to improvise dummy
weapons.
19. DETERMINATION OF INFANTRY F IREPOWER. a.
Manifestly, umpires cannot follow and evaluate the fireof infantry weapons individually. Nevertheless, it isessential to determine the collective fire effect of infantry units in a form which permits comparison. The
adopted system is based on the assumption that all
weapons in action are employed with full effectivenessunder the attendant conditions. Differences in fire ef
fect then are due principally to numbers and relativeeffect of weapons in action, and to range. It is prac
ticable ordinarily to determine these factors with anaccuracy sufficient for the purpose.
b. The number of weapons can be tallied readily by
company umpires and includes only those weapons
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whose fire is effective in the situation being decided.
Weapons in support or reserve units, not committed,
and those firing in another situation are excluded.
c. The relative effect of the several weapons cannot
be evaluated precisely, but is indicated sufficiently accurately by the following factors:
Rifle , caliber .30 all
Light machine gun. _ . .
Heavy machine gun*._
81-mm. mortar . .
105-mm. (infantry)._._
4.2-inch mortar, HE....50cal. MG A/C.__Rifle grenade------ -_2.36" rocket.. ___3.5" rocket______ 57-mm. R/R,_- __-
75-mm. R/R___ _90-mm. SP gun.......
0-100yards
3
100-
2 0 0yards
1 5
0-300yards
1
3
0-500yards
1
3
6
10
6
1 .5
15
10
1?
0-700yards
10
6
f i
15
15
600-
1,000 yards
0, 5
1 5
6
10f i
15
15
1510
f i
15
1 5
1,000-1,600yards
3
5
15
15
1510
6
1 5
15
1500-maxi-mum effec
tiverangeof
weapon
15
15
1 55
6
1 5
15
Including caliber .6 0 when used against personnel.
N O T E S
1 . Value o f s ma l l arm s carried by personne l o f c r e w se rved weapons w ill be counted in the to ta l f o r the w eapon , n o t as ind iv id u a l a r m s .
2. Firepower of weapons carried by Infantry leaders above squad leader will not
be counted In total.
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d. Infantry firepower is determined for each rifle
company or smaller separate unit in action. Firepower
of heavy weapons is added t o > that of the rifle unit sup
ported. The total, modified for artillery, tank, and
airplane effect (pars. 20 through 22 ) and for losses (par;
23 through 30), is the basis of a decision according to
paragraph 1 2c.
e. The following example shows how a company um
pire might determine the firepower of his company in
a particular situation (computations are based on T/O & E 7-17 and 7-18, L June 1945) :
5 rifle squads in action; others in support; squads at full
strength of 1 1 rifles and 1 automatic rifle______ 702 light machine guns in action at 400 yards__________ 123 60-mm mortars in action-_________________ 384 heavy machine guns supporting the company, 2 of them
at 800 yards and 2 at 1,200 yards___1_________ 302, 81-mm mortars in action__________________ 302, 105-mm infantry howitzers in action__________ 30
2. 4.2-inch chemical mortars in action firingHE_ 303. 57-mm recoilless rifles______________________ 18
2 , 75-mm recoilless rifles______________________ 30
Total _________-___________________ 2 6 8
f. The firepower of other rifle units is determined as for infantry.
g. For effect of smoke on firepower, see par. 38b.
a. When
an infantry element actually is under artillery fire (par.
34), its firepower will be taken as reduced by one-half
so long as the artillery fire continues. Thus, in the
example above, if one platoon of three rifle squads in
action was under artillery fire, the firepower of the
company would be reduced by 21. (11 rifles, 1 auto-
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matic rifle per squad, total firepower per squad: 14.
Total per platoon: 42.)
b. When artillery in position is taken under well- placed fire by the opposing artillery counterbattery
fire such fire neutralizes the artillery subjected to it.
The duration of neutralization of each battery is 5
minutes per battery-minute of counterbattery fire
against it. Thus counterbattery fire assists the infantry
by interrupting artillery fire against such infantry.
c . When the umpires concerned know that the balance of firepower between forces has been changed
sufficiently, red flags will be replaced by blue flags along
the front of the weaker force during the period of
artillery fire without the display of white flags.
Tanks and self-propelled guns
(SP) in action will be taken as neutralizing infantry
within 100 yards of any tank or self-propelled guns
(SP), except that the armored vehicles themselves may
be attacked as described in paragraph 27d. The fire-
power of such infantry against opposing infantry is
zero while the tanks or self-propelled guns are present.b. The effect of tanks and self-propelled guns on ar
tillery firepower is in diverting the artillery from sup
port of the infantry to antitank defense. Such effect
is included automatically in the supporting fires which
are reported for marking. (See par. 34.)
22. EF F E C T OF AVIATION ON FIREPOWER. a. During
such time as troops are subjected to strafing or bombing
attacks, their firepower is neutralized. Hence attacking
troops are permitted to advance or otherwise maneuver
to advantageous positions, so long as they are not with
in the danger zone of such simulated attack.
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b. For delays imposed as a result of such attacks, see
paragraph 33e.
e. Air attacks against ground targets require indication of the target from the air, in order that the ground
umpire may identify it. Dropped messages, visual sig
nals, or air-ground radio may be used. Vessel signals
include paper bags of flour of not more than 14 pound,
flakes of paper, sprays of lime water or other inert
liquids, flares, and other pyrotechnics and airplane land ing light.
d. Deployed infantry and artillery in position will
be taken as neutralized by attack by low-flying airplanes
as follows: one airplane against a company or battery
or less; three airplanes against a battalion; and nine
airplanes against a regiment. During the attacks, the
firepower of the infantry against opposing infantry is zero, and the artillery fire is interrupted.
Section II. LOSSES
Losses considered in umpiring are
confined to those which have a material effect on realis
tic progress of maneuvers as follows: Casualties of rifleunits; destruction or capture of field artillery and anti
aircraft pieces, antitank guns, armored and unarmored
vehicles, supplies, facilities, and vital installations;
destruction of airplanes.
b. It is essential that the personnel losses of rifle
companies and troops of infantry and horse cavalry
be assessed and recorded, since such lo sses affect fire-
power and thus influence the progress of a maneuver.
Units may be weakened by accumulating lo sses during a
maneuver so as to affect the final outcome decisively.
e. Losses are assessed by the umpire with the company, not by umpires with opposing units. The um-
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pire keeps a running record of losses, and informs the
company commander of them from time to time. If a
company umpire is not present when elements of his company are subjected to artillery fire, the fire umpire
will send written information to the company umpire
as to the number of the company personnel and battery-
minutes of fire involved.
d. Personnel losses are listed below in percent of the
strength involved. Ordinarily umpires must convert
such proportions into numbers according to the strength
of the element concerned. The total numerical loss at
any time, however, must be reconverted to percent in
determining firepower. The actual initial
strength of a rifle company is 200. Losses are assessedfor separate, successive actions as follows: entire com
pany, 2 percent; one platoon, 1 percent; two platoons,3 percent. The corresponding numerical losses are, 4 ,
and 3 total 8, which is 4 percent of 200. There
after, any computed firepower, such as that of paragraph
19e, is reduced by 4 percent or 9, on the assumption that
losses of firepower other than for rifles are in the same
proportion as for rifles.e. Assessed casualties do not leave their companies
actually; in fact, they are recorded quantitatively, not
individually. They are distinct from artificial casual
ties.
f. Assessed casualties will be considered as re
placed during the maneuver.
g. The losses to be assessed as a resultof fire and other
actions by the opposing force necessarily are a matter
of judgment in some respects. The relative strength of
the opposing forces is an especially important factor.
For example, a rifle company attacking a squad might
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be expected to sustain comparatively few casualties;
but if the company attacked another company, its losses
undoubtedly would be heavy.h. The data in paragraphs 24 through 30 are to be
taken as a guide in weighing the various aspects of each
case. It is to be emphasized that the usual tendency of
umpires is to assess losses which are grossly excessive
in the light of war experience.
i. For losses to be assessed as a result of the use of
chemicals, see paragraph 38.
War experience indicates that an
infantry regiment may sustain extreme casualties as
great as 15 percent during 1 day of severe combat.
While lo sses of a particular portion of the regiment
might exceed this proportion, the figure affords a usefulcheck on the total casualties assessed by company
umpires.
b. Company umpires should penalize improper for
mations and undue exposure by increased losses. Dou
bling the usual losses is a severe penalty in this con
nection.
c. The average losses sustained by infantry are indi
cated as follows:
Fire by opposing infantry _ __ 1 to 3 percent per hour.
When two infantry units of substantially equal strength
oppose each other under the same conditions and are-
engaged actively, the casualties may be taken as 2 per
cent per hour. For example, a company of 200 menwould lose 4 men per hour of active combat. If a unit
attacks a strong position, or if it encounters especially
heavy fire, the rate may be 3 percent per ho'ur. If a
unit is on the defensive, well protected, or if it attacks
inferior force, the loss may be only 1 percent
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per hour while engaged actively. Umpires may declare
individuals casualties for undue exposure to hostile fire.
Such casualties will be tagged and processed as arti
ficial casualties. (See par. 43.)
Personnel within an artillery concentration:Erect___________ 3 percent, per battery, per minute.
Running_______ _ 3 percent, per battery, per case.
Prone____________ 1 percent, per battery, per minute.
Entrenched_____ % of 1 percent, per battery, per minute.
In trucks_________ 3 percent, per battery, per minute.
In trucks, passing through-- 3 percent, per battery, per case.Infantry overrun by tanks or self-propelled guns (SP) :
Elements within 1 00 yards of any tank or SP and
not entrenched_ 3 percent, per tank, or SP per attack.
Entrenched or
in fox holes __ 1 percent, per tank, or SP per attack.
Infantry in column attacked by an appropriate number * of low-
flying airplanes:With surprise___-_______ _ 1 0 percent, per attack.
Without surprise _ ________ 2 percent, per attack.
Infantry deployed or in bivouac attacked by an appropriate
number of low-flying airplanes:
With surprise_____________-_ 8 percent, per attack.
Without surprise--____________ 2 percent, per attack.
d. When artillery masses the fire of more than onebattalion in three minutes or less, percentage losses per
battery, per minute, or per battery, per case (c above)
are increased as follows:
Two battalions_____________________________ 20
Three battalions________________________ 30
Four battalions_________________________ 40 More than four battalions____________________ 50
Six batteries (two battalions, par. 36f)
fire for 3 minutes on 1 00 prone infantry. Losses are 1 8
1 One airplane against a company or less ; three airplanes against a
battalion ; and nine airplanes against a regiment. If the number is
materially smaller or larger, the effect Is assessed correspondingly
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battery minutes at 1 percent per minute, or 1 8, plus 20
percent (massing of two battalions) or total lo sses of 22.
War experience indicates that
casualties of artillery personnel are small and insuf
ficient to interrupt firing or affect progress of the
infantry materially. Hence, in a maneuver there is no
need of assessing casualties of field artillery.
b. When a battery in position is attacked by either
foot or mounted troops, decisions as to capture or destruction of the battery is based on relative firepower
(par. 19) in directions other than those of the artillery
pieces. N o advance is permissible against cannon fire
at short range.
e. See paragraph 20b in connection with neutraliza
tion of artillery by counterbattery fire.d. Artillery employed as antitank guns will be sub
ject to the provisions of paragraph 28.
e. Destroyed and captured artillery will be ruled out
of action for the duration of the maneuver, or for suchlesser period as may be fixed beforehand by the director.
Personnel losses of cavalry and re
connaissance units, fighting dismounted (as infantry)
are the same as infantry.
b. When mounted in armored vehicles, vehicle
losses are given in paragraph 27.
The following weapons and ammunition are-taken as effective against armored vehicles:
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Section III. D ELA YS
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Section IV. MARKING A R T ILLE R Y FIRE
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G H
C7 P7
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Section V. MISCELLANEOUS
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CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM OF AIR UMPIRING
Section I. GENERAL
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Section II. AIR FIGHTING
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Section III. AIR ATTACK
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Bomb
e
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CHAPTER 4
UMPIRE PERSONNEL AND DUTIES
Section I. PERSONNEL
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Section II. DUT IES OF U M P I R E S
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CHAPTER 5
UM PIRE TRAINING
Section I . GE N E R A L
75. PROGRAM OF UMPIRE TRAINING, a.
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