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Taylor Harrington Academic Director: Isabelle Onians

Senior Faculty Advisor: Hubert Decleer Project Advisor: Prashnna Ghimire

Project Editor: Rick Ehlert Rollins College

Environmental Studies Asia, Kathmandu, Nepal

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Nepal: Tibetan and Himalayan Peoples, SIT Study Abroad, Spring 2016

RECONSTRUCTING RESILIENCE CHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF SUSTAINABLE RECONSTRUCTION IN RURAL NEPAL

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Abstract Just one year after the 7.8 magnitude earthquake and aftershocks, Nepal is about to begin

its transition from recovery to reconstruction. The disaster revealed many vulnerabilities in the rural areas, not the least of which are poor construction techniques and the threat that disasters pose to income and livelihood. Many rural people are subsistence farmers, and any loss of their land is devastating to their income and ability to survive. In response to these circumstances, there is a movement towards seismically safe housing that locals can rebuild themselves within the parameters of government-distributed aid. These ideas are introducing the concept of sustainable architecture to Nepal, an entirely separate and necessary achievement alltogether that may benefit the country in its recovery and development.

This report attempts to spread awareness of the diversity and customs in rural Nepal that reconstruction efforts must be aware of when intervening in its issues. It focuses on the higher altitude rural areas, areas above 2500m elevation, which present the most challenging circumstances for reconstruction. By studying the most extreme circumstances in need of the most innovative solutions, I reveal considerations applicable to rural Nepal. I attempt to spread a mindset of inquiry by questioning the existing reconstruction efforts occurring in Nepal, and answer the question of how to “build back better” for the benefit of the inhabitants.

Sustainability is an important goal that must be attained in not just Nepal but all over the world. I view the earthquake as an opportunity to redirect Nepal’s development, and I fully adopt the perspective that disaster has the ability to be a blessing if handled correctly. Human history shows that along with catastrophe comes realization, innovation, and invention, and in those times, people change the course of history. These times inspires people to rethink and recreate the way things are done. Recovery from the earthquake has the potential to transform not only the way people rebuild, but how they view their own resilience and capacity.

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______________________________________________________________________________ Table Of Contents

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………4

Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………...5

1. Architecture and Sustainability

1.1 A Brief History…………………………………………………………………..……6

1.2 Nepal: Disaster and Sustainability……………………………………………..……...7

2. The Case of Rural Nepal and Recovery……………………………………………………...8

3. One Year Later: Transition to Reconstruction

3.1 Arguments for Architectural Change..……………………….……..………………..11

3.2 New Ideas for Sustainable Housing.............................................................................13

4. Importance of Architectural Preservation

4.1 Cultural Identity…….……………………………………………………………..…15

4.1.1 Traditional Aesthetic………………………….………………………..…..15

4.1.2 Case Studies: ‘Modern’ Building and Community Layout.……………….16

4.2 Vernacular Form and Function…..…………………..………………..…………......18

4.2.1 Climactic and Social Appropriateness…….……….……………………....19

4.2.2 Financial Feasibility………………………………………..………….…...20

5. Challenges and Possibilities of High Altitude Reconstruction……………..……………...21

6. Implementation of Reconstruction Efforts……………………………………….………...22

7. Conclusion: How Can We Build Back Best?.........................................................................24

Appendices

Appendix 1: Temporary Living Conditions...…………………….………………….…..27

Appendix 2: Local Reconstruction in Kerauja……………………………………...……28

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………….29

Survey Participants......................................................................................................................31

Suggestions for Future Research………………………………………………………………32

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Acknowledgements I express my extreme gratitude to all those who made this research paper not just possible but full of possibilities. The moment I expressed interest in sustainable architecture, I was overwhelmed with the support I received from people throughout the iNGO community. Disaster recovery efforts seem to bring the biggest hearts and minds into the same thinking space, a place that I am so proud to have been a part of for a short time. I express the biggest thanks to Kyle for seeing potential in me and giving me clear motivation in my writing and in my future. I am equally grateful to Prashnna for helping me every step of the way with organizing and conducting my field research, and inspiring me to have purpose and passion in my career. This paper owes a lot of its success to his unflinching devotion to the project. A big thank you to Rick for consistently showing me support and sharing his wisdom. I am lucky to have found life-long mentors that are willing to take so much time out of their extremely busy schedules to guide me through this research with utmost attention and serious consideration. I cannot forget about Kuldeep, a friend from the iNGO world that shared his precious time and interest with me. And Suyog, my co-researcher and translator in both Sindhupalchowk and Gorkha, for being a good friend and enduring 8 hour, sweaty bus rides and dangerous mountain roads with me in good spirits. I would like to extend my gratitude to Allen and the rest of Conscious Impact for welcoming me in as part of their family and feeding me the best food of my life. Lastly thank you to Lana and Teresa for inspiring dinner conversations. This project has introduced me to many dedicated humanitarians, and I cannot wait to someday follow in their footsteps. Finally, to my parents, thank you for always supporting my interests no matter what. From agreeing to switch the whole house to low-energy light bulbs in elementary school, to helping me build a compost pile in our backyard in middle school, you have supported my future in sustainable development from day one. Thank you to the SIT staff for being a safety net to all the students on their ISPs and especially to Isabelle for making me question everything I hear, say, do or write.

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Methodology My research was conducted through two main channels: iNGO architects, engineers, employees, and local residents of 3 of the most earthquake-affected areas. In order to gain the most considerate and well-rounded understanding of the reconstruction process, I felt it was necessary to get both the perspectives of iNGO professionals implementing reconstruction projects and the villagers who the projects aimed to assist. I wanted to know what the villagers wanted, and the ways in which organizations either achieve or redirect those desires. I planned to research in two of the most affected districts, Sindhupalchowk and Gorkha, with specific focus on the villages in the higher elevations. I first had a series of conversations and meetings with iNGO professionals in Kathmandu to pick their brains about their thoughts, plans and hopes for future reconstruction. With that knowledge I traveled to Takure in the Sindhupalchowk district with Suyog, who is in the process of starting his own non-profit initiative. We stayed with Conscious Impact, a group building a local school using earth bricks, for two days to investigate their project. I did not interview locals from that village due to lack of time and proper planning. Then I moved to Pulpingkot in the same district with Prashnna, an engineer that works with the area frequently. I stayed there for 3 days and conducted 9 out of 18 survey questionnaires. The survey included yes/no, multiple choice, and open-ended questions. We often left out many open-ended questions because they were too complicated for the villagers. I then spent six days walking up into Upper Kerauja in the Gorkha district, where I lived for a total of 3 days and conducted the last 9 surveys. The survey was intended to understand the villagers’ living conditions pre-earthquake versus their current housing conditions, and their future hopes for reconstruction. Once I had understood the reality of the situation, I returned to Kathmandu and re-interviewed the initial interviewees to clarify what I had learned and in some ways challenge their perceptions. Most of my advisors and interviewees were from one of three iNGOs in reconstruction I worked with, potentially skewing my opinions. I have altered the names of some of the villagers to assure confidentiality from large government organizations and recovery efforts. This was my first introduction to the field of sustainable design and disaster recovery. I used this independent study to get a better understanding of the complex profession of working in the development sector, and gain experience in the field. In no way do I have a full comprehensive understanding of architecture or engineering, and my understanding of Nepal’s cultural dynamic cannot be so thorough only having lived there for three months. I do not speak Nepali and all field interviews were translated orally on site, possibly altering information through interpretation.

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1. ARCHITECTURE AND SUSTAINABILITY 1.1 A Brief History

Architecture is a direct response to the immediate physical, cultural and social environment of any given place. It hosts the human, the human condition and needs of our habitation. It is not merely characterized by the end result; it is the process of construction, the collaboration of ideas, the dynamic values that it was built upon. As a living and moving cultural heritage, it is dependent on every piece of its timeline, starting from before its own existence. Before the built environment, was the land that determined the materials to work with and conditions to adapt to. The ecological system and human relationship to that system determined the survival techniques that the shelter must accommodate.

As time passed, each advancement in the architectural style was a reflection of new social or environmental needs. Each change in the social process of rebuilding is also telling, for a building is a living result of the people who built it, the community or occupational motivation behind its construction, and the building in respect to time allotted for its construction. This direct response to the physical environment and conditions, although it is in many ways not "set in stone"1 and is constantly transforming to accommodate changing needs, can be described as 'vernacular architecture' in its specific place of origin.

The development of civilization allowed for specialization and institutionalization, and building practice benefitted through the collaboration and education of skilled architectural and engineering thought. But as humanity continued to progress, and both physical and cultural boundaries blurred through a process called globalization, rapid and haphazard introductions to new technologies and materials caused developments in the perceptions and economy surrounding architecture. Architecture became an industry in many places, with a widespread promotion of impractically expensive imported materials requiring special labor, and in turn requiring an unsustainable practice of costly demolition and repetition of the initial expenses. These places exhibit a new need of the home being separate from the surrounding environment, an escape from the outdoors2.

In light of recent academic interest in the waning condition of the human environment due to unsustainable practices as such, and the discovery of some of the negative effects of globalization, there has been a shift in focus in both developing and developed countries to return to architecture as a more direct response to the land. There is an academic movement to consider historical vernacular architecture and community planning as a legitimate source of wisdom and 1 Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj. “Cultures in Development: Conservation of Vernacular Architecture” Dept. of Architecture Institute of Engineering,Tribhuvan University. Heiwa Nakajima Foundation. 2 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016.

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knowledge, while applying the current critical thinking models and advanced scientific knowledge to adapt them accordingly to modern living. The point of the movement is to rethink our immediate environment as our means of sustenance in a modern and educated way, and to achieve a built environment that is conscious of all physical, social and economic factors.

1.2 Nepal: Disaster and Sustainability

Within the 20th century, there has been a shift in approach to earthquake recovery and

preparedness. Global thought has gone from a very technical perspective of disasters as merely geological phenomena and solution, which invariably “denied the wider historical and social dimensions of hazard”3, to specifically looking at societal response and organization as a crucial component in ‘disaster’4. Accordingly, the devastation of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake evoked many movements to not only restore the physical conditions of affected areas but to rebuild through local knowledge and capacity. This idea has the potential to greatly aid Nepal’s development in the rural areas. Nepal has been provided a unique opportunity to improve the rural communities by actually promoting their existing self-sufficiency in a modern way.

The earthquake serves as an opportunity to completely rethink development5, especially in terms of architecture. The disaster became inspiration to re-invent low cost, resilient housing throughout Nepal. “Because of harsh terrain, poor economic conditions and bad infrastructure, there is no alternative to using local materials for construction”6, argues ABARI, the Adobe and Bamboo Research Initiative, a domestic program whose mission is to reinvent vernacular architecture to be safe and inspiring. The earthquake highlighted the importance of study and advancement of old architectural styles, and the collaboration between advanced engineering skills and local knowledge. If the nature of rebuilding can achieve a transmission of advanced and improved building knowledge in a way that favors the specific culture, geography, social dynamic and capacity of the specific community, rural communities in Nepal have the potential to emerge as a global example of resilience and sustainability.

3 Jigyasu, Rohit. “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal.” Norwegian University of Science and Technology. July 2002. Accessed April 2016 4 ibid 5 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016. 6 “Bamboo Engineered House” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://www.abari.org/bamboo-engineered-house/

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2. THE CASE OF RURAL NEPAL AND EARTHQUAKE RECOVERY

Two of the most earthquake-affected districts were Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk. The Gorkha district contains roughly 70 villages, each village containing up to 13 different ethnicities/castes7 (2011). The villages are spread apart from each other, hidden among hills and valleys with diverse soil compositions and resources. Sindhupalchowk likewise contains about 80 villages with 8 predominant ethnic/caste groups in total, yet any given village can contain up to 19 ethnicities8 (2011). More than 90% of the homes in Sindhupalchowk and 70-80% of homes in Gorkha were destroyed9 in the 2015 earthquakes.

Due to the geographical dispersion of rural villages, their respective cultures have developed independently from one another in many ways. For this reason, disasters can impact each group differently, and the recovery process will again proceed non-uniformly in rural Nepal. Each village’s unique composition gives its own set of issues and strengths. In the village district of Pulpingkot in Sindhupalchowk, most residents are struggling with labor shortage, and uneven distribution of temporary housing materials. There is a low drive to rebuild without government aid. In Upper Kerauja in Gorkha, some locals have begun rebuilding on their own and seem to have initiative in their own recovery. Both village districts are suffering from food shortage for different reasons, and are largely still living in temporary shelters due to the absence of aid.

Pulpingkot is roughly 1000 meters lower in altitude than Kerauja and accessible by road. Considering the well-known resilience of Nepal’s mountain communities, and easy access to civilization via public transit, one may wonder why villagers are not rebuilding on their own. Clearly the most prevalent excuse is the delay in government compensation for destroyed or damaged homes. When asked to consider building a permanent home, the overwhelming majority said there was either no money or they were waiting for government money. The government has promised a handout of 25000 Nepali Rupees (NPR) to families who wish to repair their existing home, and “those who wish to rebuild their houses on their own will get a relief assistance of NPR 200,000, plus a concessional loan [of]…NPR 300,000 outside the valley at just two per cent interest rate under "Earthquake Victim Special Loan" scheme10. Half of

7“National Population and Housing Census 2011: Gorkha.” Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal. Vol. 6. March, 2014. Accessed April, 2016. http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/VDC-Municipality%20in%20detail/36%20Gorkha_VDCLevelReport.pdf 8“National Population and Housing Census 2011: Sindhupalchowk.” Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal. Vol. 6. March, 2014. Accessed April, 2016.http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/VDC-Municipality%20in%20detail/23%20Sindhupalchowk_VDCLevelReport.pdf 9 "Earthquake Relief and Recovery." Phase Nepal. N.p., 2016. Web. 10Government of Nepal. “Post-Earthquake Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Measures undertaken by the Government of Nepal.” Relief Web, June 1, 2015. Accessed April 2016.

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participants surveyed are depending on this money to rebuild. Buddi Maya Tamang’s small scrap CGI and stone slate shelter consisting of a stove and one bed, is currently hosting 2 mothers, a father and 3 sons. She has already built the first floor of her new home but cannot rebuild without further compensation, showing hope for the governments pending NPR 200,000. In the small, spread out village of Ward- 7, Pulpingkot, the main money in rebuilding is needed for labor. With such a small population, everyone must work in the fields. “Most people are subsistence farmers...working 10 to 12 hours a day not even really surviving...There's not time and capital to build nice buildings”11.

Upper Kerauja in the Gorkha District at an elevation of approximately 2200 meters, has remained largely isolated from society. The villagers seemed to have preserved a sense of togetherness throughout the rebuilding process and exercise a more independent approach. “The sentiment I get from talking to people is- if the government money comes, great. But we're not counting on it”, explains Kyle from working with Kerauja. After one year, they are just showing signs of rebuilding, whereas many other villages in the region have not begun that process. Walking through the center of Upper Kerauja one can see houses in various stages. Some villagers stacking stone walls, others with completed stone houses with mud interior walls - moving on to construct wood beds.

Dhawa Gurung stands proudly in his new home, a one-story house with 3 partitioned rooms and an attic for storing grain and food (see Fig. 1). When asked, he does not mention any cost for the materials or labor, but replies that he spent a lot of money feeding the friends that helped him build. The floor and walls were coated with mud over a stacked stone exterior. “My friend told me that if I put mud it would be stronger,”12 says Dhawa Gurung, showing some of Keruaja’s self-hypothesized attempts at architectural improvement. He describes that knowledge

Fig.1 Dhawa and his son in their home. There are three rooms: a kitchen, a kid’s room and a large living room. They use stone roofing instead of CGI over the kitchen so it won’t overheat, a common practice in the village. Him and his son are now making beds. 11 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016. 12 Gurung, Dhawa, resident of Upper Kerauja. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 17, 2016.

Fig. 1

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of housing construction has been passed down for generations; it is just natural for him to know how to build.

Regardless of community efforts most people are still living in temporary housing. Temporary housing materials were introduced into the communities by the Government less than a month after the disaster13. Having no historical experience with these materials, temporary shelters of mainly CGI and recycled stone slate and wood were quickly and haphazardly nailed together to meet basic functional needs.

“Temporary shelters are basically a waste of money in that they don’t contribute to long-term housing solutions,” explains Rick, a structural engineer involved with disaster response and recovery. They are one of the ‘universal’ solutions’14 employed in disasters, completely lacking in cultural consideration15. They are not meant to be an adequate means of recovery; they put villagers in worse conditions functionally and environmentally, and introduce them to materials they are not familiar with.

The need for permanent solutions comes not necessarily from the fact that the current shelters are temporary and poorly constructed, but because of the harsh climate of the mountainous regions. "In the higher elevations right now, I think there's at least three to four hundred thousand people in the t-shelters. It's not like Kathmandu at fourteen hundred meters elevation. Many villages are at two to three thousand meters elevation and, it's cold. We got to

13 Survey data from Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk locals. Collected by Author 14 Jigyasu, Rohit. “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal.” Norwegian University of Science and Technology. July 2002. Accessed April 2016 15 ibid

Fig. 2 A Chart revealing some of the issues with disaster recovery intervention. Temporary shelters may be necessary, but should strictly be temporary. Due to governmental delay and difficulties in communication

with remote areas, many villages have been living in temporary housing for over a year.

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get these people into a real building”16, expresses Kyle, a rebuilding consultant at a small iNGO helping to oversee reconstruction in Upper Kerauja. Eighty-two percent of participants from across four different affected communities are not able to stay warm in their home. Three people in Kerauja revealed it was not only cold but also extremely windy in the home as well. These statistics include three villagers who consider their government-classified “temporary” small wood and CGI structures17 as their permanent residence, accepting the harsh conditions. The problem of water getting in during rains has been reported18, although many communities have found innovative ways to re-channel water around their home after the first rainy season post- earthquake19.

3. ONE YEAR LATER: TRANSITION TO RECONSTRUCTION 3.1 Arguments for Architectural Change

There is a long history of implementing seismic techniques in Nepal, but in the rural

high-altitude areas architecture has failed to advance in hundreds of years. “In general in Nepal, the lower you are, there's been more influence from higher tech civilization.”20 Valley civilization, such as the Newaris, have that specialization, they developed architecture, temple construction, etc. When every single person in the village is farming for means of sustenance, housing isn’t the focus. They are preoccupied with meeting their daily needs. The logic of architectural tradition in these areas for generations has been simply efficient use of unwanted material. Villagers would remove stones from the ground for farming, and to get rid of them they would use them to build21. Wooden floors would remain unconnected to the walls, and stone slate roofs created a deadly situation in the last earthquake. The house would naturally vibrate apart22, lacking the proper connections. There was no time to worry about improving the seismic function of homes in busy village life, and the consequences for this were great. It had actually already been predicted by the Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recover Preparedness Programme for Nepal in 2009 that stone and mud houses would be especially vulnerable to collapse due to the fact that there are normally no interlocking or proper connection between the walls at the

16 ibid 17Permanent Residency in this case means when asked, the homeowners considered their current house as permanent. For example they were old in age, or not confident that government money would come. In technical terms, the government only considers a house permanent if it includes stone masonry or truss system. 18 Leila, Guide from Himalayan Treks. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 14, 2016. 19 Ehlert, Rick A., South Asia Disaster Recovery Manager. Interview by author. April 22, 2016 20 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016. 21 ibid 22 ibid

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corners23. In recognition of this lack in historical knowledge, many people are actually waiting for intellectual intervention before they rebuild. Four villagers interviewed are waiting for government-approved models or new techniques so that they can rebuild their houses safer next time. Much paranoia has manifested in the communities about the old building techniques24, and especially the heavy stones used for both walls and roofing. There are too many stories like Lang Maya Tamang, a mother of age 37 whose small son almost got crushed by the heavy stones when the house collapsed25. Now her child is often sick from constant fear of another quake.

Whether villagers are rebuilding their homes or not, they are either living in vulnerable t-

shelters or rebuilding based on their own mere hypothesis of more seismic techniques. The houses that are being rebuilt using many of the old techniques are at risk, or unnecessary money is being spent to improve temporary shelters while not improving the harsh conditions. This often results from homeowners being unable to receive the proper education in appropriate housing using what they have.

Conscious intervention from specialized professionals is necessary in the rebuilding process, but must be done with critical consideration of each village’s geographical, cultural, ethnic, and social composition. Villagers need to regain their faith in local materials with calculated designs that diminish their desires for expensive alternatives. Nepal has endured the stage of immediate relief, and now must start making the transition from the recovery stage to the reconstruction phase. With $4.4 billion (USD) pledged in aid from Nepal’s donors and development partners26 to reconstruct Nepal, international organization and domestic programs are equipped to help build back better. With the right human resources and motivation, the earthquake could be an opportunity to turn tragedy into resilience.

23Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery Preparedness Programme for Nepal. “Earthquake Vulnerability Profile and Preparedness Plan: Biratnagar Sub-­‐Metropolitan City” Genesis, July 2009. http://errrp.org.np/document/study_report/Biratnagar%20Vulnerability%20Profile.pdf 24 Ehlert, Rick A., South Asia Disaster Recovery Manager. Interview by author. April 22, 2016 25 Tamang, Lang Maya, resident of Pulpingkot. Interview by author, translated by Prashnna Ghimire. April 10, 2016. 26“ Nepal’s Friends Commit $4.4 billion for Post-quake Reconstruction” New Businesss Age. July 2015. http://www.newbusinessage.com/MagazineArticles/view/1241

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3.2 New Ideas for Sustainable Housing There are many efforts in sustainable architecture being implemented in rural Nepal that aim to

use local materials in a cost efficient manor.

People in Need (PIN), an iNGO working in community development, is utilizing is a technology called gabion bands. Gabion Bands is another name for galvanized welded wire mesh, installed around a single course of stone at designated points in the vertical height of the wall. “It is based on research on the history and effectiveness of the use of timber lacing in bearing-wall masonry construction in Kashmir and other parts of the world,”27 and has proven effective in numerous earthquakes throughout history. “The concept of using wire instead of timber is the result of unique circumstances in post-earthquake Nepal that have demanded alternatives to timber…[which] – is in short supply, expensive, and often not available in long lengths.” The main advantage of this technique in areas not accessible by road is that it does not require heavy lifting or intensive training, and is relatively simple and fast. In Nepal it is in fact accessible, for it is often used in roads. The amount of stone and timber salvaged from the ruins of collapsed homes is usually enough to build a new one, therefore only requiring the cost of the wire and CGI if one does not have enough.

There are many other seismic and sustainable techniques that are being introduced in Nepal after the earthquake, but most of them are only suitable to lower elevations. Many are low cost and utilize local labor and education, such as ABARI’s open-source designs. In the search for affordable housing, ABARI has developed bamboo and earth-based designs for housing and public structures28. They aim to modify vernacular techniques to be safer and more sustainable. At its maximum size in the commercial market, “bamboo is lighter in density then steel, but it can be as strong as mild steel in terms of strength,”29 making it a smart alternative to imported materials. On the historical side of the argument, “Bamboo mixed with wood and other materials like adobe, stone has been use in constructing many houses in Nepal to build houses as high as four stories”30.

There are many other efforts in earth building, such as earth bricks and earth bags. An example of this is Conscious Impact, a group that is implementing the use of earth brick

27Langenbach,Randolph.“’GABION BANDS’: A Proposed Technology for Reconstructing Rural Rubble Stone Houses after the 2015 Nepal Earthquakes.” Conservation is Modern and Tradition is Modern, September 10, 2015. http://www.traditional-is-modern.net/NEPAL/REPORTonGABION-BANDS(Langenbach)v2.pdf 28 “Open Source – Permanent School Design.” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://www.abari.org/permanent-school/2015/9/17/permanent-school-design 29 “Bamboo Engineered House” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://www.abari.org/bamboo-engineered-house/ 30ibid

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construction in the small village of Takure, Sindhupalchowk. They have purchased a $5000 brick press machine, completely manpowered, with a considerably long lifespan of 10-20 years. Due to the government’s strict provision that NGO’s are not allowed to build individual homes, they are constructing a community school with help from the locals, teaching them how to use the machine so that they can become familiar with the production and later construct their own homes. Earth bricks, or rammed earth construction, “is essentially manmade sedimentary rock,”31 and in many cases is as strong as concrete. They use a mixture of sand, silt and clay combined with a small amount of cement; in this case about 7% of the brick material is cement. The bricks are insulated and function in diverse climates. Conscious Impact intends to build earthbrick walls within an existing steel frame built by a Japanese donor organization several decades ago that withstood the earthquake32.

Earth bags are a similar concept to promote local reconstruction that requires low skill set and monetary input. Inspiration Green explain the process of earth bag construction:

“Long sandbags are filled on-site and arranged in layers or as compressed coils. Stabilizers such as cement, lime, or sodium carbonate may be added to an ideal mix of 70% sand, 30% clay. Straw may also be added. The earth bags are then plastered over with adobe.”33

They are also completely seismic. Unlike earth bricks, which is meant to stay still during an earthquake, earth bag houses “flex and distort”34 in the event of an earthquake rather than collapse, and wire and plaster hold the bags together.

31“Rammed Earth Contruction.” Made How, How Products Are Made. Vol. 3. 2016. Accessed April 2016. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Rammed-Earth-Construction.html 32 Ehlert, Rick A., South Asia Disaster Recovery Manager. Interview by author. April 22, 2016 33 “Earthbag Construction.” Inspiration Green, n.d. Accessed April 2016. http://www.inspirationgreen.com/earthbag-construction.html 34 ibid

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4. IMPORTANCE OF ARCHITECTURAL PRESERVATION 4.1 Cultural Identity

4.1.1 Traditional Aesthetic Even though many efforts in these new building methods may promote local materials and encourage community labor, they may still not be entirely considerate of how they are used. Where some of these techniques actually fall short is not necessarily on the technical or logistical side, but in the more subtle cultural and humanitarian side. They may be too radical for typically conservative rural societies if the building itself is not built according to long-standing traditions and culture. Rural communities won’t accept just anything. Nepal communities have a strong footing in cultural heritage, and in what looks and feels like a home. “In the rebuilding world in Nepal, people propose all sorts of designs and solutions that they themselves would never accept [with the mentality that generally impoverished rural Nepalis will accept it], which they probably won’t” 35 . School and public space construction is generally not offensive and communally enjoyed no matter what they are built with, but individual permanent housing may be subjected to much harsher criteria. The quality of housing in both Kerauja and Pulpingkot was at a relatively high standard before the destruction. Two story buildings that kept villagers warm and generally clean. Some homes even included porches, used for various purposes such as storing firewood, drying laundry, staging outdoor tasks, and controlling sunlight and rain penetration depending on the weather conditions of the area36. Four out of nine villagers surveyed in Pulpingkot preferred their future permanent house to remain stone and mud. They described the

Fig. 3 Buddi Maya’s old home in Pulpingkot remains standing but is too unsafe to live. It is now used for food storage and animals. This gives a sense of the beautiful homes that once scattered the village. 35 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016. 36 Burke, Kyle.“Six Aspects of a Good Reconstruction Project.” A Medium Corporation, March 30, 2016. Accessed April 2016. https://medium.com/@kyleburke/rebuilding-nepal-part-ii-six-aspects-of-a-good-reconstruction-project-677b09e67acf#.gveok7vyt

Fig.3

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beauty of their old home and their wishes to return to it37. Cultural pride and preservation can also be exhibited in Upper Kerauja’s rebuilding efforts. The least damaged house in the village included seismic techniques that are nowhere to be found in any other of the new homes being built. The villagers could easily look to it for improved, more seismic-resistant techniques. But as one of the villagers explained, the family that built it had just moved from Mustang, and the architectural style had been imported from there. According to Kyle, this is the perfect example of the subtle cultural issues with rebuilding. He explains: “The cultural differences between [the Mustangi] people [and people of Kerauja] are like the differences between an American person and a French person. Nepal is a culturally diverse, and people tend to maintain their languages and maintain their clothing even if they're all mixed up with each other. They bring their own culture wherever they go”. As a mainly Gurung, Gale and Lama community, villagers likely would not consider the house part of their culture and would fail to examine it. Certain cultures show in the layout of housing as well. The size of the porch often depends on the elevation of the village38, and many villages include a small room specifically for girls during their menstrual cycle. They are seen as ‘unclean’ and spend the better part of a week in this room39. Structural-cultural links like this aren’t always considered in the reconstruction world. In rural Nepal, there are many barriers that prevent the effectiveness of large, uniform efforts in reconstruction that must be factored in, and innovative approaches must be applied that ensure the communities desire and motivation to replicate it.

4.1.2 Case Studies: ‘Modern’ Building and Community Layout

On the academic side of the argument, case studies show there can be unintended implications in ‘development’ projects building houses that move away from traditional style and technique. A case study by Robert Geipel in 1991 on the long-term consequences of reconstruction after the earthquake in Friuli, Italy produced unexpected results. He points out that the new ‘modern’ layout and architecture suited its inhabitants on a functional level just fine. “However, he further states that highest agreement in his case areas was with statements like ‘less communication’, ‘more anonymity’, and ‘worse neighborhood relationships’”40 (96). He

37 Survey Data Chart from Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk Locals. Collected by Author. April 2016 38Burke, Kyle.“Six Aspects of a Good Reconstruction Project.” A Medium Corporation, March 30, 2016. Accessed April 2016. https://medium.com/@kyleburke/rebuilding-nepal-part-ii-six-aspects-of-a-good-reconstruction-project-677b09e67acf#.gveok7vyt 39 Ehlert, Rick A., South Asia Disaster Recovery Manager. Interview by author. April 22, 2016. 40 Jigyasu, Rohit. “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal.” Norwegian University of Science and Technology. July 2002. Accessed April 2016

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concludes that “the old social texture [had] broken apart” (96)41. This is a perfect example of how the minor subtleties in rebuilding accumulate overtime to have a major affect on communities. Another case study was done on reconstruction in Turkey where entire villages were relocated. The “findings show that after they were relocated, villagers still place high cultural and functional value on their old village sites”42 (96). This is represented in the sites in Sindhupalchowk and Gorkha in the way they speak about their old homes. In addition, all participants who had been displaced from their villages by a landslide or other circumstances had full intention of returning and were very quick to correct me if they felt associated with their current village of residency. It just goes to show how important cultural identity is, especially in rural Nepal, and inconsideration of that could be detrimental in the long term.

In the case of Nepal, less modern influence is largely associated with greater social unity in small villages, which positively correlates with better disaster preparedness. Many scholars have noted a trend in the degeneration of local knowledge and community oriented village planning since at least a decade before the earthquake due to prevalent and haphazard influences from external sources4344. In Rohit Jigyasu’s thesis, “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity: The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal,” he quotes Deborah Lupton’s (1999) writing in Giddens (1990) view of risk, reflexivity and the conditions of modernity:

“The progressive separation of space, place and time and the increasing role played by

disembedding mechanisms all depend upon trust, vested not in individuals but in ‘abstract capacities’. People now cannot simply rely on local knowledges, tradition, religious precepts, habit or observation of others practices to conduct their everyday lives, as they did in pre-modern and early modern times. Rather they must look principally to experts they do not personally know and are unlikely ever to meet to supply them with guidelines.”45 (61)

He notes the growing lack of trust in rural communities own capacity, due to a rising perception in the superiority of central society. Jisyasu agrees “that the impact of the ‘modernization processes’ on ‘community’ and subsequently on disaster management has been profound” (61), seen in their diminishing “capacities to mitigate, prepare and respond to disasters.” The findings 41 Jigyasu, Rohit. “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal.” Norwegian University of Science and Technology. July 2002. Accessed April 2016 42 ibid 43 Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj. “Cultures in Development: Conservation of Vernacular Architecture” Dept. of Architecture Institute of Engineering,Tribhuvan University. Heiwa Nakajima Foundation. 44 Dixit, Amod Mani.“Indigenous Skills and Practices of Earthquake Resistant Construction in Nepal” 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, August 1-6, 2004. Accessed April 2016. 45 Jigyasu, Rohit. “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal.” Norwegian University of Science and Technology. July 2002. Accessed April 2016

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foreshadow consequence if reconstruction efforts transfer imported community structures or buildings with different social priority than the former. It also warns about bringing techniques and structures from ‘outside’ that cannot be replicated, creating dependency and lack of confidence in one’s own culture. Even areas like Pulpingkot, post earthquake paranoia and outmigration for income after the earthquake show early signs of reliance. By providing alternative ways to use the same traditional building materials and processes, local knowledge can be preserved in some way. Whereas Pulpingkot experienced noticeable labor shortage and reliance on government funding, just by walking around Upper Kerauja, local teamwork, social obligation and collectivism were witnessed in the village. This clearly has aided in the recovery process, meaning the existing social strength and absence of urban influence has made Upper Kerauja more resilient and in Jigyasu’s words, less “vulnerable” to disaster. The case is made for preserving vernacular architectural preservation in that it utilizes local materials in an efficient manor for maximum social and functional benefit. It returns a sense of cultural pride and normalcy to communities which will benefit them in the future.

4.2 Vernacular Form and Function Just as modernization affects community efforts in subtle ways, trending faith in the ‘modern’ world and loss in confidence also applies to local materials. Many scholars also note a general trend in rural Nepal leaning towards the promotion of foreign materials and building techniques as more “scientific” and holding higher status,4647 and also a solution to waning natural resources. New technologies are introduced to locals, and without proper knowledge of their correct installation or function— result in discordant changes in [architectural] form and attitude. These observations do not necessarily apply to the areas observed, but in other parts of rural Nepal it is very apparent. It is important that in these remote villages that had not yet noticeably adopted this trend pre-earthquake, the use of abundant vernacular materials is supported before dependence on imported materials causes unprogressive developments in architecture and economy.

46 Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj. “Cultures in Development: Conservation of Vernacular Architecture” Dept. of Architecture Institute of Engineering,Tribhuvan University. Heiwa Nakajima Foundation. 47 Dixit, Amod Mani.“Indigenous Skills and Practices of Earthquake Resistant Construction in Nepal” 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, August 1-6, 2004. Accessed April 2016.

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The paranoia after the earthquake seems to facilitate a perception that these imported or scarce materials will perform better, and in some, create the unrealistic desire for costly materials such as entire walls made of concrete, CGI, or wood. When asked to express their desires regardless of feasibility or cost, two villagers said they would rebuild their next house with concrete, and six preferred solely wood and CGI48. Even though they would prefer the aesthetics of their former house, their perceptions and fear create conflict with that desire. Reconstruction efforts must work with communities to get over the fear of vernacular materials and redirect any longing for imported and expensive alternatives, for there are far more functional and financial benefits associated with the use of traditional materials.

4.2.1 Climactic and Social Appropriateness

There are functional reasons to keep vernacular architecture as well. Vernacular materials

and techniques are often well-suited to the particular weather and land conditions. This is why specific study and consideration of each village’s history in rebuilding is crucial to reconstruction efforts. As mentioned earlier, without stone building construction, the stones taken from the ground would have to be “dumped” elsewhere.49 So stone construction is an efficient use of an abundant and otherwise useless resource. Stone also does not rot or weaken.

48 Survey Data Chart from Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk Locals. Collected by Author. April 2016 49 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016.

Fig. 4 Rita Tamang from Pulpingkot wishes to rebuild her next house with concrete to be safer in the case of another earthquake. Like all mothers, the women of the village put their children's safety above all else. Many small children are inside during the day, causing traumatic near death experiences in the last earthquake

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Vernacular materials also regulate temperature within the home. In Pulpingkot and Takure, almost every house was stone and mud masonry. The stone keeps the house cool in the summer, and the thermal mass retains heat in the winter50. Also the majority of villages surveyed owned two-story houses before the earthquake. Two-story construction is traditional in these areas, and for practical reasons. The ground floor is used to store animals, the first floor is where the people live, and a small attic is reserved for storing grain and food. In the winter months, body heat is produced by the animals, and since heat rises it keeps the first floor warm. Food is logically stored farthest away from vermin.51 Changing these materials or techniques that have functioned well for decades may be less suited to the environmental conditions and fail to provide comfortable living space. 4.2.2 Financial Feasibility

Local materials can be functional and comforting to locals, but most importantly they are economically available. In the high elevation, the price of any non-locally available material is spiked by the intense manual labor required to transport them. Upper Kerauja’s means of outside connection is a small trail constructed in part by PIN per request of the villagers, made from stone slabs wedged into the earth to create a vertical staircase up the mountain. 52Transportation

of materials consists of either donkeys, or village women and men with fabric straps, namlos, pressing against their heads, absorbing the weight of baskets or other single, large items such as CGI sheets as they walk up the steep mountain path. With this in mind, even if materials are brought in must be able to be carried in on foot.

PIN’s new design is specially designed for these conditions. “The [main] thing that drives cost of building in Nepal, are concrete or cement, brick and rebar…our design using rock, wire, CGI, and wood. It's cheaper to bring wire in than rebar. You can rarely bring rebar in because it comes

Fig. 5 A woman carries some items up from the village down below. It is common for women to go up and down the mountain 2-3 times a day. 50Aryal, Kuldeep, Social Coordinator at Build Change. Interview by author. April 13, 2016. 51 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016.

Fig.5

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in long pieces… you can't haul long stuff on a donkey”. CGI is also relatively easy to carry by manpower, and rock and wood require little to no travel or expenditure for it has been salvaged in destroyed homes all over the village. 5. CHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF HIGH ALTITUDE RECONSTRUCTION

There are many reasons why reconstruction efforts

continue to lack effectiveness in the higher altitudes of rural Nepal. Many wide scale efforts fail to consider their unique circumstances because they are a minority of the affected population, but tailoring reconstruction to the most difficult and remote circumstances might actually benefit the entire process in unexpected ways.

The main issue is that the landscape in the higher altitude lacks in a variety of resources. As one travels farther away from sea level, the lack of oxygen causes trees and bamboo to grow smaller and smaller. The soil becomes dryer and weaker, lacking the clay or mud suitable for building. This makes certain resources almost impossible to use for building construction, eliminating the innovative designs using bamboo from universities like ABARI as a possibility. In the higher altitudes, the short bamboo strands

when used in vertical walls seems to lack shape and stability crucial for the high winds and extreme cold during the winter (see Fig.6)

Even where bamboo does grow, it may actually be more sustainable in the future to leave it out of the equation. A study of rural vernacular architecture conducted in the 7 year period between 1996 and 2003 revealed that “loss of forest cover and marginal agricultural land suited for bamboo and reeds are behind loss of both of the indigenous roofing materials [of stone and thatch]”53, giving way to the corrugated iron sheets (CGI) as the main roofing material. Assuming this trend will only increase in severity, housing that conserves forest resources is most likely guaranteed to remain economical for a long time.

Fig. 6 Damai Gurung weaves a bamboo basket in front of his ‘permanent’ home. He has compensated for a lack of CGI with weaved patches of basketwork 53 Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj. “Cultures in Development: Conservation of Vernacular Architecture” Dept. of Architecture Institute of Engineering,Tribhuvan University. Heiwa Nakajima Foundation.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

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The earth brick and earth bag techniques mentioned earlier are practical alternatives to concrete or rebar heavy designs, but a design that still uses concrete inputs may not be entirely considerate of future environmental concerns. Sand mining for concrete production is a rising concern in Nepal due to larger scale construction of urban housing. This process deepens the riverbed considerably, increasing water pollution and other environmental issues54 that will inevitably impact the rural communities the most. It is also rising in price. Data made available in 2008 by the Construction Materials Entrepreneurs Association (CMEA) “confirms that the price of Nepali cements also has gone up to NRs. 600 per bag (50 kg) from NRs. 550 only in one month. The price of Indian cement has also increased to NRs. 575, narrowing the price difference between the domestic and imported varieties.” Conscious Impact considered taking it out of the brick mixture, but it seemed to be inseparable from the process to achieve seismic strength. "Many people volunteering here are opposed to the use of cement, but there was physical difference in structural performance when cement is added"55, Conscious Impact leader explains, seeming to have explained this to many critics before. The earth bricks that contained cement held up significantly better in the stress test, the process they use to test the brick's strength. Another foreseeable issue with these two techniques is the sheer variety of materials and precise measurements that must be separately sourced and calculated requires a lot of organization and may be pushed aside in the business of everyday life. The two techniques are undeniably a step in the right direction, and are providing solutions to many communities across the country. They are effective and applicable to areas with access to clay and silt, mainly in the lower hill and valley regions. Although like many ideas, in the upper elevation, they wouldn’t work. Kerauja men busy with constructing a new, stacked stone house take a moment to explain why they don’t use any earth in housing. “Cement is expensive and the mud around here is not sticky, it would wash away in the rain. Good mud is also expensive because you can only get it from behind one of the two mountains surrounding Kerauja”56

Gabion Bands is one of the techniques that works for the high altitude areas. It uses mostly recycled materials from the rubble of the previous home, and every thing else is easy to carry in on foot and is relatively inexpensive. By designing housing for areas with little availability in materials such as wood and bamboo, and completely leaving out methods that dig up earth or use expensive cement, engineering efforts in sustainable housing may withstand future scarcity in Nepal, in places where stone designs are aesthetically and culturally accepted. 54 Bishnu, K.C.“River Pollution in the Kathmandu Valley: Urban mismanagement robs locals of a valuable natural resource.”Oh My News, September 9, 2006. Accessed April 2016. http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?no=316259&rel_no=1 55 Gula, Allen, Director of Concious Impact. Interview by author. April 12, 2016. 56 Gurung, Mohan Lal, resident of Upper Kerauja. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 16, 2016.

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6. IMPLEMENTATION OF RECONSTRUCTION EFFORTS

Even if new rebuilding models are able to be applied to an area’s cultural, social, and geographic subtleties, an additional round of questions arises when it comes to implementation. Projects must be considerate of the fact that many of these villages are illiterate and disconnected from greater civilization, unable to fully collaborate with some of the more mainstreamed rebuilding and awareness efforts. “It’s not like people in Kerauja are going on the Internet and browsing model houses.”57 The villagers are literally waiting for intellectual intervention, meaning a physical presence that can share knowledge in a way that they understand. It’s not as simple as distributing a piece of paper. Even with pictures, the people in rural villages are “not use to looking at stuff on paper or a two dimensional screen”58 and then applying it to real life. To address this many iNGO’s are building model houses so that villagers can see the house being made. That seems to be effective yet if a model house is not in their village or close, they won’t see it. One way of addressing this is masonry training programs which have proved effective. It’s not always necessary to go into the village, peoples can be sent to Kathmandu for masonry trainings. USAID has thrived in this technique:

Nearly 300 masons [were] trained on building earthquake-resistant shelters in four districts to help people get back into their homes and reduce the risk of similar damage in future disasters. Over the next five years, new and expanded USAID programs will train an estimated 13,500 local masons, hundreds of carpenters and engineers, and orient over 285,000 affected homeowners on building earthquake-resistant homes.59

This technique also helps solve the problem of physical remoteness and distance from civilization deterring organizations. "I visited upper Kerauja to look for some places to work with, and I made a note to myself: don't work in Kerauja, it's too far," says Allen. The remoteness of places like Upper Kerauja seems to be too intimidating for many organizations. "I knew the circumstances were such that [many organizations and engineers] simply could not handle", Kyle says when speaking about why he chose that area.

Lastly, iNGO’s are foreign organizations, and stepping into another culture must be a mutual and collaborative experience where both parties are willing to learn from each other. To Kyle and Allen, it is all about respect to the community. “If the community doesn’t want us here, we’ll leave;”60 Conscious Impact’s concentration seems to be on offering a passive hand to the community, and living on their own as a example of self- sufficiency. They have their own 57 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016. 58 ibid 59“Nepal Earthquake Recovery Factsheet.” USAID. October 29, 2015. Accessed April 2016. https://www.usaid.gov/nepal/fact-sheets/nepal-earthquake-recovery-fact-sheet 60 Gula, Allen, Director of Concious Impact. Interview by author. April 12, 2016.

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agricultural land that they invite villagers to inquire about, and many of them build their own household appliances such as stoves. In terms of architectural preservation, PIN and Conscious Impact seem to have different perspectives. Allen witnessed in the village he works with that they are willing to try new techniques, and that safety is of utmost importance. Kyle believes strongly that the villagers at least deserve housing comparable to what they had before, and that there is no reason to compromise on traditional aesthetic or safety. In terms of individual housing it is yet to be determined if either technique will be replicated. In a wider perspective, much of their success lies just in their focused efforts on one specific village and their specific needs for reconstruction. Communities seem to respond best to small iNGOs living in or exclusively related to that specific village that are flexible in their projects.

CONCLUSION: HOW CAN WE BUILD BACK BEST?

There are many people working together to answer the question: How can we build back best?

Nepal is a developing country experiencing many rapid changes, struggling to achieve uniform and informed development with such a diversity of cultural, linguistic and living styles and conditions, development of which fits into the progress of modern countries while preserving the indigenous wisdom and sustainability of its people. In Nepal's case, many of the assets that characterize the country as underdeveloped are the same assets that have the potential to make it one of the most progressive countries in the world, in line with the emerging philosophies in development if executed right. There are still entire communities and cultures that still function in direct response to the land, and maintain building traditions and values specific to their heritage passed down thousands of years. This knowledge often can provide advanced and experienced insight into maximizing the relationship of the community to the land, and limited dependence on outside intervention and material input to only what is absolutely necessary.

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Urbanization of Nepal in some places has begun creating a destructive perception of architectural industry that is percolating into surrounding communities. This was intensified after the traditional stone structures failed to perform in the earthquakes and the newer imported structures did not. In the case of the steel frame built by a Japanese donor organization mentioned earlier, the frame stayed intact as all four stone and mud walls crumbled within it. This is logically going to create desires for materials such as steel and concrete. This is a one-time opportunity to restore faith in their traditional cultural practices such as building knowledge utilized for generations, and simply advance what they already know using existing materials, existing community teamwork, and existing ability to adapt. In this way we can help to avoid disintegration of community and cultures. It provides an opportunity on an even larger scale to introduce concepts of sustainable living in Nepal, an important goal in modern development. If left unaddressed, and villages rebuild using the same techniques, not only will it put them in a hopeless economic situation, their confidence in their self-capability may be further hurt in the case of another earthquake. Organizations must achieve a balance between old and new materials and techniques that are considerate of past, present and future environmental conditions.

In order to optimize a reconstruction effort, these three things: past, present, and future, must be carefully and rigorously studied to ensure a concept’s acceptance in a community. One must learn about construction history in the community pre-earthquake, and attempt to replicate its essential functions and general aesthetic qualities. The present condition and perceptions in the community will reveal the community dynamic and fears surrounding architecture that one must either accommodate or address when rebuilding for the best results. Lastly, in order to leave a lasting impact the possible consequences of each new material and technique must be considered in order to ensure it’s replication for many years to come. Furthermore, every new technique must be achievable with unskilled labor and understandable by an illiterate audience. If these communities can advance on their own by learning new skills that maintain their cultural essence and relative isolation, they may rise as an example for not only Nepal but the international community as well.

High elevations are unique circumstances that require a lot of creativity. Designing completely seismic housing that must mainly stick to old materials (stone), and materials that are cheap and not too labor intensive to carry. Creating aesthetically conformative two-story housing that will be replicated in the communities efficiently as to fit around their busy and hectic lifestyle. This requires time and effort that many organization may not be willing to produce, yet putting in that time be worth it in the end. "The only place our design will not work is places with no stone, unless there is rubble from the old destroyed house, that could also be used." PIN speaks of their gabion band design. The places that typically have stone housing will benefit the

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most from this design, and in any other cultural respect it can be molded to the indigenous terms of functionality and form. It's one big empty room, and can be built as either a one or two-story structure. The end goal is a typical house in rural Nepal, where the technology comes in is in its new seismic strength and security61. After that goal is set, then there's the "process of dealing with all the different levels of cultural appropriateness, the technical aspects, logistics, getting over people's fear of stone construction,"62 the financial and legal aspects, and so on. Those aspects are all further exacerbated by the nature of isolated mountain life. This is a place where building materials can be scarce and expensive. People have cultural standards. Building something that is not only cheap and functional in extreme weather conditions, but that they can be proud of once more is certainly achievable with the right motivation. A physical appearance of recovery and cultural continuation will instill a mindset in the village of resilience.

It's a unique opportunity. We should not let this earthquake be a case for rural inadequacy, but a chance to bring out the potential of Nepal to come back even stronger.

61 Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016. 62 ibid

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APPENDIX 1: TEMPORARY LIVING CONDITIONS

Most people in Pulpinkot hang their corn on the ceiling to compensate for not having an attic

Many of the temporary shelter are dark, cluttered and don’t have room to stand. Many people sleep on mats on the floor

Kam Raji’s Wife invited us over twice for lunch and popcorn. Her family is displaced and fears one day the owners of the land will kick them out

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APPENDIX 2: LOCAL RECONSTRUCTION IN KERAUJA

Overlooking the CGI roofing that dominates Kerauja. CGI is much safer than traditional roofing.

Kerauja residents rebuild a house of stacked stone masonry. One of the men rebuilding will be the new owner of the house

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Bibliography Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj. “Cultures in Development: Conservation of Vernacular Architecture” Dept. of Architecture Institute of Engineering,Tribhuvan University. Heiwa Nakajima Foundation. Burke, Kyle, People In Need Consultant. Interview by author. April 24, 2016. Jigyasu, Rohit. “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Local Knowledge And Capacity The Case of Earthquake Prone Rural Communities in India and Nepal.” Norwegian University of Science and Technology. July 2002. Accessed April 2016 “National Population and Housing Census 2011: Gorkha.” Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal. Vol. 6. March, 2014. Accessed April, 2016. http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/VDC-Municipality%20in%20detail/36%20Gorkha_VDCLevelReport.pdf “National Population and Housing Census 2011: Sindhupalchowk.” Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal. Vol. 6. March, 2014. Accessed April, 2016.http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/VDC-Municipality%20in%20detail/23%20Sindhupalchowk_VDCLevelReport.pdf Leila, Guide from Himalayan Treks. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 14, 2016. Ehlert, Rick A., South Asia Disaster Recovery Manager. Interview by author. April 22, 2016 Survey Data Chart from Gorkha and Sindhupalchowk Locals. Collected by Author. April 2016 Government of Nepal. “Post-Earthquake Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Measures undertaken by the Government of Nepal.” Relief Web, June 1, 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://reliefweb.int/report/nepal/post-earthquake-relief-rehabilitation-and-reconstruction-measures-undertaken-government Gurung, Dhawa, resident of Upper Kerauja. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 17, 2016. Tamang, Lang Maya, resident of Pulpingkot. Interview by author, translated by Prashnna Ghimire. April 10, 2016. Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery Preparedness Programme for Nepal. “Earthquake Vulnerability Profile and Preparedness Plan: Biratnagar Sub-­‐Metropolitan City” Genesis, July 2009. http://errrp.org.np/document/study_report/Biratnagar%20Vulnerability%20Profile.pdf Nepal’s Friends Commit $4.4 billion for Post-quake Reconstruction” New Businesss Age. July 2015. http://www.newbusinessage.com/MagazineArticles/view/1241

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“Open Source – Permanent School Design.” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://www.abari.org/permanent-school/2015/9/17/permanent-school-design “Bamboo Engineered House” ABARI. 2015. Accessed April 2016. http://www.abari.org/bamboo-engineered-house/ Dixit, Amod Mani.“Indigenous Skills and Practices of Earthquake Resistant Construction in Nepal” 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, August 1-6, 2004. Accessed April 2016. “Earthbag Construction.” Inspiration Green, n.d. Accessed April 2016. http://www.inspirationgreen.com/earthbag-construction.html Bishnu, K.C.“River Pollution in the Kathmandu Valley: Urban mismanagement robs locals of a valuable natural resource.”Oh My News, September 9, 2006. Accessed April 2016. http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?no=316259&rel_no=1 Gurung, Mohan Lal, resident of Upper Kerauja. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 16, 2016. Burke, Kyle.“Six Aspects of a Good Reconstruction Project.” A Medium Corporation, March 30, 2016. Accessed April 2016. https://medium.com/@kyleburke/rebuilding-nepal-part-ii-six-aspects-of-a-good-reconstruction-project-677b09e67acf#.gveok7vyt Gula, Allen, Director of Concious Impact. Interview by author. April 12, 2016. Aryal, Kuldeep, Social Coordinator at Build Change. Interview by author. April 13, 2016. Gurung, Kaji Ram, resident of Upper Kerauja. Interview by author, translated by Suyog Raj Chalise. April 17, 2016. Langenbach,Randolph.“’GABION BANDS’: A Proposed Technology for Reconstructing Rural Rubble Stone Houses after the 2015 Nepal Earthquakes.” Conservation is Modern and Tradition is Modern, September 10, 2015. http://www.traditional-is-modern.net/NEPAL/REPORTonGABION-BANDS(Langenbach)v2.pdf Rammed Earth Contruction.” Made How, How Products Are Made. Vol. 3. 2016. Accessed April 2016. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Rammed-Earth-Construction.html “Nepal Earthquake Recovery Factsheet.” USAID. October 29, 2015. Accessed April 2016. https://www.usaid.gov/nepal/fact-sheets/nepal-earthquake-recovery-fact-sheet

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Survey Participants:

Ward- 7, Pupingkot, Sindhupalchowk: Bhim Lal Tamang, 66 Bhim Tamang, 72 Rita Tamang, 28 Lang Maya Tamang, 37 Buddi Maya Tamang, 47 Som Maya Tamang, 31 Tari Maya Tamang, 74 Srijana Tamang, 22 Mekh Lal Tamang, 35 Khurla, Gorkha: Kancha Bega, 65 Upper Kerauja, Gorkha: Dhawa Gurung, 60 Nirmal Gurung, 23 Kaji Ram Gurung, 31 Mohan Gurung, 16 Kanchi Gurung, 42 Dhamai Gurung, 70 Bhimai Gurung, 45 Kirby Maya Gurung, 70

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Suggestions For Future Research

Continuing Post-Earthquake Development Study - As the earthquake recovery continues, it is important to keep following the progress. I

would suggest in this field the short and long-term effects of the housing that does get built in the future.

- One thing I became interested in but did not elaborate on in this paper was displaced peoples. The displaced people had the most devastating stories out of everyone, so it would be interesting to study the dynamics of displacement in rural Nepal and what that means to people.