Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc.

African Union

Brain Drain

Director: Halle Sarkodie

© 2017 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA)

This document is solely for use in preparation for Rutgers University Model United Nations 2017. Use for other purposes is not

permitted without the express written consent of IDIA. For more information, please write us at idiainfo@idia.net

POLICYDILEMMA.................................................................................................................................1

CHRONOLOGY......................................................................................................................................4

1956:THEDECOLONIZATIONOFAFRICA.......................................................................................................41980:FLIGHTOFHUMANCAPITAL...............................................................................................................62008-2009:GLOBALFINANCIALCRISIS........................................................................................................82014-2015:COMPETITIVENESSOFAFRICANCOUNTRIES..................................................................................9

ACTORSANDINTERESTS.....................................................................................................................10

AFRICANMIGRANTS...............................................................................................................................10THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICAANDOTHEROECDCOUNTRIES.....................................................................12AFRICANGOVERNMENTS.........................................................................................................................14

POSSIBLECAUSES...............................................................................................................................16

LOWWAGES.........................................................................................................................................16LACKOFFUNDINGTOWARDSRESOURCES....................................................................................................17POLITICALINSTABILITY.............................................................................................................................18COMPARISONOFCAUSES.........................................................................................................................20

PROJECTIONSANDIMPLICATIONS......................................................................................................21

CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................................23

DISCUSSIONQUESTIONS....................................................................................................................24

BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................................25

FORFURTHERREADING...........................................................................................................................25WORKSCITED........................................................................................................................................26WORKSCONSULTED................................................................................................................................33

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Policy Dilemma “Brain Drain,” coined by the London Royal Society post World War II, is the

emigration of skilled workers from their country of origin to more developed countries.1

The phenomenon of brain drain affects many developing countries around the world,

especially those within Africa. The World Bank reported that African migrants doubled

between 1980 and 2010, reaching 30.6 million.2 While about half of these migrants

merely move to other African countries such as Cote d'Ivoire, South Africa, and Burkina

Faso, the other half leave the continent. The percentage of migrants who stay within

Africa is steadily declining, from fifty-nine per cent in 1980 to fifty-one per cent in

2010.3 In 2005, the Council on Foreign Relations reported that of the ten countries with

the highest percentage of skilled citizens living abroad, six of them were in sub-Saharan

Africa.4 The exodus of these skilled citizens can be attributed to numerous causes,

deemed as push-pull factors of migration. Push-pull factors are forces that push migrants

towards countries of higher economic, social, or political standings while pulling

migrants from their developing countries.5 The elements of political corruption, poor

healthcare, and adverse environmental conditions in developing nations versus the

elements of better job opportunities, wages, and technology of developed nations

contribute to the push-pull factors of migration.6

Many argue that the cross-border migration, or temporary or permanent

emigration into other countries, of skilled workers can hinder the progress and

development of the nations of Africa.7 The outflow of skilled workers results in the

decrease of human capital, or the skills possessed by workers through education and 1 Gayla Koerting, ""Brain drain"." Immigration to the United States, http://immigrationtounitedstates.org/390-brain-drain.html (accessed January 29, 2017). 2 "How severe is Africa’s brain drain?" Quartz, https://qz.com/599140/how-severe-is-africas-brain-drain/ (accessed January 29, 2017). 3 "How severe is Africa’s brain drain?" (accessed January 29, 2017). 4 Stephanie Hanson, “Is Brain Drain Good for Africa?" Council on Foreign Relations, http://www.cfr.org/world/brain-drain-good-africa/p16986 (accessed January 29, 2017). 5 Ezekiel Kalipeni, Linda L. Semu, and Margaret Asalele Mbilizi. "The brain drain of health care professionals from sub-Saharan Africa: A geographic perspective." Progress In Development Studies 12, no. 2/3 (April 2012): 153-171. 6 "Migration Push/Pull Factors." Migration Push/Pull Factors. http://lewishistoricalsociety.com/wiki2011/tiki-read_article.php?articleId=28 (accessed February 04, 2017). 7 Policy Coherence for Development 2007: Migration and Developing Countries (Paris: OECD, 2007), 70-71.

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experience, resulting in less resources for the countries the skilled workers are leaving.

These resources include, but are not limited to, health workers, scientists, and teachers.8

Others argue that brain drain can positively affect the countries within Africa. Migrants

often send money back to their families in their home nations in the form of remittances.

The World Bank noted that the total money sent by African migrants to their home

countries reached $35.2 billion USD in 2015.9 The migrants from Africa also use

portions of their income to improve their home countries, by funding infrastructure

development and directly investing into businesses.10 Likewise, investors outside of

African nations often use the intellect of migrants to make business decisions within the

migrants' home countries.11 Because of the argument over cross-border migration's

benefits and disadvantages, the African Union (AU) should ponder greatly over African

government's management of cross-border migration in terms of reducing brain drain

from African countries, while encouraging remittances from those who have migrated to

go towards not only the migrants' families, but also the government of their home

countries.

The AU in the past has moved to invite Africa's diaspora to take part in actively

supplementing the continent's development. Emphasis is placed on managing to develop

and keep capital within Africa, as well as motivating the return of workers to their home

countries. As a result of brain drain, Africa as a continent has fewer than one hundred

scientists per million inhabitants, while the global average is eight hundred per million

inhabitants.12 The Union for African Population Studies argues that the international

community has to convince developed nations to change their policies on the immigration

of professionals from developing countries to help the efforts to keep potential migrants

8 “How severe is Africa’s brain drain?” (accessed February 2, 2017). 9 "Africa's Diaspora Remittances rise to $35.2 bn in 2015 - World Bank." Africanews, http://www.africanews.com/2016/04/20/africa-s-diaspora-remittances-rise-to-352-bn-in-2015-world-bank/ (accessed January 29, 2017). 10 Dilip Ratha. Leveraging migration for Africa: Remittances, Skills, and Investments (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2011), 154. 11 Dilip Ratha. Leveraging migration for Africa: Remittances, Skills, and Investments, 154. 12 Ameenah Gurib-Fakim. "Africa’s future depends on its scientists. Time to stop the brain drain." World Economic Forum, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/africa-s-future-depends-on-its-scientists-time-to-stop-the-brain-drain/ (accessed January 29, 2017).

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within their home borders.13 Countries like Ethiopia, which suffers from the loss of about

seventy-five per cent of its skilled workers, have tried to put forth plans to combat brain

drain by developing plans to bolster their economy over the span of a set number of

years.14 In the case of Ethiopia's Five Year Growth and Transformation plan, such an

outcome was proved to be highly unlikely.15 Ethiopia's prognosis can be paralleled to

most of Africa's countries and their efforts to combat brain drain.16

Brain drain’s effects on Africa, coupled with the aforementioned push-pull factors,

expose not only the disparities between the resources that African nations and developed

nation have, but also the differences in the infrastructures between African nations and

developed nations.17 The United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Agenda notes

the push factors of developing nations and plans to address and reduce their causes.18

Attending to the issue of brain drain would have to be addressed by negotiations and

interactions with intercontinental countries to help bolster the infrastructure of the

African countries.19 The AU has the ability to reach out to the diaspora and to recognize

the advantages and disadvantages of brain drain.20 The countries within Africa must

create a domestic environment that can encourage the return or keeping of each country’s

human capital while encouraging the flow of remittances towards the home countries'

governments to help aid in the development of the countries' infrastructure.21

13 "Reversing Africa's 'brain drain': New initiatives tap skills of African expatriates." United Nations, http://www.un.org/en/africarenewal/vol17no2/172brain.htm. (accessed January 29, 2017). 14 Asayehgn Desta. "Reversing Ethiopia’s Intellectual Capital Flight" Aiga Forum (Dominican University of California, n.d.), 1. 15 Desta. "Reversing Ethiopia’s Intellectual Capital Flight", 1-3. 16 Desta. "Reversing Ethiopia’s Intellectual Capital Flight", 1-3. 17 Ezekiel Kalipeni, Linda L. Semu, and Margaret Asalele Mbilizi. "The brain drain of health care professionals from sub-Saharan Africa: A geographic perspective." Progress In Development Studies 12, no. 2/3 (April 2012): 153-171 (accessed February 4, 2017). 18 GMPA. “The Sustainable Development Goals and Migrants/Migration: Relevant SDGs and Targets, Rationales for Inclusion, Implementation Actions, and Realization Measurement Indicators” Global Migration Policy Associates, http:// www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/events/ coordination/14/documents/backgrounddocs/GMPA_14CM.pdf (accessed February 04, 2017). 19 Desta. "Reversing Ethiopia’s Intellectual Capital Flight", 1-3. 20 Victoria Maloka. "African Brain Drain: Battle On To Win Back Professionals." Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR), http://www.ccr.org.za/index.php/media-release/in-the-media/newspaper-articles/item/380-pr-12?tmpl=component&print=1 (accessed February 04, 2017). 21 Maloka. "African Brain Drain: Battle On To Win Back Professionals." Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR), (accessed February 04, 2017).

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Chronology 1956: The Decolonization of Africa

During the colonial rule of the African nations, the European forces employed

Africans in many different ways, such as craftsmen and laborers, and began to develop

the schools within Africa.22 The colonists would confiscate agricultural land, implement

money taxes, and use physical force to compel the natives to provide labor.23

Migration patterns were influenced by the colonial forces and their policies.24

African migration increased during this time period.25 Colonial powers such as France

found ways to utilize African workers and troops to complete tasks.26 African students

began to study abroad during this time period as well, with two thousand students

studying in the United Kingdom by the early 1950s.27

After World War II, European forces began to lose their dominance over their

colonies due to the destruction the war caused to the European nations.28 Soon after,

African countries began gaining their independence. Few countries, such as Liberia,

South Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Libya, gained their independence earlier than most of

the other countries within Africa.29 However, beginning with the decolonization of

Sudan on 1 January 1956, a major wave of decolonization within Africa occurred.30

Forty-three African nations gained their independence from the European forces between

1956 and 1975.31 The peak of the era of decolonization was 1960, when seventeen

22 "Western Africa." Encyclopædia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Africa/Colonization (accessed February 06, 2017). 23 "Migrations Shaping African History." www.age-of-migration.com/resources/casestudies/4.2/pdf (accessed February 06, 2017). 24 Heather Cook. "Student Paper: Colonialism and Labor Migration In West Africa." https://robertjprince.net/2014/06/04/student-paper-colonialism-and-labor-migration-in-west-africa-by-heather-cook/ (accessed February 06, 2017). 25 David Shinn. "African Migration and the Brain Drain." Google Sites, https://sites.google.com/site/davidhshinn/Home/african-migration-and-the-brain-drain (accessed February 06, 2017). 26 Shinn. "African Migration and the Brain Drain." (accessed February 06, 2017). 27 Shinn. "African Migration and the Brain Drain." (accessed February 06, 2017). 28 "History of Africa." Our Africa, http://www.our-africa.org/history-war-and-politics (accessed February 11, 2017). 29 "A Full List of African Countries' Independence Dates." About.com Education, http://africanhistory.about.com/od/eraindependence/fl/Chronological-List-of-African-Independence.htm (accessed February 05, 2017). 30 "A Full List of African Countries' Independence Dates." (accessed February 05, 2017). 31 "A Full List of African Countries' Independence Dates." (accessed February 05, 2017).

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nations gained their independence from France, Britain, and Belgium.32 The last of the

African nations to gain independence in this era was Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.33

Namibia and Eritrea gained their independence over a decade later from South Africa and

Ethiopia, respectively.34,35

There were various approaches through which the countries within Africa reached

independence. There were revolts that demanded full independence, and radical, popular

political parties began to form.36 For example, Ghana's then prime minister, Kwame

Nkrumah, was secretary general of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), which

worked to push Ghana's self-government.37 The UGCC became split between middle

class leaders and radical supporters of Nkrumah, which led Nkrumah to form his own

party, the Convention People's Party (CPP) in 1949.38 The CPP would hold peaceful

protests and strikes for the cause of self-governance. In March 1957, The British

eventually relinquished its power to Ghana, and the British did the same to several other

African countries in the following years.39 While several countries were able to draft a

constitution and peacefully gain their independence, a few countries, such as Zimbabwe,

Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Rwanda had civil wars due to European powers refusing to

give up their colonies.40

With their newly gained independence, the African nations were left to build their

own economies and governments.41 Furthermore, when the countries did gain their

independence, the colonizing forces withdrew their resources, such as funding for

32 "A Full List of African Countries' Independence Dates." (accessed February 05, 2017). 33 "A Full List of African Countries' Independence Dates." (accessed February 05, 2017). 34 "Eritrean War of Independence." New World Encyclopedia, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Eritrean_War_of_Independence (accessed February 12, 2017). 35 "A Full List of African Countries' Independence Dates." (accessed February 05, 2017). 36 "The fight against colonialism and imperialism in Africa." South African History Online. http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/fight-against-colonialism-and-imperialism-africa-grade-11 (accessed February 06, 2017). 37 "Kwame Nkrumah." Encyclopædia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kwame-Nkrumah (accessed February 06, 2017). 38 "Kwame Nkrumah." (accessed February 06, 2017). 39 Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw. "Kwame Nkrumah." PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/prof_kwamenkrumah.html (accessed February 06, 2017). 40 "History of Africa." (accessed February 11, 2017). 41 Kande, "The Challenge of Decolonization in Africa." (accessed February 05, 2017).

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research and professors, leaving the countries stripped of certain technology and

equipment to assist in training the African citizens.42 The economies of these developing

nations were heavily dependent on trade since the countries were rich in natural resources

and did not have the infrastructure to process them.43 This dependency on trade, mixed

with their dependency on energy from western nations, displayed the tough positions to

which the new countries were subjected.44 The instability of the new African

governments, coupled with the infrastructure each country had to build, gave great cause

for the outflow of usually skilled inhabitants.45

1980: Flight of Human Capital Migration from Africa to Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD) nations, or the group of thirty nations that are democratic and

support free trade markets, has its origins long before decolonization. Tribes within

Africa would move from one region to another to escape warfare and harsh conditions,

and African slave trade occurred mainly between the seventeenth and nineteenth

centuries.46 Migration out of Africa was shown to be a popular course of action during

colonialism and postcolonialism.47 Many migrants of postcolonial Africa would

immigrate to the country that colonized their home country. In the 1980s, African

migration to industrialized nations rose greatly since there was a large demand for both

unskilled and highly skilled workers. At the same time, the African home countries were

left to configure their structure and become self-reliant nations contributing to global

society with the absence of a number of their workers.48

42 Peter Chester Arnold, "Why the Ex-Colonial Medical Brain Drain?," Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3164249 (accessed May 8, 2017). 43 "The Problems African Countries faced at Independence." About.com Education, http://africanhistory.about.com/od/eraindependence/fl/The-Challenges-African-States-Faced-at-Independence.htm (accessed February 05, 2017). 44 "The Problems African Countries faced at Independence." (accessed February 05, 2017). 45 Toritseju M. Boyo. "The African Brain Drain and The Social Impact of Skilled Migration." https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/67240/1/Boyo_Toritseju_M_201311_MA_thesis%20.pdf (accessed February 11, 2017). 46 Shinn. "African Migration and the Brain Drain." (accessed February 06, 2017). 47 Shinn. "African Migration and the Brain Drain." (accessed February 05, 2017). 48 Kande, "The Challenge of Decolonization in Africa." (accessed February 06, 2017).

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The United States, one of the most popular locations for African migrants,

implemented the Refugee Act of 1980, which allowed for migrants in conflict-stricken

countries to move to the United States more easily.49 From 1980 to 2013, the sub-Saharan

African immigrant population in the United States spiked from one hundred thirty

thousand to 1.5 million.50 This trend of major voluntary migration of both skilled and less

educated refugees to the U.S. did not begin until after 1980.51 The diversity visa program,

an immigrant lottery system that was made to encourage European immigrants, in 1990

also hiked African emigration rates since it also indirectly resulted in helping African

migrants enter the U.S.52,53

The diversity visa program makes about fifty thousand permanent resident visas

available to potential migrants from countries with low immigration rates to the United

States.54 The relative majority of the recipients of these visas are Africans, followed by

Europeans.55 The greatest number of visas went to Ethiopia (three thousand, nine hundred

and eighty-seven), Egypt (three thousand, four hundred and forty-seven), Uzbekistan

(three thousand, two hundred and seventy-nine), Nigeria (two thousand, nine hundred and

thirty-seven), Bangladesh (two thousand, eight hundred), and Kenya (two thousand, two

hundred and seventy-nine).56 This program tends to attract African migrants that are in

professional, managerial, and technical (PMT) occupations. Forty-four per cent of

49 Monica Anderson. "African immigrant population in U.S. steadily climbs." Pew Research Center, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/11/02/african-immigrant-population-in-u-s-steadily-climbs/ (accessed February 06, 2017). 50 Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova. "Sub-Saharan African Immigrants in the United States." Migration Policy Institute, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/sub-saharan-african-immigrants-united-states (accessed February 11, 2017). “Sub-Saharan African Immigrants in the United States." (accessed February 11, 2017). 51 Zong and Batalova. “Sub-Saharan African Immigrants in the United States.” (accessed February 11, 2017). 52 Monica Anderson, "A Rising Share of the U.S. Black Population Is Foreign Born," Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/04/09/a-rising-share-of-the-u-s-black-population-is-foreign-born/#the-history-of-black-migration-to-the-u-s (accessed February 06, 2017). 53 Monica Anderson, "A Rising Share of the U.S. Black Population Is Foreign Born," (accessed February 06, 2017). 54 "Diversity Visa Lottery." U.S. Embassy & Consulates in South Africa, https://za.usembassy.gov/visas/diversity-visa-lottery/ (accessed February 11, 2017). 55 Annalisa Merelli. "How a unique visa lottery promotes the dream of American diversity—50,000 green cards at a time." Quartz, https://qz.com/803831/how-a-unique-lottery-is-keeping-the-dream-of-american-diversity-alive-50000-green-cards-at-a-time/ (accessed February 11, 2017). 56 "The Diversity Visa System: A Fact Sheet." American Immigration Council, https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/diversity-visa-system-fact-sheet (accessed February 11, 2017).

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African migrants in the 1990s had PMT qualifications, ten percentage points greater than

all immigrants.57 The abundant outflow of these African migrants further add to the brain

drain experienced by African nations.58

2008-2009: Global Financial Crisis The global recession of 2008-2009 doubled the unemployment rates of the United

States and other popular migrant-destination countries.59 Relatively few African migrants

returned back to their home countries during this time period since the recession also

decreased the job opportunities in their home countries.60 To combat the effects of the

financial crisis, some host countries tried to limit their influx of migrants by increasing

the enforcement of migration and labor laws that limit the number of immigrants allowed

into a country, while other host countries offered unemployed immigrants return bonuses

to leave the host countries.61

Remittance inflow to sub-Saharan Africa declined by 3.9 per cent.62 The recession

also impacted inhabitants of North Africa the most since many of the inhabitants of that

region migrate to European nations, most of which were hit hard by the recession.63 The

remittance inflow of the African migrants in Europe declined by 2.5 per cent between

2008 and 2009.64 Remittance inflow to African countries overall fell by 4.0-8.0 per cent

in 2008-2009, hitting countries like Lesotho, whose gross domestic product (GDP) is

57 Arun Peter Lobo. "U.S. Diversity Visas Are Attracting Africa's Best and Brightest." Population Reference Bureau, http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2001/USDiversityVisasAreAttractingAfricasBestandBrightest.aspx (accessed February 11, 2017). 58 Lobo. "U.S. Diversity Visas Are Attracting Africa's Best and Brightest." (accessed February 11, 2017). Lobo. "U.S. Diversity Visas Are Attracting Africa's Best and Brightest." (accessed February 11, 2017). 59 Philip Martin. "Remittances and the Recession's Effects on International Migration." Remittances and the Recession's Effects on International Migration, http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2011/international-migration-recession-remittances.aspx (accessed February 12, 2017). 60 Martin. "Remittances and the Recession's Effects on International Migration." (accessed February 12, 2017). 61 Martin. "Remittances and the Recession's Effects on International Migration." (accessed February 12, 2017). 62 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview." http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDECPROSPECTS/Resources/476882-1157133580628/RemittanceMarketsInAfricaOverview.pdf (accessed February 06, 2017). 63 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview." (accessed February 06, 2017). 64 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview." (accessed February 06, 2017).

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composed of twenty-ninth per cent remittances, the hardest.65 While the economic crisis

of 2008-2009 stunted the growth of the economies of nations internationally, the flow of

remittances to both sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa increased by less than one per

cent the following year.66 The remittances to the African countries have since been

steadily increasing after the economic crisis. The analysis of remittances is important in

the discussion of regulating cross-border migration since remittances help to combat the

average effects of brain drain from the nations within Africa. Even though many

countries are negatively impacted by their citizens leaving, remittances do help to

increase African countries' incomes.

2014-2015: Competitiveness of African Countries The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) reported in 2015

that even though Africa is rapidly urbanizing, it is still the least urbanized continent, with

only thirty-eight per cent of its population residing in cities.67 UNECA also reported that

primary school enrollment in Africa increased by twenty-four per cent from 1990 to

2012, yet the retention rate is still the lowest in the world.68 The Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) of 2014-2015 reported that Nigeria,

which is Africa’s largest economy in terms of GDP and population, dropped from 120th

to 127th in global ranking.69 Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, the GCIs of each country

varies with Mauritius at thirty ninth and Guinea at one hundred and forty-fourth, yet most

of sub-Saharan Africa is either in the lowest forty to fifty per cent of competitiveness or

not a part of the one hundred forty-four countries ranked in the GCI.70 The main

components to these rankings are sustainability and infrastructure within the African

nations. Since African nations are in the lower half of the competitiveness scale, 65 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview." (accessed February 11, 2017). 66 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview." (accessed February 11, 2017). 67 "Industrializing Through Trade: Economic Report on Africa 2015." United Nations, http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2015era-uneca.pdf. (accessed February 12, 2017). 68 "Industrializing Through Trade: Economic Report on Africa 2015." (accessed February 12, 2017). 69 "Report Highlights." Global Competitiveness Report 2014-2015, http://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report-2014-2015/report-highlights/#key (accessed February 12, 2017). 70 "Report Highlights." (accessed February 12, 2017).

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voluntary migration of inhabitants to countries in the upper half of the competitiveness

scale is usually a direct result of the lower GDPs of the African nations.

Actors and Interests African Migrants

The major players of the trend of brain drain in Africa are the migrants

themselves. A high proportion of migrants from Africa are highly skilled professionals.71

More than thirty per cent of African migrants move to OECD countries, and nearly

eighty-eight per cent of adults that migrate out of Africa and into the United States have a

high school degree or higher.72 The migrants are also the ones who send remittances back

to their countries, especially if they have family members who remained in their country.

While there is not a single, encompassing voice for African migrants, based on trends, it

can be seen that the emigrants would prefer to live in a region that offers them the better

opportunities for the skills of which they possess.73

An interview with Philip Emeagwali, a Nigerian computer scientist informally

deemed as the "Bill Gates of Africa," addressed the ideology behind Emeagwali's

emigration from Nigeria and why brain drain is a pertinent issue in Africa.74,75

Emeagwali mentions that several migrants will not return home but tend to plan on

spending retirement in their home countries.76 Also, Emeagwali expressed the ideas that

sometimes underemployment and unemployment that African immigrants face, as well as

racial discrimination the immigrants tend to face, can serve as incentive to migrate back

71 B.J. Ndulu. "Human Capital Flight: Stratification, Globalization and the Challenges to Tertiary Education in Africa." World Bank, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/989801468194076589/pdf/902890WP0Box380Human0Capital0Flight.pdf (accessed February 12, 2017). 72 Ndulu. "Human Capital Flight: Stratification, Globalization and the Challenges to Tertiary Education in Africa." (accessed February 12, 2017). 73 Ndulu. "Human Capital Flight: Stratification, Globalization and the Challenges to Tertiary Education in Africa." (accessed February 12, 2017). 74 "Dr. Philip Emeagwali." Black Inventors: A Rich Heritage Gives Way to Modern Ingenuity, http://www.black-inventor.com/dr-philip-emeagwali.asp (accessed February 12, 2017). 75 Philip Emeagwali. "How do we reverse the brain drain? - Philip Emeagwali." How do we reverse the brain drain?, http://emeagwali.com/speeches/brain-drain/to-brain-gain/reverse-brain-drain-from-africa.html (accessed February 12, 2017). 76 Emeagwali. "How do we reverse the brain drain? - Philip Emeagwali." (accessed February 12, 2017).

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home.77 However, the outflow of skilled Africans from OECD countries for the

previously mentioned reasons is less significant than the outflow of Africans from their

home nations.

The development of skilled African immigrants' home nations would arguably

motivate a portion of the immigrant population to remain in their countries. A major

reason why these individuals are emigrating from Africa is that their governments are not

providing necessary resources needed to utilize their skills to capacity. It is estimated

that scientists who immigrated from developing nations to developed nations produce 4.5

times more publications and ten times more patents than scientists who remain in their

developing countries.78 If the development of scientific resources in African nations

could put the nations closer to comparison with the developed nations' scientific

infrastructure, there would be more motive for African immigrants to remain in their

countries.79

African countries have generally been unable to maintain a lot of their skilled

human capital.80 Many African nations are plagued with having low levels of education

and training. The motivation behind the migration of skilled Africans can be attributed to

push factors that influence emigrants to leave their home countries to and pull factors that

influence emigrants to move into a more developed country.81 The push factors are

usually low salaries, political instability, lack of research and other facilities, and

overproduction and underutilization of manpower in African migrants' home countries.82

On the contrary, the pull factors are usually higher wages, more political stability, more

77 Emeagwali. "How do we reverse the brain drain? - Philip Emeagwali." (accessed February 12, 2017). 78 Sunita Dodani and Ronald E. LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1275994/ (accessed February 12, 2017). 79 Dodani and LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" (accessed February 12, 2017). 80 Ndulu. "Human Capital Flight: Stratification, Globalization and the Challenges to Tertiary Education in Africa." (accessed February 12, 2017). 81 Dejene Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, http://repository.uneca.org/pdfpreview/bitstream/handle/10855/21491/Bib-69106.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed February 12, 2017). 82 Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." (accessed February 12, 2017).

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research facilities and educational opportunities, and higher standards of living in OECD

countries.83

The United States of America and Other OECD Countries The United States is a major proponent of free movement of labor. Because of this

free movement, it difficult for African nations to do anything about keeping their

inhabitants within their borders by decreasing the pull factors of brain drain.84 The United

States also implemented the Refugee Act of 1980 and the diversity visa program in 1990.

Both programs made emigrating into the U.S. easier for international migrants since the

goal of the U.S. was to increase its diversity.85 The U.S. is also able to grant 4,550

Africans who have stayed their visas but cannot return to their countries due to war

temporary protection from removal, known as Temporary Protected Status (TPS).86 The

population of African migrants in the U.S. nearly doubled every decade since 1960.87

The OECD countries compete amongst themselves in order to attract and retain

skilled workers.88 The United States has utilized its H-1B visa program to allow

nonimmigrant skilled foreign individuals in specialty fields to receive temporary work

visas, making them more sought after by foreign workers than other OECD nations.89

Foreign-born skilled workers benefit the countries to which they migrate greatly since the

workers contribute to the countries' economic growth and achievement.90 The inside

competition between OECD countries for skilled workers can indirectly affect the

countries within Africa. Countries like the United Kingdom and France plan to increase

salaries of post-doctorates and increase the number of available teaching and research 83 Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." (accessed February 12, 2017). 84 David Shinn. "African Migration and the Brain Drain." (accessed February 12, 2017). 85 Wendy Feliz. "The Growing African Immigrant Population in the United States." Immigration Impact, http://immigrationimpact.com/2015/11/04/african-immigrants-united-states/ (accessed February 13, 2017). 86 Kristen McCabe. "African Immigrants in the United States." Migration Policy Institute, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/african-immigrants-united-states (accessed February 13, 2017). 87 McCabe. "African Immigrants in the United States." (accessed February 13, 2017). 88 Mario Cervantes and Dominique Guellec. “The brain drain: Old myths, new realities.” OECD Observer, http://oecdobserver.org/news/archivestory.php/aid/673/The_brain_drain:_Old_myths,_new_realities.html (accessed February 13, 2017). 89 "H-1B Program - Wage and Hour Division (WHD) - U.S. Department of Labor." United States Department of Labor, https://www.dol.gov/whd/immigration/h1b.htm (accessed February 13, 2017). 90 Cervantes and Guellec. “The brain drain: Old myths, new realities.” (accessed February 13, 2017).

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positions.91 Also, countries within Europe have a geographical advantage over the United

States since the countries in North Africa, specifically, are close to Europe. These

processes and elements would, in turn, increase the pull factors that contribute to brain

drain.

Since countries within the OECD witness their own skilled professionals migrate to

other OECD countries, the home OECD nations’ immediate responses are to better their

own opportunities and economies.92 With this in mind, the OECD countries’ way of

alleviating brain drain within Africa and other developing nations without compromising

their own economies would be to provide aid to developing nations through foreign direct

investment (FDI) .93

OECD countries tend to make FDI to developing countries, serving as the greatest

source of cash flow into developing countries, even preceding remittances.94 The OECD

reasoned that making aid to developing nations more predictable can allow for the

countries to manage themselves more efficiently.95 Even though OECD nations

preferably utilize African migrant workers, they send aid to assist in the development of

the African countries, and some OECD nations tend to issue temporary work visas

moreso than permanent residence cards, such as New Zealand, Germany, Australia, and

Finland.96 Temporary work visas help skilled capital in returning to their home countries

instead of permanently leaving their home countries, which benefits both the host

countries and the home countries; the host countries temporarily gain foreign capital and

bolster their productivity, and the home countries do not entirely miss out on their own

capital.

91 Cervantes and Dominique Guellec. “The brain drain: Old myths, new realities.” (accessed February 13, 2017). 92 Cervantes and Dominique Guellec. “The brain drain: Old myths, new realities.” (accessed February 13, 2017). 93 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview." (accessed February 13, 2017). 94 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview." (accessed February 13, 2017). 95 "Reaching Our Development Goals: Why Does Aid ... - OECD." Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Accessed February 13, 2017. http://www.oecd.org/development/effectiveness/40987004.pdf (accessed February 13, 2017). 96 Jill H. Wilson, "Immigration Facts: Temporary Foreign Workers," Brookings, www.brookings.edu/research/immigration-facts-temporary-foreign-workers (accessed May 10, 2017).

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The OECD has also considered untying aid. Tying aid is the process of giving aid

to a country that can only be used to purchase goods from the donating country.97 Since

the goods tend to be more expensive than what their values would have been sold at a

local price, the value of the tied aid would be less than untied aid.98 Untying aid to

developing nations would allow for the developing nations to have more options in terms

of where they could allocate the aid in their development.

From 2000 to 2011, FDIs have become the more popular kind of aid to African

nations than official development assistance (ODA), also known as official aid.99 While

research supports that FDIs can help to stimulate the economies of African nations while

creating jobs and helping to develop the infrastructures of the countries, there is no clear

difference between what FDI provides over ODA in terms of what better suits the

governments within Africa.100,101

African Governments African governments have tended to discourage their citizens from migrating due

to the loss of workers in certain areas of labor, such as health and agriculture.102 African

governments, alongside various nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), have begun to

call on African emigrants to return to their countries and even present them with rewards

upon returning.103 These NGOs include the New Partnership of Africa's Development

(NEPAD) and the Homecoming Revolution.104 NEPAD works towards the elimination of

97 "Reaching Our Development Goals: Why Does Aid ... - OECD." (accessed February 13, 2017). 98 "Reaching Our Development Goals: Why Does Aid ... - OECD." (accessed February 13, 2017). 99 Mikayla Wicks. "Foreign Direct Investment vs. Official Development Assistance: The Battle is On!" Building Markets Headquarters Blog, http://buildingmarkets.org/blogs/blog/2012/05/17/foreign-direct-investment-vs-overseas-direct-assistance-the-battle-is-on/ (accessed February 13, 2017). 100 Alex Awltl. "Is the Aid vs. Foreign Direct Investment Debate Helpful for Africa?" International Policy Digest, https://intpolicydigest.org/2016/07/13/aid-vs-foreign-direct-investment-debate-helpful-africa/ (accessed February 13, 2017). 101 Wicks. "Foreign Direct Investment vs. Official Development Assistance: The Battle is On!" (accessed February 13, 2017). 102 Gumisai Mutume. "Workers' remittances: a boon to development | Africa Renewal Online." United Nations, http://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/october-2005/workers%E2%80%99-remittances-boon-development (accessed February 13, 2017). 103 Scott Firsing. "How severe is Africa’s brain drain?" Quartz, https://qz.com/599140/how-severe-is-africas-brain-drain/ (accessed February 13, 2017). 104 Firsing. "How severe is Africa’s brain drain?" (accessed February 13, 2017).

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poverty by developing human capital, developing infrastructure, and working towards

food security, all factors that motivate the return of migrants.105

The growing number of migrants leaving the African countries calls attention to

the fact that African governments should be concerned about the loss of human capital.

Countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Somalia are losing between one third and

one half of their college graduates.106 African governments become disadvantaged with

mass migration from their countries. An example of one of these disadvantages is the

governments not being repaid for the education of an emigrant.107 African immigrants do

not have to pay taxes to their home countries upon leaving, including any funds they used

towards education.108 Another example of a disadvantage is the power and technological

gaps between developing nations and developed nations that are further widened by brain

drain.109 The contrast in concentrations of highly skilled workers in developed nations

versus the concentration of skilled workers in the African nations makes the developed

nations advance faster than the developing ones.110

It is estimated that scientists who emigrated from developing nations to developed

nations produce 4.5 times more publications and ten times more patents than scientists

who remain in their developing countries.111 African countries can develop their

infrastructure and resources to not just attract their expatriates back to the countries, but

also to influence the expatriates to still internationally collaborate with the countries by

way of creating research opportunities or creating motivation to invest in the countries'

infrastructure.112 Since African migrants consistently send remittances to their family

105 "About NEPAD." About NEPAD | NEPAD, http://www.nepad.org/content/about-nepad#aboutourwork (accessed February 13, 2017). 106 "The brain drain from developing countries" World of Labor, http://wol.iza.org/articles/brain-drain-from-developing-countries-1.pdf (accessed February 13, 2017). 107 "The brain drain from developing countries" (accessed February 13, 2017). 108 "The brain drain from developing countries" (accessed February 13, 2017). 109 "The brain drain from developing countries" (accessed February 13, 2017). 110 "The brain drain from developing countries" (accessed February 13, 2017). 111 Sunita Dodani and Ronald E. LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1275994/ (accessed February 12, 2017). 112 Dodani and LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" (accessed February 12, 2017).

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members and towards projects within their home countries, such as housing, African

governments can greatly benefit if remittances are instead partially invested into national

development projects. If the development of scientific resources in African nations could

put the nations closer to comparison with the developed nations' scientific infrastructure,

there would be more motive for African immigrants to remain in their countries.113

Possible Causes Low Wages

Low salaries paid to African professionals contribute to brain drain.114 In the

1990s, salary erosion, or being paid a fraction of an original salary, plagued many

African nations.115 According to the World Bank, Zambia's public sector workers and

Mozambique's nurses and teachers suffered from major salary erosions. The Zambian

public sector workers in the mid 1990s were paid one-fourth of what they were being

paid in the beginning of the decade, and the Mozambique nurses and teachers were being

paid in 1991 one-third of what they were being paid in 1975.116

In 2007, health workers in African nations generally were paid at most a third of

what U.S. workers made, and at most half of what Canadian and United Kingdom

workers made.117 Many skilled workers also migrate from their home nations simply

because they were recruited by OECD countries.118 Forty-one per cent of migrant nurses

in Great Britain reported to have migrated to the country because they had been

recruited.119 Dr. Philip Emeagwali in an interview attributed the primary cause of brain

113 Dodani and LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" (accessed February 12, 2017). 114 "Brain Drain in Africa: Facts and Figures." African Renaissance Ambassador Corporation, http://www.aracorporation.org/files/factsandfigures.pdf (accessed February 18, 2017). 115 "Low salaries, the culture of per diems and corruption." Anti-corruption Resource Center, http://www.u4.no/publications/low-salaries-the-culture-of-per-diems-and-corruption/ (accessed February 19, 2017). 116 "Low salaries, the culture of per diems and corruption." (accessed February 19, 2017). 117 Kasey Kissick. "The 'Brain Drain': Migration of Healthcare Workers out of sub-Saharan Africa." Stanford, http://med.stanford.edu/schoolhealtheval/files/KissickBrainDrainFactSheetFinal.pdf (accessed February 18, 2017). 118 Kissick. "The 'Brain Drain': Migration of Healthcare Workers out of sub-Saharan Africa." (accessed February 20, 2017). 119 Kissick. "The 'Brain Drain': Migration of Healthcare Workers out of sub-Saharan Africa." (accessed February 20, 2017).

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drain from African countries to professionals being paid low wages.120 Additionally, a

study conducted by the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Center

(SIRDC) found that thirty-four per cent of Zimbabwean emigrants attributed the most

common reason for migration from their country to low salaries.121 The wage disparity for

skilled workers between African nations and developed nations easily adds to the skilled

workers' incentive to migrate from their home countries, as well as emphasizes the push

factor of low wages within African nations and the pull factor of higher wages within

OECD nations.

Lack of Funding Towards Resources The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) states that

low transport and communication stunts the infrastructure within African countries.122

The underdeveloped infrastructure within African nations leads to the underfunding of

certain resources and fields.123 The government support for research throughout African

countries in the 1990s was the lowest in the world, accounting for 0.2 per cent of gross

national product (GNP).124

There exists an inadequate amount of government funds directed towards research,

as well as the inadequate supply of support staff for research.125 Also, many African-born

students train in their home countries and practice in more developed countries, it costs

the African countries more money to train students than they earn back.126 "The United

120 “Africa: Education and Brain Drain.” Africa: Education and Brain Drain, http://www.emeagwali.com/interviews/brain-drain/education-in-africa-brain-drain-problem-worldnet-africa-journal.html (accessed March 05, 2017). 121 Donald P. Chimanikire. “Brain Drain: Causes, and Economic Consequences for Africa.” African Association for Public Administration and Management. (accessed March 05, 2017). 122 Chiponda Chimbelu. "Poor infrastructure is key obstacle to development in Africa." DW Environment, http://www.dw.com/en/poor-infrastructure-is-key-obstacle-to-development-in-africa/a-15264436 (accessed February 18, 2017). 123 Dodani and LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" (accessed February 18, 2017). 124 Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." (accessed February 20, 2017). 125 Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." (accessed February 19, 2017). 126 Amy Hagopian and Matthew J. Thompson. "The migration of physicians from sub-Saharan Africa to the United States of America: measures of the African brain drain." Human Resources for Health, 2 (2004): 7

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Nations Commission for Trade and Development (UNCTD) estimated that professionals

who leave Africa cost the continent $4 billion USD a year – one third of official

development funds to Africa."127 This loss leads to the general decline of average

incomes, as well.128 With a lack of scientific and technological development in

comparison to more developed countries, it remains difficult for the nations within Africa

to not only retain their skilled workers, but to also recover them once they leave their

home countries.129

The developed infrastructures of OECD nations have the tendency to attract

African migrants to OECD nations. Developed nations consistently boost their research

opportunities in terms of the number of opportunities and the amount of funding towards

them.130 They also often look for the top skilled individuals, especially migrants, to help

conduct research.131 With both the undersupply of opportunities for skilled professionals

within African nations and the fair supply of opportunities in OECD nations, brain drain

is prominent within Africa due to these differences.

Political Instability The majority of countries within Africa gained their independence from colonial

powers within the last sixty years. In the years since the countries gained their

independence, many of the countries have more political instability than OECD

countries. Political instability defined as a government's susceptibility to collapse and to

demonstrations by its people.132 From 1960 to 2000, there were an estimated twenty

127 Hagopian and Thompson. "The migration of physicians from sub-Saharan Africa to the United States of America: measures of the African brain drain." 128 Hagopian and Thompson. "The migration of physicians from sub-Saharan Africa to the United States of America: measures of the African brain drain." 129 Dodani and LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" (accessed February 20, 2017). 130 “The Brain Drain: Old Myths, New Realities.“ OECD Observer, http://oecdobserver.org/news/archivestory.php/aid/673/The_brain_drain:_Old_myths,_new_realities.html (accessed March 05, 2017). 131 “The Brain Drain: Old Myths, New Realities.” (accessed March 05, 2017). 132 Alberto Alesina and Sule Ozler. "Political Instability and Economic Growth." Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard, http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4553024 (accessed February 18, 2017).

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coups and armed conflicts per decade spread amongst a number of African nations.133

The number of armed conflicts has dramatically decreased to six in the 2000s, yet there

are still several conflict-stricken countries, and even more countries bordering the

conflict-stricken zones.134

The political instability within African countries can be attributed to leadership

issues faced in post-colonial times.135 Several governments within Africa rushed into

becoming multi-party democracies to compare to western powers.136 While several

countries attempted to adopt full democratic constitutions, many of the countries are

either flawed in their democracies (as seen in their presidential elections and reelections,)

hybrid regimes, or authoritarian.137,138 The instability within the countries has led to social

hostility within several of the countries, leaving the people feeling disconnected from

their governments.139 The troubles within the politics of the African countries as well as

the scandals of the leaders have negatively impacted the development of the countries

and their resources, leading to even more social unrest and the flight of their

populations.140

According to the OECD’s States of Fragility 2016 Highlights, The number of

displaced people within African countries tripled between 2004 and 2014 due to violence

that derived from political instability.141 Many of these individuals migrated to European

nations due to their relatively greater stability.142 In 2015, African countries tended

133 Alexandra Dumitru and Raphie Hayat. "Sub-Saharan Africa: politically more stable, but still fragile." Rabobank, https://economics.rabobank.com/publications/2015/december/sub-saharan-africa-politically-more-stable-but-still-fragile/ (accessed February 18, 2017). 134 Dumitru and Hayat. "Sub-Saharan Africa: politically more stable, but still fragile." (accessed February 18, 2017). 135 Alhaji Ahmadu Ibrahim and Lawan Cheri. "Democracy, Political Instability and the African Crisis of Underdevelopment ," Journal of Power, Politics & Governance, 1, no. 1 (2013): 62. 136 Ibrahim and Cheri. "Democracy, Political Instability and the African Crisis of Underdevelopment ," Journal of Power, Politics & Governance, 1, no. 1 (2013): 62. 137 Ibrahim and Cheri. "Democracy, Political Instability and the African Crisis of Underdevelopment ," Journal of Power, Politics & Governance, 1, no. 1 (2013): 62. 138 Dumitru and Hayat. "Sub-Saharan Africa: politically more stable, but still fragile." (accessed February 19, 2017). 139 Ibrahim and Cheri. "Democracy, Political Instability and the African Crisis of Underdevelopment ," Journal of Power, Politics & Governance, 1, no. 1 (2013): 63. 140 Ibrahim and Cheri. "Democracy, Political Instability and the African Crisis of Underdevelopment ," Journal of Power, Politics & Governance, 1, no. 1 (2013): 63. 141 OECD. “Fragile States of 2016 Highlights.” (2015) 6-49. 142 OECD. “Fragile States of 2016 Highlights.” (2015) 6-49.

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towards the most fragile side of the Fragility Index while OECD nations tended towards

the least fragile side.143With the amount of instability within African nations, especially in

comparison to OECD nations, African inhabitants, skilled and unskilled, often migrate to

escape the consequences of the conflicts in which their home countries may be involved

or the unsteadiness of their leaders.144

Comparison of Causes The low wages, lack of funding towards resources, and political instability within

African nations all contribute to the brain drain experienced by the continent. Low

government wages in the African countries generally leads to political corruption and

misuse of resources intended for the public.145 Since public sector workers are being paid

less than they feel they deserve due to salary erosion, their incentive to efficiently

participate in their government is not up to par.146 The problem grows deeper since it was

found that increasing the wages of public sector wages would not necessarily decrease

political corruption and instability.147 With the lack of funding towards resources such as

research and jobs, it remains difficult for African governments to attract and retain skilled

workers, motivating the workers to migrate to other countries that do allocate their funds

to the attractive resources.148 The three previously mentioned causes all contribute to the

“push” factors of brain drain that plagues the majority of the countries of Africa,

instigating the flight of human capital from the countries that need their capital the

most.149

143 The Fund for Peace. “Fragility Index 2016 .” Foreign Policy, http://foreignpolicy.com/fragile-states-index-2016-brexit-syria-refugee-europe-anti-migrant-boko-haram/ (accessed March 05, 2017). 144 Dumitru and Hayat. "Sub-Saharan Africa: politically more stable, but still fragile." (accessed March 05, 2017). 145 "Low salaries, the culture of per diems and corruption." (accessed February 20, 2017). 146 "Low salaries, the culture of per diems and corruption." (accessed February 20, 2017). 147 "Low salaries, the culture of per diems and corruption." (accessed February 20, 2017). 148 Dodani and LaPorte. "Brain drain from developing countries: how can brain drain be converted into wisdom gain?" (accessed February 20, 2017). 149 Shinn. “African Migration and the Brain Drain.” (accessed February 20, 2017).

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Projections and Implications Brain drain’s cost to the developing nations of Africa has the potential to outweigh

its gains.150,151 Both professionals and students contribute to brain drain within Africa,

and, oftentimes, students and professionals do not return to their home countries during

their professional life.152 The loss of human capital lowers the number of skilled workers

within Africa.153 It also increases the economic gap between developed and

underdeveloped nations. Many developed nations are further advancing with the influx of

skilled professionals, while developing nations are putting resources into training capital

to compensate for what they have lost.154 The loss of human capital within these countries

also impacts the technology within the countries, for without the skilled workers utilizing

and developing technologies within their home countries, the technological growth within

the countries is hindered.155

The trend of brain drain in African nations continues through the push and pull

factors that influence the migration of skilled workers from developing countries to

developed countries. Without the betterment of the infrastructure and political stability

within African nations, the nations will continue to lose their competition to OECD

countries in terms of maintaining a necessary number of skilled workers.156

The AU should work towards implementing plans to help bolster and fund the

national governments within Africa, perhaps through having a percentage of remittances

go towards the national governments. Also, since African countries spend a massive

150 Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." (accessed February 26, 2017). 151 Dhananjayan Sriskandarajah. “Reassessing the Impacts of Brain Drain on Developing Countries,” Migration Policy Institute, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/reassessing-impacts-brain-drain-developing-countries (accessed February 26, 2017). 152 “Causes and Effects of Brain Drain in Economics,” UK Essays, https://www.ukessays.com/essays/economics/causes-and-effects-of-brain-drain-in-developing-economics-essay.php (accessed February 26, 2017). 153 Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." (accessed February 26, 2017). 154 Aredo. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia." (accessed February 26, 2017). 155 “The Side Effects of Brain Drain in Globalisation Economics Essay,” UK Essays, https://www.ukessays.com/essays/economics/the-side-effect-of-brain-drain-in-globalisation-economics-essay.php (accessed February 26, 2017). 156 The Side Effects of Brain Drain in Globalisation Economics Essay,” (accessed February 26, 2017).

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amount of money to train their skilled workers only for the workers to find jobs outside

of their home countries, figuring out a way to make sure that the home countries have not

only the resources to fully employ their skilled workers, but also to have their workers'

wages relatively similar to OECD nations' wages is ideal.

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Conclusion With the mass decolonization of Africa beginning in 1956, the nations within

Africa began to build their own governments and economies in a rush to catch up to the

already established countries in the world.157 Due to the lack of infrastructure and

political stability within the countries, skilled professionals from the countries began to

migrate to OECD nations, with the numbers of African citizens migrating to a country

such as the U.S. gradually doubling every decade.158 The global economy has an impact

on remittances sent to African nations, as seen when remittance trends decreased during

the 2008-2009 global recession.159 The Global Competitiveness Report of 2014-2015

emphasizes that most of sub-Saharan Africa is in the lowest forty to fifty per cent of

competitiveness, which is comprised of the sustainability and infrastructure within each

nation.160 The major participants to brain drain from Africa are the African migrants,

OECD nations, especially the U.S., and African governments. The causes to the loss of

human capital within Africa is low wages, lack of funding towards resources, and

political instability. Brain drain is a highly-debated issue that impacts both the countries

that are losing their skilled professionals and the countries that are receiving more skilled

professionals. The African Union should address the effects of cross-border migration

and brain drain, assess the benefits of remittances in terms of increasing a country's

income, and try to formulate ways in which the countries within Africa can better their

development in order to grow efficiently while having an adequate supply of skilled

workers.

157 "The Problems African Countries faced at Independence." (accessed February 27, 2017). 158 McCabe. “African Immigrants in the United States. “ (accessed February 27, 2017.) 159 Sanket Mohapatra and Dilip Ratha. “Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview. “ (accessed February 27, 2017.) 160 “Report Highlights. “ (accessed February 27, 2017.)

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Discussion Questions ● What is the fundamental idea behind the flight of human capital and its impact on

developing and developed countries?

● How is your country affected by brain drain?

● What has your government done to combat the effects of brain drain?

● How can AU countries maintain their skilled professionals without limiting the

mobility of the migrants?

● What are some differences between how developing countries and developed

countries feel about brain drain?

● What are some ways in which brain drain can be utilized to develop African

nations?

● What can be done in order to motivate skilled professionals to stay within their

home countries?

● What are some obstacles countries, both developing and developed, may face in

addressing this issue?

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Bibliography For Further Reading Mohapatra, Sanket and Dilip Ratha. "Migrant Remittances in Africa: An Overview."

Accessed February 06, 2017. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDECPROSPECTS/Resources/476882-1157133580628/RemittanceMarketsInAfricaOverview.pdf (1-52). Interesting data on remittance trends, such as which countries receive the largest percentage of remittances, both from outside Africa and from within Africa. Also shows the effect the Global Financial Crisis of 2008-2009 had on remittances and which forms of aid African countries receive the most.

"Report Highlights." Global Competitiveness Report 2014-2015. Accessed February 12,

2017. http://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report-2014-2015/report-highlights/#key. Shows relatively recent data on the economic quality of African nations and how they compare to other nations. Also displays the growth trends of each nation on the Report.

Shinn, David. "African Migration and the Brain Drain." Google Sites. Accessed

February 20, 2017. https://sites.google.com/site/davidhshinn/Home/african-migration-and- the-brain-drain. Presents fundamental information on the factors behind brain drain as well as the historical context of the trend. It is a good read for getting a General understanding of brain drain from Africa.

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http://www.nepad.org/content/about-nepad#aboutourwork. "Africa's Diaspora Remittances rise to $35.2 bn in 2015 - World Bank." Africanews.

Accessed January 29, 2017. http://www.africanews.com/2016/04/20/africa-s- diaspora-remittances-rise-to-352-bn-in-2015-world-bank/.

"A Full List of African Countries' Independence Dates." About.com Education. Accessed

February 05, 2017. http://africanhistory.about.com/od/eraindependence/fl/Chronological-List-of-African-Independence.htm.

Alesina, Alberto and Sule Ozler. "Political Instability and Economic Growth." Digital

Access to Scholarship at Harvard. Accessed February 18, 2017. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4553024.

Anderson, Monica. "African immigrant population in U.S. steadily climbs." Pew

Research Center. Accessed February 06, 2017. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/11/02/african-immigrant-population-in-u-s-steadily-climbs/.

Anderson, Monica. "A Rising Share of the U.S. Black Population Is Foreign Born." Pew

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Aredo, Dejene. "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain from

Ethiopia." United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Accessed February 12, 2017. http://repository.uneca.org/pdfpreview/bitstream/handle/10855/21491/Bib-69106.pdf?sequence=1.

Arnold, Peter Chester. "Why the Ex-Colonial Medical Brain Drain?." Journal of the

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Boyo, Toritseju M. "The African Brain Drain and The Social Impact of Skilled Migration." Accessed February 11, 2017. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/67240/1/Boyo_Toritseju_M_201311_MA_thesis%20.pdf.

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