Age of Anxiety: Age of Anxiety:

1920’s: Consequences of World 1920’s: Consequences of World War I and VersaillesWar I and Versailles1930’s: Great Depression and 1930’s: Great Depression and aftermath; WWII beginsaftermath; WWII begins

New GovernmentsNew Governments

New nations from Versailles: new New nations from Versailles: new governments answerable to the peoplegovernments answerable to the people

Results of Revolution: new governmentsResults of Revolution: new governments Russia: toward utopiaRussia: toward utopia

Defeated and Victor nations: more Defeated and Victor nations: more democratic governmentsdemocratic governments GermanyGermany Austria HungaryAustria Hungary FranceFrance ItalyItaly

Challenges to Democratic Challenges to Democratic RuleRule

Harsh reality of economic conditionsHarsh reality of economic conditionsAggressive nationalismAggressive nationalismPolitical conservatismPolitical conservatismLack of experience and skillLack of experience and skillDistrust from upper classesDistrust from upper classes

Versailles AftermathVersailles Aftermath German objectionsGerman objections

Humiliation to militaristic, nationalistic, proudHumiliation to militaristic, nationalistic, proud Reparations payments outlandish % of country’s economyReparations payments outlandish % of country’s economy

E Europe ObjectionsE Europe Objections Treated unfairlyTreated unfairly New national boundaries don’t satisfy nationalistsNew national boundaries don’t satisfy nationalists

French objectionsFrench objections Believed provisions of treaty not adequately enforcedBelieved provisions of treaty not adequately enforced

Italian objectionsItalian objections Not rewarded sufficientlyNot rewarded sufficiently No empire: wanted African colonies as “reward” for WWI allianceNo empire: wanted African colonies as “reward” for WWI alliance Japan and Arabs objections: disappointment that they were not Japan and Arabs objections: disappointment that they were not

granted what they had been promisedgranted what they had been promised Japan: clause in treaty about equality for all races; Pacific possessions needed for Japan: clause in treaty about equality for all races; Pacific possessions needed for

raw materials (rubber), though they did get parts of Chinaraw materials (rubber), though they did get parts of China Arabs: self determination—independent Arab state(s); instead, Balfour Arabs: self determination—independent Arab state(s); instead, Balfour

Declaration acknowledging Palestine as Jewish homeland, thumbing noses at Arab Declaration acknowledging Palestine as Jewish homeland, thumbing noses at Arab possession therepossession there

Costs of WWICosts of WWI Men: Lost GenerationMen: Lost Generation

750,000 Brit; 1,385,000 Fr; 1,808,000 Ger; 1,7000,000 Russ; 750,000 Brit; 1,385,000 Fr; 1,808,000 Ger; 1,7000,000 Russ; other nations = combat deaths; other nations = combat deaths;

Countless wounded, crippled by attacks, gasCountless wounded, crippled by attacks, gas Loss of an entire generation + disillusionment of restLoss of an entire generation + disillusionment of rest

Destruction of financial dominance and independence of EuropeDestruction of financial dominance and independence of Europe Debts from war costs, especially to USDebts from war costs, especially to US Bolshevik repudiation of Russ debtsBolshevik repudiation of Russ debts No cooperation or forgiveness of indebtedness: no nation No cooperation or forgiveness of indebtedness: no nation

completely in control of own economycompletely in control of own economy Infrastructure Destruction and InterruptionInfrastructure Destruction and Interruption

France (Germany): devastated territory, including destruction of towns and France (Germany): devastated territory, including destruction of towns and cities in battle areascities in battle areas

Transport facilities, mines industryTransport facilities, mines industry Multitude of small states: no trade region as Germany and Multitude of small states: no trade region as Germany and

Austria/Hungarian empireAustria/Hungarian empire Russia: complete redistributionRussia: complete redistribution Poor conditions of agriculture because of relocation of farmers, Poor conditions of agriculture because of relocation of farmers,

disruption, US competitiondisruption, US competition Loss of International marketsLoss of International markets

US and Japan inroads into former Euro colonies; Latin America US and Japan inroads into former Euro colonies; Latin America and Asia while Europe tied up in warand Asia while Europe tied up in war

Development of CommunismDevelopment of Communism

[See Russ Revolution presentation][See Russ Revolution presentation]Comintern vow to spread revolution Comintern vow to spread revolution

to all capitalist countries + “in”ness to all capitalist countries + “in”ness of Communism as econ/polit/social of Communism as econ/polit/social philosophy for intellectuals = threat philosophy for intellectuals = threat to all established governments to all established governments

Fear of “communist conspiracies” Fear of “communist conspiracies” became the way fascist and other became the way fascist and other conservative parties rallied people conservative parties rallied people against more liberal governments against more liberal governments

Fascism: ultra conservative, Fascism: ultra conservative, nationalistic, totalitarianismnationalistic, totalitarianism

Term Term fascistfascist from Mussolini from Mussolini Antidemocratic, antiMarxist, anticommunist, Antidemocratic, antiMarxist, anticommunist,

antiparliamentary, mostly antiSemiticantiparliamentary, mostly antiSemitic To make world “safe” for middle class, small business, To make world “safe” for middle class, small business,

middle class propertied, small farmersmiddle class propertied, small farmers Rejected 19Rejected 19thth C liberalism C liberalism Nationalist in response to “international” socialismNationalist in response to “international” socialism Believed that normal parliamentary politics and parties Believed that normal parliamentary politics and parties

sacrificed national pride to inconsequentials, massessacrificed national pride to inconsequentials, masses Unity of all for glory of fatherland: single party Unity of all for glory of fatherland: single party

dictatorhipsdictatorhips Ends justify means: terrorism, police stateEnds justify means: terrorism, police state Ironically: based in support of masses for fascist political Ironically: based in support of masses for fascist political

parties vs USSR Communists imposed by minorityparties vs USSR Communists imposed by minority

Italy: Turmoil that made Italy: Turmoil that made MussoliniMussolini Fasci di Combattimento Fasci di Combattimento (“Bands of Combat”) 1919 (“Bands of Combat”) 1919

Milan war vetsMilan war vets Felt Versailles cheated of fruits of victoryFelt Versailles cheated of fruits of victory resented that It didn’t get Fiume (Adriatic seaport)resented that It didn’t get Fiume (Adriatic seaport) Hated war-caused inflation destroying middle classHated war-caused inflation destroying middle class Feared spread of socialismFeared spread of socialism

Mussolini, leader Mussolini, leader Son of blacksmith; teacher, day laborerSon of blacksmith; teacher, day laborer Editor of socialist newspaper, but broke w socialists over his Editor of socialist newspaper, but broke w socialists over his

support of Italian entry into WWIsupport of Italian entry into WWI Served in army, wounded,Served in army, wounded, Opportunist, changing principles to gain power; took advantage Opportunist, changing principles to gain power; took advantage

of situationof situation Italian nationalistsItalian nationalists

Weakness of Parliament during war: ministers ruledWeakness of Parliament during war: ministers ruled All felt Italy humiliated by Allies: not paid attentionAll felt Italy humiliated by Allies: not paid attention Abriele D’Annunzio lead group that seized Fiume; driven out: Abriele D’Annunzio lead group that seized Fiume; driven out:

embarrassed Italian governmentembarrassed Italian government

Internal social turmoilInternal social turmoil

Strikes and unrest: workers occupied factories Strikes and unrest: workers occupied factories and peasants seized uncultivated land from and peasants seized uncultivated land from ownersowners

Parliament at a standstill: Parliament at a standstill: Socialist party had plurality in 1919 election (still Socialist party had plurality in 1919 election (still

combined with Communists)combined with Communists)conservative Catholic Popular Party of working and conservative Catholic Popular Party of working and

agrarian classesagrarian classesNone would cooperate to make laws, solve problemsNone would cooperate to make laws, solve problems

Fear that this social and political chaos would Fear that this social and political chaos would lead to Communist takeoverlead to Communist takeover

Fascists on the RiseFascists on the RiseEarly OrganizationEarly Organization

Mussolini watching the way the wind blewMussolini watching the way the wind blewFirst wanted factory occupation, land seizureFirst wanted factory occupation, land seizureThen saw middle class no sympathy for workers or Then saw middle class no sympathy for workers or

peasants: wanted order, protection of own peasants: wanted order, protection of own interestsinterests

Direct action in face of government inactionDirect action in face of government inactionLocal squads of terrorists (Black Shirts) to disrupt Local squads of terrorists (Black Shirts) to disrupt

Socialist and other opposition parties (violence, Socialist and other opposition parties (violence, intimidation)intimidation)

Arson, beatings and murder of local officials that Arson, beatings and murder of local officials that opposed them: controlled city government in opposed them: controlled city government in most of N Italy by 1922most of N Italy by 1922

Law ignored Fascist squadsLaw ignored Fascist squads

Mussolini Gains Power: March on Mussolini Gains Power: March on RomeRome

Power in parliament 1921 Power in parliament 1921 electionselections

Black Shirt of fascists Black Shirt of fascists march on Romemarch on Rome

Victor Emmanuel III Victor Emmanuel III refused decree authorizing refused decree authorizing army to stop themarmy to stop them

Cabinet resigned in Cabinet resigned in protestprotest

Victor Emmanuel III invited Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to become prime Mussolini to become prime ministerminister

Technically: legitimately Technically: legitimately elected: not really elected: not really because of terrorism and because of terrorism and intimidationintimidation

Fascists in PowerFascists in Power Consolidation of powerConsolidation of power

Impotence of rivalsImpotence of rivals RuthlessnessRuthlessness 1922: king, Parl give dictatorial authority 1922: king, Parl give dictatorial authority

for 1 year to reestablish orderfor 1 year to reestablish order Repression of oppositionRepression of opposition

By elections, took over ministry and passed By elections, took over ministry and passed laws to enforce single party dictatorshiplaws to enforce single party dictatorship

Terrorist squads made government militia, Terrorist squads made government militia, execute major opposition leadersexecute major opposition leaders

Organization and propagandaOrganization and propaganda Every government institution, Every government institution,

corresponding party organizationcorresponding party organization Fascist local controlFascist local control Cult of personality: m’s oratory and Cult of personality: m’s oratory and

intelligenceintelligence Belief M. saved Italy from CommunistsBelief M. saved Italy from Communists

Accord with VaticanAccord with Vatican Lateran Accord 1929: Pope temporal ruler Lateran Accord 1929: Pope temporal ruler

Vat. City, Catholicism = state relig; $$ for Vat. City, Catholicism = state relig; $$ for confiscated church property 1860’sconfiscated church property 1860’s

France: joyless victoryFrance: joyless victory Conservative government Conservative government

““Blue Horizon Chamber” from uniformed vet membersBlue Horizon Chamber” from uniformed vet members Defeat of ClemenceauDefeat of Clemenceau

1920 president bid1920 president bid Alleged leniency of Versailles: didn’t get Rhineland stateAlleged leniency of Versailles: didn’t get Rhineland state No domestic reform; vs German and vs Russ CommNo domestic reform; vs German and vs Russ Comm Polit instability: 27 different cabinets 1919-1933Polit instability: 27 different cabinets 1919-1933

New AlliancesNew Alliances Enforce clauses of Versailles to keep Germany weakEnforce clauses of Versailles to keep Germany weak Replace alliance with Russ with E. European nationsReplace alliance with Russ with E. European nations

Little Entente: Czech, Rom, Yugo Little Entente: Czech, Rom, Yugo Poland (not in Little Entente cause fight with Czech over Poland (not in Little Entente cause fight with Czech over

border)border)Rapallo Treaty: Germany + Russia (trained Nazis) felt Rapallo Treaty: Germany + Russia (trained Nazis) felt

excludedexcluded Quest for ReparationsQuest for Reparations

Germany in default of reparations payments 1923Germany in default of reparations payments 1923 Under Poincare, France occupied Ruhr Under Poincare, France occupied Ruhr Germany calls for passive resistance (general strike in Ruhr)Germany calls for passive resistance (general strike in Ruhr) English alienated, suspicious of FranceEnglish alienated, suspicious of France Occupation by France increased inflation and hurt economyOccupation by France increased inflation and hurt economy

Britain: Post War MessBritain: Post War Mess Asquith (liberal) ousted by David Lloyd George Asquith (liberal) ousted by David Lloyd George

(liberal)= party split over what to do about (liberal)= party split over what to do about DepressionDepression Divided rule of Asquith and Lloyd George, both liberals, Divided rule of Asquith and Lloyd George, both liberals,

Lloyd George supported by dominant conservativesLloyd George supported by dominant conservatives Economic problems with 10-11% unemploymentEconomic problems with 10-11% unemployment Social insurance, “dole” a way of life for poorSocial insurance, “dole” a way of life for poor

First Labor Government: First Labor Government: Baldwin, conservative, Ramsay MacDonald, 1Baldwin, conservative, Ramsay MacDonald, 1stst Labour Labour

pm with socialist platform: social reformpm with socialist platform: social reform General strike of 1926General strike of 1926

Baldwin back in office; tried to reestablish prewar trade Baldwin back in office; tried to reestablish prewar trade and gold standard, but made Eng goods too expensive; and gold standard, but made Eng goods too expensive;

Cut in wages and breakdown in negotiations in coal, Cut in wages and breakdown in negotiations in coal, miners on strikeminers on strike

9 day general strike of all workers: new housing and 9 day general strike of all workers: new housing and poor law reformpoor law reform

Unrest AbroadUnrest Abroad

Empire: rise of Gandhi in India, asking for Empire: rise of Gandhi in India, asking for government and own tariffsgovernment and own tariffs

Ireland: Ireland: Home Rule Bill passed during war, with understanding not in Home Rule Bill passed during war, with understanding not in

force until war’s endforce until war’s endBUT, Easter Uprising 1916 (war still on) in DublinBUT, Easter Uprising 1916 (war still on) in DublinBritish executed nationalist leadersBritish executed nationalist leadersSinn Fein Sinn Fein (“ourselves alone”) took leadership(“ourselves alone”) took leadership1919 declared Irish Independence, and military wing 1919 declared Irish Independence, and military wing

became Irish Republican Army (IRA)became Irish Republican Army (IRA)Guerilla war between IRA and “black and tans” (Eng army)Guerilla war between IRA and “black and tans” (Eng army)19211921 Irish Free State in British Commonwealth Irish Free State in British CommonwealthUlster: six counties in N. IrelandUlster: six counties in N. IrelandCivil war: supporters of treaties and those who do notCivil war: supporters of treaties and those who do not

Germany: Weimar RepublicGermany: Weimar Republic Weimar Weimar

(for city where Constitution being written)(for city where Constitution being written) With defeat of imperial army, hope of democratic republicWith defeat of imperial army, hope of democratic republic

Seeds of FailureSeeds of Failure Associated with Versailles Treaty, signed under threat of invasionAssociated with Versailles Treaty, signed under threat of invasion Struggled with war reparations, other dictates of VersaillesStruggled with war reparations, other dictates of Versailles Military, aristocracy blamed the republic for Military, aristocracy blamed the republic for theirtheir defeat defeat

Constitutional FlawsConstitutional Flaws Proportional representation in Proportional representation in ReichstagReichstag: minor parties, too: minor parties, too Article 48: president rules by decree in emergencyArticle 48: president rules by decree in emergency

Lack of Broad Popular SupportLack of Broad Popular Support Myth that military only surrendered cause of treason at homeMyth that military only surrendered cause of treason at home Kapp PutschKapp Putsch: rebellion in Berlin lead by conservative civil servant : rebellion in Berlin lead by conservative civil servant

supported by army officers: failed, but underminedsupported by army officers: failed, but undermined Strikes and unrest extremism from right and left; violence, Strikes and unrest extremism from right and left; violence,

assassinationassassination Economic disaster: reparations bill 132 billion gold marksEconomic disaster: reparations bill 132 billion gold marks

Germany on the brink of Germany on the brink of disasterdisaster

Economic disasterEconomic disaster War debt = inflation for all War debt = inflation for all currency devalued (mark to $ = 1914 4.2:1; currency devalued (mark to $ = 1914 4.2:1;

1921 64:1)1921 64:1) Invasion of Ruhr and general strike = more Invasion of Ruhr and general strike = more

inflationinflation Unemployment from Ruhr spread to rest of Unemployment from Ruhr spread to rest of

countrycountry 1923 800,000,000 marks to 1 dollar--Germans 1923 800,000,000 marks to 1 dollar--Germans

lost their life savings. Salaries were paid in lost their life savings. Salaries were paid in worthless money. Groceries cost billions. Hunger worthless money. Groceries cost billions. Hunger riots broke out. riots broke out.

Real estate speculators and farmers did well, Real estate speculators and farmers did well, middle class pensions and savings wiped outmiddle class pensions and savings wiped out

Rise of Nazism: Adolf HitlerRise of Nazism: Adolf Hitler Early lifeEarly life

Son of minor Austrian customs officialSon of minor Austrian customs official Hopes as artist dashed in Vienna; total failureHopes as artist dashed in Vienna; total failure Absorbed anti Semitism, hatred of MarxismAbsorbed anti Semitism, hatred of Marxism

During the WarDuring the War German army gave him purpose: woundedGerman army gave him purpose: wounded Rank of corporal and Iron CrossRank of corporal and Iron Cross

After the WarAfter the War MunichMunich Small, nationalistic, anti Semitic political party, National Socialist Small, nationalistic, anti Semitic political party, National Socialist

German Workers’ Party (German Workers’ Party (Nazis); Nazis); Red and white with black swastika Red and white with black swastika bannerbanner

Storm Troopers (SA_ instrument for terror, paramilitaryStorm Troopers (SA_ instrument for terror, paramilitary 25 points: 25 points:

repudiation of Versaillesrepudiation of Versailles Unification of Austria and GermanyUnification of Austria and Germany Exclusion of Jews from German citizenshipExclusion of Jews from German citizenship Agrarian reform, prohibition of land speculation, confiscation of war Agrarian reform, prohibition of land speculation, confiscation of war

profitsprofits State sdministration of cartels, replacement of large with small shopsState sdministration of cartels, replacement of large with small shops SocialismSocialism = subordination of all to state = subordination of all to state

Beer Hall PutschBeer Hall Putsch Hitler and General Ludendorff attempted coup vs Hitler and General Ludendorff attempted coup vs

government in beer hall in Munichgovernment in beer hall in Munich During Bavarian (Munich) government meeting of During Bavarian (Munich) government meeting of

3,000 officials at beer hall, stormtroopers burst in; 3,000 officials at beer hall, stormtroopers burst in; Hitler jumped on table, fired three shots in the air, and Hitler jumped on table, fired three shots in the air, and declared national revolution.declared national revolution.

As Goering guarded the 3,000, Hitler offered 3 police As Goering guarded the 3,000, Hitler offered 3 police and army officials posts in “his” new government: and army officials posts in “his” new government: they delayed; they delayed; "I have three bullets for you, gentlemen, and one for me”—Ludendorff arrived, agreed to be Ludendorff arrived, agreed to be head of government (he commanded German armies head of government (he commanded German armies in WWI, liked the Nazi accusation that Jews, in WWI, liked the Nazi accusation that Jews, Communists lost the war, not armies) Communists lost the war, not armies) the 3 agreed, made speeches, shook hands, all allowed to go

Roehm and SA took over war ministry; Hess arranged Roehm and SA took over war ministry; Hess arranged for arrest of Bavarian Jews and left wing politicians for arrest of Bavarian Jews and left wing politicians (vandalism and terrorism vs them)(vandalism and terrorism vs them)

Plans: to march to Berlin and take over rest of Plans: to march to Berlin and take over rest of government, BUT no arrangements to take radio government, BUT no arrangements to take radio stations and telegraph: Berlin knew about putschstations and telegraph: Berlin knew about putsch

When L, Goering and Hitler with 2-3,000 When L, Goering and Hitler with 2-3,000 armed Nazis march to meet up with armed Nazis march to meet up with Roehm’s troops, blocked by 100 Munich Roehm’s troops, blocked by 100 Munich police; in ensuing battle (police shot first, police; in ensuing battle (police shot first, but into ground) 21 killed and 100 but into ground) 21 killed and 100 wounded, including Goeringwounded, including Goering

Hitler threw self to the ground, Hitler threw self to the ground, dislocating his shoulder, then ran to a dislocating his shoulder, then ran to a nearby car. Although police were nearby car. Although police were outnumbered, Nazis followed Hitler’s outnumbered, Nazis followed Hitler’s example, ran away. Only L showed any example, ran away. Only L showed any bravery. (Later Nazi historians: Hitler ran bravery. (Later Nazi historians: Hitler ran cause he had to rush injured young boy cause he had to rush injured young boy to the local hospital) to the local hospital)

Unsuccessful, 16 killed nazis killed, Hitler Unsuccessful, 16 killed nazis killed, Hitler and Ludendorff arrested. and Ludendorff arrested.

General acquitted, Nazi sympathizers General acquitted, Nazi sympathizers Bavarian government ensured Hitler not Bavarian government ensured Hitler not punished severely. Hitler used trial as a punished severely. Hitler used trial as a podium to preach Nazism: condemned podium to preach Nazism: condemned republic, Versailles treaty, Jews and republic, Versailles treaty, Jews and communistscommunists

Hitler convicted: sentenced to five years, Hitler convicted: sentenced to five years, served only a few months in jailserved only a few months in jail

During jail, wrote During jail, wrote Mein KampfMein Kampf (“My (“My Struggle”); decided to manipulate system Struggle”); decided to manipulate system and seize power legallyand seize power legally

Mein KampfMein Kampf Categorizes humans into higher and lower orders based Categorizes humans into higher and lower orders based

on physical appearanceon physical appearance Top = Germanic man--fair skin, blond hair and blue eyes, Top = Germanic man--fair skin, blond hair and blue eyes,

Aryan. Aryan is the supreme form of human, or master race. Aryan. Aryan is the supreme form of human, or master race. Others less than supreme, the Others less than supreme, the Untermenschen, Untermenschen, or or

racially inferiorracially inferior Slavic peoples: Czechs, Poles, and RussiansSlavic peoples: Czechs, Poles, and Russians JewsJews ...it [Nazi philosophy] by no means believes in an equality of ...it [Nazi philosophy] by no means believes in an equality of

races, but along with their difference it recognizes their higher races, but along with their difference it recognizes their higher or lesser value and feels itself obligated to promote the victory or lesser value and feels itself obligated to promote the victory of the better and stronger, and demand the subordination of of the better and stronger, and demand the subordination of the inferior and weaker in accordance with the eternal will that the inferior and weaker in accordance with the eternal will that dominates this universe." dominates this universe."

““All the human culture, all the results of art, science, All the human culture, all the results of art, science, and technology that we see before us today, are almost and technology that we see before us today, are almost exclusively the creative product of the Aryan..” exclusively the creative product of the Aryan..” Thus, these lower people benefit from being conquered by the Thus, these lower people benefit from being conquered by the

Aryan, because they are exposed to this superior cultureAryan, because they are exposed to this superior culture However, the Aryan must remain ruler/conqueror and there However, the Aryan must remain ruler/conqueror and there

should be absolutely no mixing of blood between the groupsshould be absolutely no mixing of blood between the groups

"The mightiest counterpart to the Aryan is represented by the "The mightiest counterpart to the Aryan is represented by the Jew." Jew."

The struggle for world domination is an ongoing racial, cultural, The struggle for world domination is an ongoing racial, cultural, and political battle between Aryans and Jews. and political battle between Aryans and Jews. Jew = an international conspiracy to control world finances and the Jew = an international conspiracy to control world finances and the

press, inventing liberal democracy and Marxism, promoting press, inventing liberal democracy and Marxism, promoting prostitution and vice, and using culture to spread disharmony. prostitution and vice, and using culture to spread disharmony.

Aryans as master race should be entitled to acquire more land, Aryans as master race should be entitled to acquire more land, LebensraumLebensraum, or living space, by force., or living space, by force. lands east of Germany, especially Russia, to cultivate food, provide lands east of Germany, especially Russia, to cultivate food, provide

room for the expanding Aryan population room for the expanding Aryan population Slavic peoples to be removed, eliminated, or enslaved. Slavic peoples to be removed, eliminated, or enslaved.

first must defeat France to avenge German defeat of World War I first must defeat France to avenge German defeat of World War I and to secure western borderand to secure western border the German Army was denied its chance for victory on the battlefield the German Army was denied its chance for victory on the battlefield

in WWI by political treachery at homein WWI by political treachery at home Jewish conspirators responsible for defeat tJewish conspirators responsible for defeat t

first released in 1925, sold poorly. (People looking for a juicy first released in 1925, sold poorly. (People looking for a juicy autobiography or a behind-the-scenes story of the Beer Hall autobiography or a behind-the-scenes story of the Beer Hall Putsch; instead, hundreds of pages of long, hard to follow Putsch; instead, hundreds of pages of long, hard to follow sentences and wandering paragraphs. sentences and wandering paragraphs.

after Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, millions of copies sold: after Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, millions of copies sold: it was considered proper to own a copy and to give one to it was considered proper to own a copy and to give one to newlyweds, high school graduates, but few Germans ever read it. newlyweds, high school graduates, but few Germans ever read it.

Although it made him rich, Hitler would later express regret, Although it made him rich, Hitler would later express regret, considering the extent of its revelations. considering the extent of its revelations.

Stresemann tries to make the Stresemann tries to make the republic workrepublic work

Reconstruction of GermanyReconstruction of Germany Abandoned passive resistance in RuhrAbandoned passive resistance in Ruhr New currency (1 trillion old marks for 1 New currency (1 trillion old marks for 1 rentenmark)rentenmark) Dawes plan (named after US proponent) lowered Dawes plan (named after US proponent) lowered

annual payments of reparations, allowed to vary w annual payments of reparations, allowed to vary w Ger economyGer economy

Growing sense of confidenceGrowing sense of confidence Crushed Hitler and Communist disturbancesCrushed Hitler and Communist disturbances Economic stability: more for all; employment upEconomic stability: more for all; employment up

Hindenburg electionHindenburg election Stresemann resigned as president to be foreign Stresemann resigned as president to be foreign

minister with secret aims of recovering German minister with secret aims of recovering German speaking territories in Poland, Czechoslavakiaspeaking territories in Poland, Czechoslavakia

Election of Hindenburg, military hero monarchist Election of Hindenburg, military hero monarchist (Germany more conservative)(Germany more conservative)

Locarno and Other Locarno and Other AgreementsAgreements

Lucarno Agreement (1925) Lucarno Agreement (1925) Stresemann begged for “fresh start” for Germany, change in Stresemann begged for “fresh start” for Germany, change in

Versailles Treaty provisionsVersailles Treaty provisions Spirit of conciliation in Chamberlain (Britain) and Briand (France)Spirit of conciliation in Chamberlain (Britain) and Briand (France) Adjusting boundaries: Adjusting boundaries:

France and Germany accept Germany’s W. boundary (Versailles France and Germany accept Germany’s W. boundary (Versailles est)est)

French troops out of Ruhr by 1930French troops out of Ruhr by 1930 Britain and Italy to intervene if Britain and Italy to intervene if eithereither France or Britain pushed into France or Britain pushed into

RhineRhine Treaties of arbitration with Poland and CzechoslavakiaTreaties of arbitration with Poland and Czechoslavakia Italy included as “Great Power”Italy included as “Great Power”

Entry of Germany into League of NationsEntry of Germany into League of Nations Kellogg Briand Pact 1928Kellogg Briand Pact 1928

Major European powers, Japan and US Major European powers, Japan and US Renounced “war as an instrument of national policy”Renounced “war as an instrument of national policy”

Young planYoung plan Again, proposed by US businessmanAgain, proposed by US businessman Lowered reparation payments, limited how longLowered reparation payments, limited how long Germany no longer supervised, controlled by outsideGermany no longer supervised, controlled by outside

1929: Start of the Great 1929: Start of the Great DepressionDepression

Causes of the Great DepressionCauses of the Great DepressionFinancial Crisis: outcome of Financial Crisis: outcome of

VersaillesVersaillesProblems of production/distribution in Problems of production/distribution in

World Markets: agricultural crisisWorld Markets: agricultural crisisLack of economic cooperation or Lack of economic cooperation or

leadershipleadership

Financial Crisis from the Financial Crisis from the peacepeace

Reparations and War DebtsReparations and War Debts France paid reparations 1815, 1871 and expected Germany France paid reparations 1815, 1871 and expected Germany

to do the same; finance France’s recovery from WWIto do the same; finance France’s recovery from WWI US wanted repayment from Allied loans, other European US wanted repayment from Allied loans, other European

nations counted on reparations to help repay (mostly to US)nations counted on reparations to help repay (mostly to US) Britain wanted redefinition (We’ll only require France, others Britain wanted redefinition (We’ll only require France, others

to repay as much as US demands we repay; US wouldn’t to repay as much as US demands we repay; US wouldn’t decrease demands)decrease demands)

Currency speculations meant no money going into capital Currency speculations meant no money going into capital investments; tariffs high so balance of payments not awfulinvestments; tariffs high so balance of payments not awful

Unleashed inflationUnleashed inflation After armistice, demand for consumer/industrial goods drove After armistice, demand for consumer/industrial goods drove

up prices, which drove up wagesup prices, which drove up wages Currencies couldn’t keep value, especially GermanCurrencies couldn’t keep value, especially German

Whoops! It all crashes!Whoops! It all crashes! Dominoes: American influenceDominoes: American influence

Dawes Plan: organizes reparations and debt repayment to USDawes Plan: organizes reparations and debt repayment to US Handy: US in good shape invests in Europe, especially Handy: US in good shape invests in Europe, especially

Germany—short term loansGermany—short term loans BUT 1928 American money invested into booming stock market BUT 1928 American money invested into booming stock market

insteadinstead Wall Street Crash October 1929 result of unregulated financial Wall Street Crash October 1929 result of unregulated financial

speculation results in bank failure; No money for Europe; loans speculation results in bank failure; No money for Europe; loans not renewednot renewed

End of reparationsEnd of reparations Because of American crash, European crash: Because of American crash, European crash: Kreditanstalt,Kreditanstalt,

major Vienna Bank creditor all E Europe, collapsedmajor Vienna Bank creditor all E Europe, collapsed German banking system only saved by government ; no longer German banking system only saved by government ; no longer

make reparations paymentsmake reparations payments Hoover declares 1 year moratorium on war debts; France has to Hoover declares 1 year moratorium on war debts; France has to

go alonggo along Lausanne Conference 1932: ends reparationsLausanne Conference 1932: ends reparations

GREAT DEPRESSION deepensGREAT DEPRESSION deepens Expanded agricultural world wide = prices downExpanded agricultural world wide = prices down

Better methods of farming, better varieties of Better methods of farming, better varieties of wheat, expanded farming acreage, better wheat, expanded farming acreage, better transport worldwide = more productiontransport worldwide = more production

Glut on world market = Prices down, good for Glut on world market = Prices down, good for consumer, but lower income for farmers, consumer, but lower income for farmers, especially Euro breadbasket of E/Central Euro especially Euro breadbasket of E/Central Euro

Land reform in E Euro Romania and Land reform in E Euro Romania and Czechoslovakia (less in Poland and Hungary) Czechoslovakia (less in Poland and Hungary) meant smaller farms, inefficient meant smaller farms, inefficient

No money = no demand for European goodsNo money = no demand for European goods Demand for Euro goods shrank relative to Demand for Euro goods shrank relative to

productionproduction Idle factories, fewer jobs=prices up, fewer still Idle factories, fewer jobs=prices up, fewer still

could buycould buy Farmers couldn’t repay loans = banks downFarmers couldn’t repay loans = banks down

Britain’s ResponseBritain’s Response

Labour government (Ramsay Macdonald) Labour government (Ramsay Macdonald) attempts to cope:attempts to cope: Unemployment up to 2.5 millionUnemployment up to 2.5 million Macdonald thought budget slash, government cut in Macdonald thought budget slash, government cut in

salaries, unemployment benefits cut would helpsalaries, unemployment benefits cut would help Ministers refused to take income from poor and Ministers refused to take income from poor and

unemployedunemployed Divide in government: all thought MacD would resignDivide in government: all thought MacD would resign

National GovernmentNational Government Coalition government formed by MacD with Labour, Coalition government formed by MacD with Labour,

Conservative, Liberal made Labour mad (thought sold Conservative, Liberal made Labour mad (thought sold out)out)

1931 won elections, but MacD became tool of 1931 won elections, but MacD became tool of conservatives who had majority in Commonsconservatives who had majority in Commons

What the National Government What the National Government did:did:

3 decisive steps3 decisive steps Balance budget: raised taxes, cut insurance benefits to Balance budget: raised taxes, cut insurance benefits to

unemployed and pensioners, lowered government unemployed and pensioners, lowered government salaries salaries

Argued that with fall in prices, no real income cutArgued that with fall in prices, no real income cut Went off gold standard: pound fell 30%, stimulated Went off gold standard: pound fell 30%, stimulated

exports, but only a littleexports, but only a little Import Duties Bill: 10% Import Duties Bill: 10% ad valoremad valorem tariff (proportion to tariff (proportion to

value of item) on all except empire importsvalue of item) on all except empire imports ResultsResults

Avoided banking crisisAvoided banking crisis Industrial production up (first to reestablish prewar Industrial production up (first to reestablish prewar

levels)levels) Housing boomHousing boom

Other ResponsesOther Responses

Orwell Orwell Road to Wigan PierRoad to Wigan Pier about those still about those still unemployed showed many still hurtunemployed showed many still hurt

Demonstrations by unemployed, but social Demonstrations by unemployed, but social insurance (dole) did support theminsurance (dole) did support them

Extreme right wing proposed; many Extreme right wing proposed; many supported, but not able to take over supported, but not able to take over Sir Oswald Mosley: British Union of FascistSir Oswald Mosley: British Union of Fascist Encouraged direct action;Encouraged direct action; Black shirts and antisemitism, but didn’t have Black shirts and antisemitism, but didn’t have

wide supportwide support

France: The Popular FrontFrance: The Popular FrontGreat Depression in FranceGreat Depression in France

Later and longer than BritainLater and longer than BritainWages lowered, but not so much Wages lowered, but not so much

unemploymentunemploymentRelations between labor and management Relations between labor and management

tensetenseTariffs protected French agriculture Tariffs protected French agriculture

Election of Radical coalition governmentElection of Radical coalition governmentDeflationary policies to head off economic Deflationary policies to head off economic

tragedytragedyReparations payments stopped: depression Reparations payments stopped: depression

beginsbegins

Right Wing ViolenceRight Wing Violence Right wing groups wanted changeRight wing groups wanted change

Action Francaise founded before WWIAction Francaise founded before WWICroix de Feu (Cross of Fire) army vetsCroix de Feu (Cross of Fire) army vetsSome wanted monarchy, some military rule; hostile to Some wanted monarchy, some military rule; hostile to

parliamentary government, socialism, communismparliamentary government, socialism, communismAbove all, nationalistic: greater good and glory of France Above all, nationalistic: greater good and glory of France

above political partiesabove political parties Stavisky incident: government loses prestige Stavisky incident: government loses prestige

A gangster with government ties, involved in fraudulent A gangster with government ties, involved in fraudulent bond schemebond scheme

Tracked down by police: suicide in January 1934Tracked down by police: suicide in January 1934Political coverup to protect governmentPolitical coverup to protect government

1934 Violent Demonstration1934 Violent DemonstrationRight wing leagues with uncertain purposeRight wing leagues with uncertain purposeMarch to Chamber of DeputiesMarch to Chamber of DeputiesRight and left begin to fight; both fight with policeRight and left begin to fight; both fight with police14 killed, many injured14 killed, many injured

Radicals resigned, replaced with coalition of all living Radicals resigned, replaced with coalition of all living former premiers; left realizesformer premiers; left realizes danger of right wing danger of right wing takeover as in Germany and Italytakeover as in Germany and Italy

ReactionReaction Socialist/Communist CooperationSocialist/Communist Cooperation

French Socialists, lead by Leon Blum, usually target of French Socialists, lead by Leon Blum, usually target of French Communtists, but cooperated because of rt French Communtists, but cooperated because of rt threatthreat

Popular Front of all left wing parties 1935Popular Front of all left wing parties 1935 Elections 1936 gave them majority in Chamber of Elections 1936 gave them majority in Chamber of

DeputiesDeputies Blum GovernmentBlum Government

Blum = successor to Jaures, assassinated in 1914; Blum = successor to Jaures, assassinated in 1914; Jewish intellectual/humanitarianJewish intellectual/humanitarian

Strikes spread throughout French industry, especially Strikes spread throughout French industry, especially after electionafter election

Blum brought labor and management together: Blum brought labor and management together: Raised civil servant salaries, program of public works, Raised civil servant salaries, program of public works,

loans to small industry, nationalized some armamentsloans to small industry, nationalized some armaments Wheat Board to manage grain production and salesWheat Board to manage grain production and sales Devaluated currency, but too late to help industryDevaluated currency, but too late to help industry

Reaction to the ReactionReaction to the Reaction

Conservative bankers and business Conservative bankers and business complained to ministry to halt reformcomplained to ministry to halt reform

Popular Front didn’t want compromisePopular Front didn’t want compromiseBlum Resigns; ministry holds on for Blum Resigns; ministry holds on for

awhileawhilePopular Front replaced by Radicals Popular Front replaced by Radicals

under Daladierunder DaladierDepression in industry continues until Depression in industry continues until

war interveneswar intervenes

Germany: Nazi Seizure of Germany: Nazi Seizure of PowerPower

Depression Leads to Political DeadlockDepression Leads to Political DeadlockProsperity of Weimar gone when Am $$ Prosperity of Weimar gone when Am $$

withdrawnwithdrawnCoalition of centrist and Social Demos split in Coalition of centrist and Social Demos split in

face of depression face of depression Von Hindenburg appointed Bruning, who Von Hindenburg appointed Bruning, who

ruled through decrees (Article 48) = ruled through decrees (Article 48) = authoritarian, but not effectiveauthoritarian, but not effective

Persistent unemployment and unhappinessPersistent unemployment and unhappiness

Hitler Comes to PowerHitler Comes to Power 1928 Nazis as seats in Reichstag; 1928 Nazis as seats in Reichstag;

1930 = 107; Comm 771930 = 107; Comm 77 Unemployed join stormtroopers Unemployed join stormtroopers

(SA) which went from 100,000 to 1 (SA) which went from 100,000 to 1 million (1933)million (1933)

Vicious attacks on Communists and Vicious attacks on Communists and Social Demos; also fought each Social Demos; also fought each otherother

Nazi “religious revival” rallies with Nazi “religious revival” rallies with supporters in business, military, supporters in business, military, presspress

1932 election 83 year old von 1932 election 83 year old von Hindenburg vs Hitler : Hitler got Hindenburg vs Hitler : Hitler got 30% in first vote, 36.8 % in runoff 30% in first vote, 36.8 % in runoff electionelection

In light of elections, Hindenburg In light of elections, Hindenburg dismissed Bruning and put in von dismissed Bruning and put in von Papen as chancellor, one of very Papen as chancellor, one of very conservative group controlling conservative group controlling HindenburgHindenburg

Hitler becomes dictatorHitler becomes dictator Hindenburg wanted mass support Hindenburg wanted mass support

only Nazis seemed to have, only Nazis seemed to have, Removed ban on Nazi meetings Removed ban on Nazi meetings

Bruning imposedBruning imposedcalled for election July 1932, where called for election July 1932, where

Nazis won 37%; Hitler demanded to Nazis won 37%; Hitler demanded to be chancellor; Hindenburg refused; be chancellor; Hindenburg refused;

called another elections where Nazi called another elections where Nazi support dipped to 33%support dipped to 33%

Papen resigned, General von Papen resigned, General von Schliecher chancellor, but almost Schliecher chancellor, but almost civil war between right and left; civil war between right and left;

conservatives didn’t trust general, so conservatives didn’t trust general, so decided to appoint Hitler decided to appoint Hitler

von Papen as vice chancellor, other von Papen as vice chancellor, other conservative ministers in cabinet to conservative ministers in cabinet to control Hitlercontrol Hitler

Hitler, however, had too much popular Hitler, however, had too much popular support; took over governmentsupport; took over government

HITLER GAINED INITIAL POWER HITLER GAINED INITIAL POWER LEGALLYLEGALLY

Hitler Consolidates PowerHitler Consolidates Power Hitler’s political strengthHitler’s political strength

Mass politicsMass politics PropagandaPropaganda Support in country (farmers, vets, young)Support in country (farmers, vets, young) Promised security vs communists and socialists, Promised security vs communists and socialists,

effective government instead of party politics, effective government instead of party politics, nationalist visionnationalist vision

Three facet consolidation of powerThree facet consolidation of power Capture of full legal authorityCapture of full legal authority

Firing of Reichstag building in Berlin by mentally ill Dutch Firing of Reichstag building in Berlin by mentally ill Dutch CommunistCommunist

Took advantage of “Communist threat”Took advantage of “Communist threat” Article 48 chancellor could take full power with Emergency Article 48 chancellor could take full power with Emergency

Decree: Hitler suspended all civil liberties, arrested Decree: Hitler suspended all civil liberties, arrested communistscommunists

New election: 43.9% to Nazis, but removed all CommunistsNew election: 43.9% to Nazis, but removed all Communists Reichstag passed Enabling Act: Hitler rule by decree alone Reichstag passed Enabling Act: Hitler rule by decree alone

with no limits to his powerwith no limits to his power

Crushing of all external Crushing of all external oppositionoppositionNazi power seized offices, Nazi power seized offices,

banks, newspapers of banks, newspapers of opposition and arrested opposition and arrested leaders; leaders;

outlawed other parties; outlawed other parties; Only National Socialists Only National Socialists (Nazis) allowed(Nazis) allowed

Purging of Rivals within Purging of Rivals within the own party the own party Ernst Roehm commander Ernst Roehm commander

of SA rival to Hitler; Hitler of SA rival to Hitler; Hitler ordered his murder, and ordered his murder, and also that of other SA chief also that of other SA chief officers (100 killed July officers (100 killed July 1934)1934)

SS (SS (Schutzstaffel Schutzstaffel “protective force”) “protective force”) commanded by Heinrich Himmler commanded by Heinrich Himmler changed from bodyguad to elite changed from bodyguad to elite paramilitary policeparamilitary police

Carried out blood purges of Nazis: Carried out blood purges of Nazis: Himmler becomes Hitler’s #2Himmler becomes Hitler’s #2

Anti-semitism Anti-semitism from 19from 19thth C (protocol of Elders of Israel) C (protocol of Elders of Israel) Nuremberg LawsNuremberg Laws robbed of citizenship robbed of citizenship

(professions, ed, major occupations closed (professions, ed, major occupations closed to them, couldn’t marry non Jews, etc.to them, couldn’t marry non Jews, etc.

KristallnachtKristallnacht under orders from Nazi under orders from Nazi party: Jews had to pay for damage party: Jews had to pay for damage (government took insurance $$)(government took insurance $$)

Myth of Aryan masterrace Myth of Aryan masterrace based on based on NietszcheNietszche

The Final Solution: The Final Solution: 6 million Jews dead, 6 million Jews dead, many more displacedmany more displaced

Police State and Anti Police State and Anti SemitismSemitism

KristallnachtKristallnacht

Nazi Economic PolicyNazi Economic Policy Confronting the DepressionConfronting the Depression

Hitler proves effectiveness by countering unemploymentHitler proves effectiveness by countering unemployment Sacrificed all freedoms, used terror to suppress trade Sacrificed all freedoms, used terror to suppress trade

unions, free exercise of capital to guarantee full unions, free exercise of capital to guarantee full employmentemployment

Capitalism PlusCapitalism Plus Could keep private property as long as subordinated Could keep private property as long as subordinated

own wishes to needs of stateown wishes to needs of state Massive programs of public works and spending, Massive programs of public works and spending,

especially to prepare for warespecially to prepare for war Forced employment where government put youForced employment where government put you

Four Year Plan: Rearmament Four Year Plan: Rearmament 1935 renounced military provisions of Versailles1935 renounced military provisions of Versailles Goering(head of air force since 1933) Four Year Plan to Goering(head of air force since 1933) Four Year Plan to

prepare army and economy for war: self sufficient prepare army and economy for war: self sufficient nationnation

Nazi Social AttitudesNazi Social Attitudes Final Solution for others than Final Solution for others than

JewsJews HomosexualsHomosexuals GypsiesGypsies Mentally or physically infirm: Mentally or physically infirm:

euthanasia, first step toward Nazi euthanasia, first step toward Nazi experimentationexperimentation

Attitudes toward womenAttitudes toward women Traditional attitudes toward gender Traditional attitudes toward gender

spheres: women belonged in the spheres: women belonged in the homehome

Under Weimar, had worked in Under Weimar, had worked in factories and voted: Nazis saw factories and voted: Nazis saw these as signs of cultural weaknessthese as signs of cultural weakness

German women: role to bear and German women: role to bear and rear racially pure childrenrear racially pure children

OK to work, but secondary to OK to work, but secondary to motherhood (war effort required motherhood (war effort required women to work)women to work)

Italy: Fascists Face Italy: Fascists Face DepressionDepression EconomicsEconomics

““At least Muss. forced the trains to run on time”At least Muss. forced the trains to run on time” ““battle of the wheat” to make It. self sufficient backfired (marginal battle of the wheat” to make It. self sufficient backfired (marginal

land made price rise)land made price rise) SyndicatesSyndicates

Corporatism: Corporatism: planned economy, but private ownership—planned economy, but private ownership—government control over labor disputes, etcgovernment control over labor disputes, etc

Syndicates represented labor and management then negotiated Syndicates represented labor and management then negotiated settlements, with compulsorysettlements, with compulsory arbitration arbitration

Wanted all to be subordinated to state needsWanted all to be subordinated to state needs CorporationsCorporations

All industries from one major area of production from raw materials All industries from one major area of production from raw materials through finished products, distribution (ag, metallurgy, etc)through finished products, distribution (ag, metallurgy, etc)

22 corporations = whole economy: chamber of Deputies becomes 22 corporations = whole economy: chamber of Deputies becomes Chamber of CorporationsChamber of Corporations

Institute of Industrial Reconstruction: loans from govt for failing Institute of Industrial Reconstruction: loans from govt for failing industries and businesses, but government part ownership in returnindustries and businesses, but government part ownership in return

1935 invasion of Ethiopia—wartime footing and sanctions from 1935 invasion of Ethiopia—wartime footing and sanctions from League of NationsLeague of Nations

USSR: Central Economic USSR: Central Economic PlanningPlanning

Decision for Rapid IndustrializationDecision for Rapid Industrialization NEP with private ownership in NEP with private ownership in

countryside, enough food for workers countryside, enough food for workers in cities; industrial production up, but in cities; industrial production up, but slowedslowed

Party Congress decided to push for Party Congress decided to push for rapid industrializationrapid industrialization

Stalin’s series of 5 Year Plans: Stalin’s series of 5 Year Plans: industrial production rose 400% in 12 industrial production rose 400% in 12 years (1928-400)—great achievementyears (1928-400)—great achievement

Mainly heavy industry: ironk, steel, Mainly heavy industry: ironk, steel, coal, electrical power, tractors, coal, electrical power, tractors, combines, rr cars, etccombines, rr cars, etc

Capital from export of grain, though Capital from export of grain, though internal shortagesinternal shortages

Controlled from Gosplan (State Controlled from Gosplan (State planning commission)planning commission)

Results allowed USSR to survive Results allowed USSR to survive German invasionGerman invasion

Collectivization of AgricultureCollectivization of Agriculture Private ownership of farms by Private ownership of farms by

kulakskulaks, (peasant farmers) less , (peasant farmers) less than 5 % rural populationthan 5 % rural population BUT kulaks not happy, because few BUT kulaks not happy, because few

goods to buy with money from cropsgoods to buy with money from crops Kulaks Kulaks withheld grain from markets withheld grain from markets

and caused shortages in citiesand caused shortages in cities Stalin decided to collectivize Stalin decided to collectivize

Collective farms: government owns; Collective farms: government owns; peasants must work; really serfspeasants must work; really serfs

so no shortages, enough exports, so no shortages, enough exports, control over peasants, free up control over peasants, free up peasant labor for factories : Stalin peasant labor for factories : Stalin determined to extinguish kulaks determined to extinguish kulaks

Resistance from peasants Resistance from peasants determined to keep land: determined to keep land: slaughtered 100 million horses and slaughtered 100 million horses and cattlecattle

Stalin calls a halt 1930 “dizziness from Stalin calls a halt 1930 “dizziness from success”success”

Later drive: killed up to 10 million, Later drive: killed up to 10 million, millions more dragged off to collective millions more dragged off to collective farms and labor campsfarms and labor camps

Collective farms (1000 acre ) with machine Collective farms (1000 acre ) with machine gractor stations (state monopoly on farm gractor stations (state monopoly on farm machines)machines)

Consequences: Consequences: 1928-- 98% small peasant farms; 1938– 90% 1928-- 98% small peasant farms; 1938– 90%

collectivecollectiveQuantity of farm produce to government up Quantity of farm produce to government up

40%, BUT still shortages40%, BUT still shortages

Foreign Reactions and Foreign Reactions and RepercussionsRepercussions

Many thought Soviet “experiment” successfulMany thought Soviet “experiment” successful US author after visiting USSR: “I ahave seen the US author after visiting USSR: “I ahave seen the

future and it works.” future and it works.” Brit Fabians: “a new civilization”Brit Fabians: “a new civilization” BUT Ayn RandBUT Ayn Rand

Internal difficulties because of collectivization, Internal difficulties because of collectivization, etc: Stalin had to change foreign policyetc: Stalin had to change foreign policy Stalin afraid USSR would be isolated to stand Stalin afraid USSR would be isolated to stand

against Hitler’s Germanyagainst Hitler’s Germany Reversed 1919 21 Conditions policy that said Reversed 1919 21 Conditions policy that said

foreign communists had to recognize USSR as foreign communists had to recognize USSR as superior leader to join Cominternsuperior leader to join Comintern

““Socialism in One Country”: USSR busy enough at Socialism in One Country”: USSR busy enough at home; didn’t have to continue active support of home; didn’t have to continue active support of destruction of capitalism abroaddestruction of capitalism abroad

The Great PurgesThe Great Purges Political opposition in Political opposition in

Communist party vs Communist party vs collectivization, reversal of collectivization, reversal of Comintern requirementsComintern requirements

Stalin, accusing others of Stalin, accusing others of plotting against him, moved to plotting against him, moved to consolidate powerconsolidate power Forced Bukharin off PolitboroForced Bukharin off Politboro Assassination of Sergei Kirov Assassination of Sergei Kirov

(Comm party chief of Leningrad (Comm party chief of Leningrad and then St. Petersburg and and then St. Petersburg and member of politboro) gave Stalin member of politboro) gave Stalin an excuse to arrest thousands, an excuse to arrest thousands, expel others from party and send expel others from party and send them to labor camps (often in them to labor camps (often in Siberia) Probable: Stalin had him Siberia) Probable: Stalin had him assassinatedassassinated

Public confessions of political Public confessions of political crimes by former Politboro and crimes by former Politboro and other party leaders after show other party leaders after show trials: convicted and executed trials: convicted and executed (especially “Old Bolsheviks” in (especially “Old Bolsheviks” in on the start of the revolution, on the start of the revolution, that might have support vs that might have support vs StalinStalin

Army purged: thousands shot, Army purged: thousands shot, including heroes of the including heroes of the RevolutionRevolution

Within party hundreds of Within party hundreds of thousands expelled, executed thousands expelled, executed or imprisonedor imprisoned