avinash et al. 2011 geocarto international
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Geocarto InternationalPublication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgei20
Prioritization of sub-basinsbased on geomorphology andmorphometricanalysis usingremote sensing and geographic
informationsystem (GIS) techniquesKumar Avinash
ab, K.S. Jayappa
b& B. Deepika
b
aEEZ Mapping Group, National Centre for Antarctic & Ocean
Research, Vasco-da-Gama, 403804, IndiabDepartment of Marine Geology, Mangalore University, Mangalore,
574 199, India
Available online: 27 Jul 2011
To cite this article:Kumar Avinash, K.S. Jayappa & B. Deepika (2011): Prioritization of sub-basins based on geomorphology and morphometricanalysis using remote sensing and geographic
informationsystem (GIS) techniques, Geocarto International, 26:7, 569-592
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2011.606925
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgei20http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2011.606925http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditionshttp://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditionshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2011.606925http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tgei20 -
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Prioritization of sub-basins based on geomorphology andmorphometric analysis using remote sensing and geographic
information system (GIS) techniques
Kumar Avinasha,b*, K.S. Jayappab and B. Deepikab
aEEZ Mapping Group, National Centre for Antarctic & Ocean Research,Vasco-da-Gama 403 804, India; bDepartment of Marine Geology, Mangalore University,
Mangalore 574 199, India
(Received 3 November 2010; final version received 17 July 2011)
Geomorphology and drainage characteristics of the Gurpur river basin have beenstudied using satellite images, topographic maps and geographic informationsystem (GIS) techniques. Geomorphology and morphometric parameters havebeen used to prioritize the sub-basins (SB-I to -VII) and identify the most deficit/surplus zones of groundwater. The study reveals that 8% (SB-VII) to 85% (SB-II)area of the geomorphic units have poor to moderate groundwater prospect.About 16% (SB-V) to 92% (SB-VII) area were estimated as good to excellentzones for groundwater potential. Bifurcation ratio results show that geomorphiccontrol predominates over structural control in the development of drainagenetwork. Computed values of stream frequency of SB-II, SB-III and SB-VIindicate steep ground slopes, with less permeable rocks, while drainage densityindicates that the river basin is moderately permeable. Sub-basin-wise prioritiza-tion reveals that SB-II is the most deficit zone, while SB-VII is found to be surpluszone of groundwater potential.
Keywords: morphometric parameters; drainage characteristics; hydrogeomor-phology; prioritization; Gurpur river basin; India
1. Introduction
Land and water resources are gradually depleting due to rapid increase in
population, urbanization and industrialization. The demand has increased tremen-
dously for these resources; hence, optimal utilization of them is essential for
sustainable development. In India, about 1756 106 ha of land (i.e. about 53% area)
is subjected to soil erosion due to deforestation and other forms of land degradation
due to natural processes and anthropogenic activities (Biswas et al. 1999).
Drainage basins are the fundamental units to understand geometric character-
istics of fluvial landscape, such as topology of stream networks, and quantitative
description of drainage texture, pattern, shape and relief characteristics (Obi
Reddy et al. 2004, Subba Rao 2009). Morphometric analysis is an important
technique to evaluate and understand the behaviour of hydrological system. It
provides quantitative specification of basin geometry to understand initial slope or
*Corresponding author. Email: kumaravinash13@rediffmail.com; avinash@ncaor.org
Geocarto International
Vol. 26, No. 7, November 2011, 569592
ISSN 1010-6049 print/ISSN 1752-0762 online
2011 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2011.606925
http://www.tandfonline.com
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inconsistencies in rock hardness, structural controls, recent diastrophism, geological
and geomorphic history of drainage basin (Strahler 1964, Esper Angillieri 2008).
Morphometric studies of a river basin comprise discrete morphologic region and
have special relevance to drainage pattern and geomorphology (Strahler 1957,
Dornkamp and King 1971).
Prioritization is very important to prepare a comprehensive basin management
and conservation plan. Several studies have been carried out on prioritization of sub-
basins based on morphometric analysis, geomorphology and sediment yield index
(SYI) (Krishnamurthy et al. 1996, Biswas et al. 1999, Khan et al. 2001, Srinivasa
et al.2008, Sureshet al.2004, Nookaratnamet al.2005, Thakkar and Dhiman 2007,
Javed et al. 2009). A study by Mesa (2006) reveals that geology, relief and climate
are the primary causes of running water ecosystems at the basin scale. Subba Rao
(2009) has attempted to define how the numerical scheme is helpful in watershed
development planning programmes.
In the present study, geomorphology and morphometric parameters have been
used to evaluate the Gurpur river basin (Figure 1). Basin geomorphology has beenmapped and interpreted based on lithological characteristics, and the area of each
geomorphic unit has been quantified. Quantitative analyses of the basin character-
istics have been computed from the linear, areal and relief morphometric parameters,
using the established mathematical equations (Table 1). Finally, sub-basin-wise
prioritization was executed to determine the deficit and surplus zones of ground-
water, based on the weightage of geomorphological and morphometric parameters.
2. Area of study
Gurpur river basin is located on the western side ofSahyadri(the Western Ghats),which is a great escarpment produced by denudation along the rifted continental
margin. The river originates near Kudremukh on the western slope of the Western
Ghats at an altitude of*1870 m. It runs for a distance of*80 km in southwest
direction and flows southward parallel to the coast for *8 km before merging with
Netravati river and debouching into the Arabian sea near Mangalore. The drainage
basin extends from 128520 to 138110 N latitudes and 748480 to 758170 E longitudes in
Figure 1. Map showing the location of Gurpur river basin of southern Karnataka, India.
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Table 1. The formulae used for computation of various morphometric parameters.
Morphometricparameters Formula Reference
Linear parameters
Length (L) L 1.312A0.568
whereLBasin length (km)AArea of the basin (km2)
Nookaratnamet al. (2005)
Stream order (u) Hierarchical rank Strahler (1964)Stream length (Lu) Length of the stream Horton (1945)Mean stream
length (Lsm)LsmLu/NuwhereLsmMean stream lengthLuTotal stream length of
order uNuTotal no. of stream segments of
order u
Strahler (1964)
Stream lengthratio (RL)
RLLu/Lu71whereRLStream length ratioLuTotal stream length of
order uLu7lThe total stream length of its
next lower order
Horton (1945)
Bifurcation ratio (Rb) RbNu/Nu 1whereRbBifurcation ratioNuTotal no. of stream segments
of order uNul Number of segments of
the next higher order
Schumm (1956)
Mean bifurcationratio (Rbm)
RbmAverage of bifurcation ratiosof all orders
Strahler (1957)
Areal parametersForm factor (Ff) FfA/L
2
whereFfForm factorAArea of the basin (km2)LBasin length (km)
Horton (1932, 1945)
Elongation ratio (Re) Re 1.128A/LwhereReElongation ratioAArea of the basin (km2)LBasin length (km)
Schumm (1956)
Circularity ratio (Rc) Rc 4pA/P2
whereRcCircularity ratiop 3.14
AArea of the basin (km2)PPerimeter (km)
Miller (1953),Strahler (1964)
Shape factor (Bs) BsL2/A
whereBsShape factorLBasin length (km)AArea of the basin (km2)
Horton (1932)
Compactnessco-efficient (Cc)
Cc 0.2821 P/A0.5
whereCcCompactness coefficientPPerimeter (km)AArea of the basin (km2)
Gravelius (1914)
Drainage density (Dd) DdLu/AwhereDdDrainage density
LuTotal stream length of all ordersA Area of the basin (km2)
Horton (1932, 1945)
(continued)
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Dakshina Kannada and part of Udupi districts, covering an area of*837 km2
(Figure 1). The river delivers 28226 106 m3/yr of water and 0.1056 106 m3/yr of
sediments into the sea (Avinash Kumar et al. 2010a). It is a sixth-order river with
a total length of*88 km, and its beds consist of cobblepebblegravel at its upper
reaches and coarse sand in middle as well as lower parts.
2.1. Physiography and climate
Physiographically, the river basin can be divided into three well-defined units, viz.
hill ranges, midland and lowland. The altitude drops from 1870 m to 100 m within a
span of*12 km. The gradient of the entire river varies from 18 to 1.58 (21.16 m/km),
and the channels are flanked by thin gravelly terraces; therefore, lower reaches ofthis river get flooded during heavy discharges (Avinash Kumar et al. 2010a).
Consequently, the terraces have capping of overbank fine sand, silt and mud. The
Table 1. (Continued).
Morphometricparameters Formula Reference
Stream frequency (Fs) FsSNu/A
whereFsStream frequencySNuTotal no. of streams of
all ordersAArea of the Basin (km2)
Horton (1932, 1945)
Drainage texture (T) TDd6FswhereTDrainage textureDdDrainage densityFsStream frequency
Horton (1945)
Constant of channelmaintenance (C)
C 1/DdwhereCConstant of channel
maintenanceDdDrainage density
Schumm (1956)
Length of overlandflow (Lo)
Lo 1/2DdwhereLoLength of overland flowDdDrainage density
Horton (1945)
Relief parametersBasin relief (R) RH7 h
whereRBasin reliefHMaximum elevation in meterhMinimum elevation in meter
Hadley andSchumm (1961)
Relief ratio (Rr) RrR/LwhereRrRelief ratioRBasin reliefLLongest axis in kilometre
Schumm (1956)
Ruggednessnumber (Rn)
RnR6DdwhereRnRuggedness numberRBasin reliefDdDrainage density
Schumm (1956)
Gradient ratio (Gr) Gr (a7 b)/LwhereGrGradient ratioaElevation at sourcebElevation at mouthLLongest axis in kilometre
Sreedeviet al. (2005)
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river has been cut into bedrocks, and the terraces are covered by overbank
sediments. The low-elevation undulating coastal belt has a rugged topography as
evidenced by flat-topped lateritic mesas cut by deep valleys.
The study area experiences a tropical climate marked by heavy rainfall, high
humidity and hot weather conditions in summer. Temperature decreases (mean daily
is 5298C) with the onset of southwest monsoon (JuneSeptember) and increases
with the retreat of monsoon. The average annual rainfall is *3900 mm, of which
about 80% is received during the southwest monsoon and the remainder during the
northeast (OctoberDecember) and inter-monsoon months (Avinash Kumar et al.
2010b).
2.2. Geology and tectonics
Geologically, the Gurpur river basin constitutes Archaean to Proterozoic and
metabasites (*46 km2, i.e. *5.5%) of Bababudan Group in the scarp region of
Western Ghats (Abbas et al. 1991, Radhakrishna and Vaidyanadhan 1994). SouthKanara Granite (*158 km2, i.e. *19%) and Archaean age of Peninsular Gneissic
Complex such as migmatitic (banded/streaky) gneisses (*519 km2, i.e. *62%) are
present in the northern portion and southern/middle portions of the basin,
respectively (Figure 2). Other rock formations such as chloritic phyllite and
Figure 2. Geological map showing distribution of lithology and rock types of the Gurpurbasin (after resource map of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada Districts, Karnataka, compiled byGeological Survey of India, 1991).
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quartzite (51 km2 each) of Bababudan Group, and amphibolite (*2 km2) and
charnockite (*7 km2) of Sargur group/granulites of higher metamorphic grades are
distributed mainly in the middle and upper parts of the basin, where several dolerite
and norite dikes intersect with each other. Tertiary laterite (*90 km2, i.e. *11%)
and coastal sand (*12 km2, i.e. *1.5%) formations are found in the coastal area.
Tectonically, the Gurpur river basin is active due to its proximity to Mulki-
Pulicat lake axis (a straight line close to 138N connecting west and east coasts of
India) and the presence of a number of seismically active faults/lineaments. This
neotectonic activity has been validated in our earlier study (Avinash Kumar et al.
2010a). A slight deviation of the drainage divided from the fault line can be ascribed
to differential headward erosion of north-easterly and south-easterly flowing rivers
(Subrahmanya 1994).
3. Methodology
The Gurpur basin has been delineated using Survey of India (SOI) topographicalmaps (No. 48 L/13, 48 O/4, 48 O/8 and 48 P/1 of 1:50,000 scale) of 1967 edition
and Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) P6 and Linear Imaging Self-Scanner
(LISS-III, 23.5 m resolution) images of 2008. The satellite images were geo-
referenced using more than 50 ground control points (GCPs), distributed uniformly
across the Gurpur basins, and carefully selected both on the IRS images and
topographic maps using ERDAS Imagine v. 9.1 software to derive a polynomial
transformation of the first (affine) order. The overall accuracy of the transformation,
expressed as the root mean square error (RMSE) for geo-referenced images, was
50.5 pixel. After geo-referencing in geographic (lat/long) projection, a nearest
neighbour interpolation method (as no change occurs in pixel values) was used torectify and resample the images into a Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
projection, WGS 84, Zone 43 North. The geo-coded satellite images were enhanced
using the digital enhancement techniques such as linear/contrast stretching, edge
enhancement, filtering, band-ratioing and colour compositing. Based on tone,
texture, shape, shadow and colour of enhanced images, drainage, lithology and
hydrogeomorphic units were delineated and updated.
Geomorphology of the basin has been interpreted based on lithological
characteristics using soil, geology and SOI topographic maps as well as the satellite
images in geographic information system (GIS) environment. Visually interpreted
geomorphic units were mapped and quantitatively estimated at sub-basin level
(Table 2, Figure 3). The basin area has been classified into eight major geomorphic
units such as structural hills (SHs), pediment (PD), residual hills (RHs), inselbergs
(I), lateritic uplands (LUs), pediplain, piedmont plain (PP) and flood plain (FP),
which have been used to demarcate the surplus/deficit zones of groundwater.
Drainage and contour layers of the whole basin have been extracted by digitizing
the SOI topographic maps using ArcGIS v. 9.1 software. Drainage layer was further
updated with linearly stretched and edge-enhanced False Colour Composite (FCC)
of LISS-III images. Seven sub-basins (SB-I to SB-VII) have been delineated based on
the drainage characteristics and relief variability (Figure 4). Drainage networks were
analysed as per the laws of Horton (1945), and the stream ordering was carried out
using Strahlers stream order method (Strahler 1964). The triangular irregularnetwork (TIN) was generated by interpolating the digitised SOI contours (at 20 m
interval), and further, the TIN map was used to generate the height and slope maps
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using 3D analyst tool of ArcGIS. Various morphometric parameters (linear, areal
and relief) of the sub-basins were calculated using established mathematical
equations (Table 1). Finally, sub-basin-wise prioritization was carried out byassigning the weightage of each geomorphic unit and morphometric parameter. The
steps followed for prioritization are discussed in Section 4.3.
Table 2. Quantification of sub-basin-wise areal coverage (in terms of %) of variousgeomorphic units and their prospects for groundwater.
Geomorphic unitsWater
prospectSB-I(%)
SB-II(%)
SB-III(%)
SB-IV(%)
SB-V(%)
SB-VI(%)
SB-VII(%)
Structural hills (SHs) Poor 11.3 35.3 39.1 0 0 0 0Pediment (PD) Good 2.4 8.5 10.5 0 0 0 0Residual hills (RHs) Poor 3.6 3.8 2 0 0 0 0Inselbergs (I) Poor 5.1 4 0.9 4.9 9.5 2.4 0.2Lateritic uplands (LUs) Moderate 0 0 0 0.7 0.03 1 0Shallow weathered
pediplain (PPS)Moderate 47.8 41.9 34.8 33.3 74.7 23 8
Moderately weatheredpediplain (PPM)
Good 11.4 0.6 1.7 27.9 0.3 39.1 36.8
Peidmont plain (PP) Good 2.9 0 0.02 11.0 0 0 0Flood plain (FP) Excellent 15.5 6.0 10.9 22.3 15.4 34.5 54.9
Figure 3. Map showing distribution of different hydrogeomorphic units in the Gurpur basin.
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4. Results and discussion
Geomorphology and morphometric parameters are useful for drainage networkanalysis, which provide information concerning lithology, hydrological nature,
drainage characteristics and exogenic/endogenic processes within the basin. Various
types of drainage patterns such as dendritic, trellis, rectangular, barbed and braided
are identified in the basin. Dendritic to sub-dendritic type of drainage is the most
common in the study area due to the presence of homogeneous lithological units like
gneisses and charnockites. Dendritic drainage pattern denotes nonexistence of
structural control and gentle to moderate slope. Based on drainage characteristics
and stream numbering, the Gurpur river basin has been classified as sixth-order
basin. Various geomorphic units and morphometric parameters (linear, areal and
relief) were evaluated to understand the groundwater potential for each sub-basin.
The details of these parameters are discussed below.
4.1. Geomorphic characteristics
4.1.1. Structural hills (SHs)
SHs are found in the easternmost part of the basin mainly in SB-I, SB-II and SB-
III. They consist of iron ore group of rocks and are controlled with complex
folding, faulting and criss-crossed by numerous joints/fractures. These structural
features facilitate infiltration of water and contain springs/seepages at lower part,
although these regions are normally having poor source of groundwater. Thetotal areal extent of this unit is estimated to be 96.2 km2, of which *39% falls in
SB-III (Table 2).
Figure 4. Drainage map showing sub-basin-wise various stream orders of the Gurpur basin.
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4.1.2. Pediment (PD)
PD is an erosional geomorphic feature developed by the process of weathering,
having a thin veneer of deposition mostly restricted to the periphery of high relief
outcrops (Figure 4). From the soil map, the thickness of alluvium or weathered
material varies from 0 to 20 m. In this unit, groundwater prospects are normally
poor due to massive rocky surface, whereas granitic terrains with numerous fractures
or joints permit infiltration and storage of groundwater. Hence, depending on the
thickness of weathered material and the presence or absence of secondary structures,
groundwater potential is moderate to poor. In the Gurpur basin, this geomorphic
unit (PD) is found in SB-I to SB-III, covering an area of 23.6 km2, of which 10.5% is
estimated to be distributed in SB-III (Table 2).
4.1.3. Residual hills (RHs)
RHs are isolated hills or continuous chain of hillocks formed by differential erosionand weathering of pre-existing plateaus, plains and complex tectonic mountains.
RHs are usually formed where charnockites and hornblende-biotite gneisses are
broadly folded and subjected to physical disintegration. RHs are found only in SB-I,
SB-II and SB-III, covering a total areal extent of 12.9 km2. Maximum coverage of
this unit is found in SB-II (Table 2). Hence, the groundwater prospects in this unit
are poor due to steep slope and high runoff with less infiltration.
4.1.4. Inselbergs (I)
Inselbergs are isolated residual hillocks being remnants of weathering anddenudation, found mostly within granitic terrain. Total areal extent of this unit is
estimated to be 29.7 km2, of which 9.5% is found in SB-V (Table 2). This
geomorphic unit acts as runoff zone, where groundwater potential is found to be nil.
4.1.5. Lateritic uplands (LUs)
LUs are developed over tertiary sediments and gneissic/granitic basement. This unit
is noticed only in SB-IV, SB-V and SB-VI, covering only 3.5 km2 area in the basin.
The sub-basin-wise variation in their areal extent was found to be very less (0.03% to
1%). This unit is characterised by moderate infiltration and significant water-table
fluctuation. Groundwater prospect in this unit is moderate to good.
4.1.6. Pediplain
Pediplain is a result of weathering under arid and semi-arid conditions, representing
the end stage of cyclic erosion (King 1950, Sparks 1960). PDs with more or less over
burden of accumulated materials on the shallow to moderately weathered rocks have
been identified in various lithological units by interpretation of soil maps and the
field survey. Based on the visual observations, pediplains have been classified into
two classes:
(1) Shallow weathered pediplain (PPS) is developed by continuous process of
pedimentation at low gradient and covered with shallow weathered material
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and sparse vegetation. This unit of the basin occupies the maximum area
(*294 km2), of which 74.7% of area is found in the SB-V (Table 2).
Groundwater prospect is found to be poor (virtually dry environment) to
moderate (gentle slopes adjacent to the stream courses/tanks) in this type of
pediplain.
(2) Moderately weathered pediplain (PPM) is found as nearly flat terrain with
gentle slope and occurs normally along all the major drainage courses/broken
streams, which control the valley course. The PPM consists of relatively thick
weathered material (ranging from 5 to 15 m) covered with soil and fairly
thick vegetation, formed in low-laying areas and generally associated with
lineaments. PPM is the second largest unit which covers the maximum basin
area of*173 km2, of which 39.1% of area is found in the SB-VI (Table 2).
Hence, groundwater prospects in this unit are considered as moderate to
good, depending upon the thickness of weathered zone.
4.1.7. Piedmont plain (PP)
The PP is gently sloping longitudinal strip of land running parallel to foot hills,
traversed by innumerable rivulets with parallel to sub-parallel drainage. It is found in
SB-I, SB-III and SB-IV and formed of loose unconsolidated material (boulders,
gravels, pebbles, cobbles and mixed with silt and clay) accumulating on the slope
of hills, sometimes due to the coalescence of alluvial fans. PP covers an area of
*15 km2, of which 11% of area is found in SB-IV (Table 2). The groundwater
potential of this unit varies from moderate to good in the upper and lower piedmont
zones.
4.1.8. Flood plain (FP)
The FP is the youngest geomorphic unit formed by erosion and deposition processes.
It is found along the river course, and its main tributaries show a gentle slope (*58).
The PP is the second largest unit of the basin covering an area of *189 km2, of
which 54.9% of area is found in SB-VII (Table 2). This unit includes various
landforms, such as sand/channel bars, point bars, natural levee, back-swamps, etc.,
composed of sub-rounded to rounded fragments of sand, silt and clay deposited by
river and their tributaries. Hence, groundwater prospects in this unit are usually very
good to excellent.
4.2. Morphometric parameters
4.2.1. Linear parameters
Stream order (u) is a dimensionless number which can be used for comparison of
geometry of drainage networks on different linear scales. Streams of this basin have
been numbered according to Strahlers (1964) ordering system. In sub-basins (SB-I
to SB-VII), number of total streams varies from 35 (SB-V) to 609 (SB-VI). The lower
number of streams of a sub-basin indicates the maturity of topography, whereas the
higher number of streams (first- and second-orders) indicates that the area is proneto erosion. The sub-basins cover an average area of*120 km2 and an average length
(L) of*19 km. The SB-VII is found to be the shortest (10.1 km) and covers the
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lowest area of 36.4 km2, while the SB-VI is the longest (32.7 km) and covers the
highest area of 287.8 km2 (Table 3) . Variations in stream orders and their coverage
areas are attributed to differences in physiographic and structural conditions
(Sreedevi et al. 2005). According to Hortons law (1932), the geometric relation
between the logarithm of average number of streams (Nu) and stream orders (u)
shows an inverse linear relationship (R7 0.991) (Figure 5).
Bifurcation ratio (Rb)is the ratio of number of streams of any given order (u) to
the number of streams (Nu) of the next higher order (Schumm 1956). Strahler (1964)
has revealed that the Rb ranges from 3 to 5, which means the sub-basin is not
influenced by geological structures. Lower value ofRb indicates that drainage basin
is underlined by uniform materials, and the streams are usually branched
systematically (Vijay Pakhmode et al. 2003). Lower Rb values are also due to the
presence of a large number of first-, second- and third-order streams in the
sub-basins (Manu and Anirudhan 2008). Computed values ofRbof all the seven sub-
basins and total Gurpur river basin are 55 (except the SB-VI), which indicates that
the control of drainage network is mainly pronounced by geomorphology. Rb ofSB-VI is 45, indicating the influence of structural control on the development of
drainage network. Structural control has been also validated from our earlier studies
that the middle portion of the main river channel (i.e. in SB-VI) has been deflected in
V-shape and controlled by lineaments/faults (Avinash Kumar et al. 2010a).
Stream length(Lu) is a dimensional property used in understanding the drainage
network components which reflect the hydrological characteristics of the underlying
rock surfaces over the areas of consecutive stream orders. Generally, if the rock
formations are permeable, a small number of relatively longer streams are formed,
whereas if the rock formations are less permeable, a large number of smaller streams
are developed (Vijay Pakhmode et al. 2003). The total stream length (SLu) isminimum (47.3 km) in the SB-V and maximum (500.8 km) in the SB-VI, with an
average of 220.9 km (Table 4). Further, it is also noted that the Lu is maximum
(average of 124.9 km) in the case of first-order streams of all the sub-basins, as
geometrical similarity is preserved in the basins of increasing order (Strahler 1964).
In all the sub-basins, the Ludecreases consequently with an increase in stream order,
indicating constant variation in the relief over which the streams occur (Subba Rao
2009). However, the average values ofLu computed for the first- and second-order
streams are 0.80 (0.601.14) km and 0.94 (0.751.23) km, respectively, and that of
third- and fourth-order streams are 2.23 (1.093.57) km and 4.59 (0.40513.79) km,
respectively (Table 4). The average values ofLu
computed for the fifth- and sixth-
order streams are 2.60 (2.8111.2) km and 7.1 km, respectively. These differences
favour the distribution of number of streams and their lengths in different orders of
streams.
The geometrical relationship is shown graphically in the form of a straight line
when the log of average total stream lengths vs. stream orders is plotted
(Figure 6(a)). This linear plot indicates the negative relationship (R7 0.947)
and satisfies Hortons (1945) law of stream lengths. The law states that the average
length of streams of different orders in a drainage basin tends closely to approximate
a direct geometric series. However, the values of average Lu vs. u deviate from a
straight line for fifth- and sixth-orders due to differences in the development of
stream lengths of these two orders. The relation between the logarithm of averagenumber of streams and the logarithm of average total stream lengths is shown in
Figure 6(b). This relation shows positive linear relationship (R 0.929), which
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Table3.
Computationalresultsoflinea
rmorphometricparameterssuchasbasinarea,
basinlength,
bas
inperimeter,numberofstreams
andbifurcation
ratioof
sub-basinsoftheGurpurbasin.
Sub-basin/basin
Area
(A;km
2)
Length
(L;km)
Perimeter
(P;km)
Numberofstr
eams(Nu
)ofdifferent
strea
morder(u)
SNu
Bifurcationratio(Rb)N
u/N
u1
Mean
Rb
1
2
3
4
5
6
1/2
2/3
3/4
4/5
5/6
I
178.6
24.9
75.3
239
71
19
7
3
339
3.3
7
3.7
4
2.7
1
2.33
2.4
3
II
126.5
20.5
50.6
282
65
13
4
2
366
4.3
4
5
3.2
5
2
2.9
2
III
82.1
16
53.4
224
41
9
2
276
5.4
6
4.5
6
4.5
0
2.9
0
IV
86.8
16.5
51.8
37
13
4
1
55
2.8
5
3.2
5
4
2.0
2
V
38.6
10.4
33.9
24
8
1
1
1
35
3
8
1
1
2.6
0
VI
287.8
32.7
114.8
423
135
48
2
1
609
3.1
3
2.8
1
24
5.9
9
VII
36.4
10.1
30.7
44
17
7
3
71
2.5
9
2.4
3
2.3
3
1.4
7
Averagea
119.5
18.7
58.6
181
50
14
2
0.8
6
0.1
4
250
3.5
3
4.2
5
5.9
7
0.76
2.9
0
Gurpur
basin
836.7
60
380
1273
350
1
01
20
6
1
1751
3.6
4
3.4
7
5.0
5
3.33
6
4.3
0
Note:aAsawholebasin.
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clearly indicates that the number of streams increases as stream lengths increase.
This concept has been widely used as empirical test to specific models of drainage
network development; therefore, it is being validated by many workers (Strahler
1952, Leopold and Miller 1956, Schumm 1956, Melton 1958, Smith 1958, Broscoe
1959, Morisawa 1959, Raju et al. 1995, Rao and Babu 1995, Sreedevi et al. 2005,
Devadaset al. 2006, Manu and Anirudhan 2008, Subba Rao 2009).
Stream length ratio (RL) is an important relationship as far as the discharge of
surface flow and erosional stages of the basin are concerned (Horton 1945). The RLis the ratio of the average length (Lu) of a stream of any given order (u) to the
average length of a stream of the next lowest order (Lu71), which tends to be
constant throughout the successive orders of the basin. The average RL of the fifth-
order streams shows a high value of 4.1 (0.527.6) compared to the average RL of
the second-, third- and fourth-order streams within the basin, i.e. 1.23 (0.711.51),
2.45 (1.084.03), and 2.27 (0.156.82), respectively. The average RL of all the seven
sub-basins varies from 0.846.38 (Table 4). This indicates that the rock formations in
the area, drained by the fifth-order streams, are more permeable and/or the gradients
are gentler than those formations drained by the lower order streams. It has been
noticed that RL
between successive stream orders varies due to differences in slope
and topographic conditions and has an important relationship with the surface flow
discharge and erosional stage of the basin (Sreedevi et al. 2005).
4.2.2. Areal parameters
Form factor (Ff) is the ratio of the basin area (A) to the squared value of the basin
length (L) (Horton 1932, 1945). The Ffvaries from 0 (in highly elongated shape) to
1 (in perfect circular shape) (Manu and Anirudhan 2008). Average Ff value of the
Gurpur basin is 0.31. In sub-basins (I-VII), the Ffvaries from 0.27 (SB-VI) to 0.36
(SB-VII), indicating that the whole basin is in an elongated form (Table 5, Figure 4).
Elongation ratio(Re) is the ratio between the diameter of a circle of the same areaas the basin (A) and maximum basin length (L) (Schumm 1956). Higher value ofReindicates active denudational processes with high infiltration capacity and low
Figure 5. Relation between stream orders (u) and number of streams (Nu) in different basinsof the study area.
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Table4.
Showingsub-basin-wisecomp
utationalresultsofstreamlengthsandstreamlengthratiooftheGurpurbasin.
Sub-basin/
basin
Totalstreamlength(Lu
;km)ofdifferent
orders(u)
SL
u
A
verageL
u
(km)indifferentu(Lu
/Nu
)
Streamlengthratio(RL)
(Lu
/Lu
1)
Mean
RL
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
2/1
3/2
4/3
5/4
6/5
I
178.7
80.1
32.8
34.9
8.4
3
335
0.7
5
1.1
3
1.7
3
4.9
9
2.81
1.5
1
1.5
3
2.8
9
0.5
1.3
0
II
194
52.3
42.2
19.6
8.4
2
316.7
0.6
9
0.8
0
3.2
5
4.9
1
4.21
1.1
7
4.0
3
1.5
1
0.8
1.5
1
III
134.2
30.9
18.2
27.6
210.8
0.6
0
0.7
5
2.0
2
13.7
9
1.2
6
2.6
8
6.8
2
2.1
5
IV
42.3
16
14.3
4.0
76.6
1.1
4
1.2
3
3.5
7
4.0
3
1.0
7
2.9
0
1.1
3
1.0
2
V
26.6
6.3
2.7
0.4
11.1
9
47.3
1.1
1
0.7
9
2.7
2
0.4
05
11.2
0.7
1
3.4
4
0.1
5
27.6
6.3
8
VI
269
116.3
61.3
4.5
49.7
4
500.8
0.6
4
0.8
6
1.2
8
2.2
9
49.7
1.3
6
1.4
8
1.8
0
0.9
3
VII
29.2
17.0
7.6
5.2
59.1
0.6
6
1.0
0
1.0
9
1.7
5
1.5
1
1.0
8
1.6
1
0.8
4
Averagea
124.9
45.6
25.6
13.7
4.0
1
7.1
1
220.9
0.8
0
0.9
4
2.2
3
4.5
9
2.60
7.1
1.2
3
2.4
5
2.2
7
4.1
0
2.0
2
Gurpur
basin
874
319
179
96.2
28.0
4
49.7
4
1546.4
0.6
9
0.9
1
1.7
7
4.8
2
4.67
49.7
1.3
3
1.9
5
2.7
2
0.9
7
10.6
3.5
2
Note:aAsawholebasin.
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run-off in the basin, whereas, lower Re values indicate higher elevation of the basin
susceptible to high headward erosion along tectonic lineaments (Obi Reddy et al.
2004, Manu and Anirudhan 2008). The computed values of Re vary from 0.59
(SB-VI) to 0.67 (SB-V and SB-VII), and they are usually associated with high relief
and steep ground slopes (Schumm 1956). The average value of Re of the whole
Gurpur basin is 0.63, which reveals the fact that the basin is in an elongated shape
(Table 5). According to Schumm (1956), Revalues close to 1.0 are typical of regions
of low relief, whereas those in the range of 0.60.8 are generally associated with high
relief and steep ground slopes. Hence, the Re values indicate that the Gurpur river
basin is associated with high relief and steep slopes.
Circularity ratio (Rc) is the ratio of the area of the basin ( A) to the area of the
circle having the same circumference as the perimeter (P) of the basin (Miller 1953,
Strahler 1964). The Rc is more influenced by stream length, stream frequency (Fs)
and gradient of streams of various orders rather than the slope conditions and
Table 5. Sub-basin-wise areal morphometric parameters of the Gurpur basin.
Parameters
Sub-basins
AverageaI II III IV V VI VII
Form factor (Ff) 0.29 0.30 0.32 0.32 0.35 0.27 0.36 0.31Elongation ratio (Re) 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.63 0.67 0.59 0.67 0.63Circularity ratio (Rc) 0.40 0.62 0.36 0.41 0.42 0.27 0.49 0.42Shape factor (Bs) 3.48 3.32 3.13 3.16 2.83 3.72 2.81 3.21Compactness co-efficient (Cc) 1.59 1.27 1.66 1.57 1.54 1.91 1.43 1.57Drainage density (km/km2) (Dd) 1.88 2.50 2.57 0.88 1.23 1.74 1.62 1.77Stream frequency (km72) (Fs) 1.90 2.89 3.36 0.63 0.91 2.12 1.95 1.97Drainage texture (km71) (T) 3.56 7.24 8.64 0.56 1.11 3.68 3.17 3.99Constant of channel maintenance
(km) (C)0.53 0.40 0.39 1.13 0.82 0.57 0.62 0.64
Length of overland flow(km2/km) (Lo)
0.27 0.20 0.19 0.57 0.41 0.29 0.31 0.32
Note: aAs a whole basin.
Figure 6. Graphs showing the geometric relationship (a) between stream orders (u) andstream lengths (Lu), and (b) between number of streams (Nu) and stream lengths (Lu) of wholeGurpur basin.
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drainage pattern of a basin (Strahler 1964). Low, medium and high values ofRcgive
an indication of the young, mature and old stages of the tributaries in the basins,
respectively. If the Rc value is 1.0, the basin is to be a perfect circle in shape and the
discharge quantity would be high (Miller 1953). The values ofRc ranging from 0.27
(SB-VI) to 0.62 (SB-II) (Table 5) also indicate that the basin is not circular in shape,
and the quantity of discharge is comparatively less in sub-basins with lower Revalues. It may be attributed to differences in geomorphological features in the river
basin.
Shape factor (Bs) provides a measurement of basin shape irregularity. The
basin would be a perfect circle if the shape factor 1, successively, lower factors
represent a more convoluted floc, and close to 0 approaching a line (Wolfgang
and Desmond 2002). The calculated value of Bs of the Gurpur river basin is 3.21
(Table 5).
Compactness coefficient (Cc) is the relationship of the shape of the drainage
basin to a circle. This is expressed as a ratio between the length of the drainage
basin boundary (the perimeter) and the perimeter of a circle with the same area.If the basin was a perfect circle, then Cc would be equal to 1 (Gravelius 1914,
Hidore 1964). The computed value of Cc for the whole Gurpur basin is 1.57
(Table 5).
Drainage density (Dd) is the total length of streams of all orders divided by the
area of drainage basin (Horton 1932, 1945). It provides a numerical measurement
of landscape dissection and run-off potential (Obi Reddy et al. 2004). According to
Horton (1945), low Dd is an indication of the prevalence of highly resistant/
permeable strata under dense vegetation and low relief, whereas, high Ddprevails
in the weak/impermeable rocks under sparse vegetation and mountainous relief
regions. In the Gurpur basin, Ddranges from 0.88 (SB-IV) to 2.57 (SB-III) km/km2
,with an average of 1.77 km/km2. Ddvalue 55 suggests the permeable nature of the
surface strata of the river basin, which is a characteristic feature of a coarse-drainage
density (Smith 1950, Strahler 1957).
Stream frequency (Fs) is the ratio between the number of streams (Nu) of all
orders within a basin and the basin area (A). The high value ofFs indicates greater
surface run-off and a steep ground surface (Horton 1932, 1945). The computed Fsvalues of Gurpur basin range from 0.63 (SB-IV) to 3.36 (SB-III), with an average
value of 1.97 per km2 (Table 5). It means that two streams are developed in an area
of 1 km2 in the basin. High Fs values (42/km2) of 2.89, 3.36, 2.12 per km2 are
observed in the SB-II, SB-III and SB-VI, respectively. This indicates that these
sub-basins have steep slopes with less permeable rocks, which facilitate greater run-
off, less infiltration, sparse vegetation and high relief conditions. The low Fs values
(51/km2) in the SB-IV (0.63) and SB-V (0.91) reflect the gentle ground slopes and
greater rock permeability in these sub-basins, where the run-off is low and the
infiltration is high. If the values ofFs range from 12 per km2, as found in the SB-I
(1.90) and SB-VII (1.95), it is an indication of the occurrence of moderate ground
slopes associated with moderately permeable rocks, which promote moderate run-off
and infiltration.
Drainage texture (T) is the product of drainage density and stream frequency.
It is a measure of closeness of the channel spacing, depending on climate, rainfall,
vegetation, soil and rock type, infiltration rate, relief and the stage of development(Horton 1945, Smith 1950, Schumm 1956). Vegetation covers play an important
role in determining the drainage density and texture (Kale and Gupta 2001). Soft
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or weak rocks unprotected by vegetation characterize a fine drainage texture; while
massive and resistant rocks represent a coarse drainage texture. Sparse vegetation,
with an arid climate, causes a finer drainage texture than that developed on similar
rocks in a humid climate. The drainage texture is commonly dependent upon
the vegetation type and climate (Dornkamp and King 1971). According to Smith
(1950), the T is classified as coarse (54 per km), intermediate (410 per km),
fine (1015 per km) and ultra-fine (415 per km). The T values vary between 0.56
(SB-IV) and 8.64 (SB-III), with an average of 3.99. All the sub-basins (except
SB-II and SB-III) with T values ranging between 0.56 and 3.68 and the Gurpur
river as a whole come under the coarse drainage texture (Table 5). This indicates
that all the sub-basins have formations with higher permeability and infiltration
capacity except SB-II (7.24) and SB-III (8.64), which have an intermediate
drainage texture.
Constant of channel maintenance (C) is the inverse of drainage density (Dd)
(Schumm 1956), which depends on the rock type, permeability, climatic regime,
vegetation cover and relief as well as the duration of erosion. It is also the arearequired to maintain one linear kilometre of stream channel. Generally, the higher
the C values of a basin, the higher the permeability of the rocks of that basin and
vice-versa (Vijay Pakhmode et al.2003, Subba Rao 2009). The Cvalue of the sixth-
order Gurpur basin is 0.64 (Table 5), which indicates that, on an average, 0.64 km2
of surface area is required to maintain 1 km length of stream channel. The SB-II and
SB-III have low C value (50.5), indicating that they are under the influence of less
structural disturbance, low permeability, steep to very steep slopes and high surface
run-off, while a high value indicates structural disturbances and less run-off
conditions.
Length of overland flow (Lo) is used to describe the length of flow of water overthe ground before it becomes concentrated in definite stream channels. It is one of
the most important independent variables, affecting both the hydrological and
physiographical developments of the drainage basins (Horton 1945). During the
evolution of the drainage system, Lo is adjusted to a magnitude appropriate to the
scale of the first-order drainage basins. Horton (1945) defined Lo as the length of
flow path, projected to the horizontal of non-channel flow from a point on drainage
divide (basin boundary). The average Lois approximately equal to half the reciprocal
of the averageDd (i.e. 1/2Dd). The computed values ofLoof the Gurpur basin range
between 0.19 (SB-III) and 0.57 (SB-IV) km2/km, with an average value of 0.32 km2/
km (Table 5). For a comparison of the sub-basins in respect of the nature of flow-
path, the Lo is classified as: (1) low (50.20 km2/km), (2) medium (0.200.30 km2/
km) and (3) high (40.30 km2/km) in the study area. The high Lovalues in the SB-IV,
SB-V and SB-VII indicate the occurrence of long flow-paths, and thus, gentle ground
slopes, which reflect areas of less run-off and more infiltration. The low Lovalues in
the SB-II and SB-III reveal short flow paths, with steep ground slopes, reflecting the
areas as associated with more run-off and less infiltration. The SB-I and SB-VI show
medium Lo values, indicating ground slopes, flow-paths, run-off and infiltration
being moderate.
4.2.3. Relief parametersBasin relief (R) is the difference in elevation between the highest and the lowest
points of the basin. It is an important factor to understand the denudational
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characteristics of the basin, which controls the stream gradient and therefore
influences the flood pattern and the amount of sediment that can be transported
(Hadley and Schumm 1961). The maximum height of the Gurpur basin is found
to be *1870 m and the lowest is *20 m. Hence, the relief of the basin is 1850 m
(Table 6).
Relief ratio (Rr) is the dimensionless height-length ratio between the basin relief
(R) and the basin length (L). TheRrof the Gurpur basin is 0.0328, whereasRrvalue
of sub-basins varies from 0.0062 (SB-VI) to 0.1066 (SB-II) (Table 6). A high Rrvalue
indicates a hilly region and a low value is the characteristic of pediplain and valley
regions.
Slope analysis is an important parameter in geomorphic studies which
are controlled by climato-morphogenic processes in the area underlying the
rocks of varying resistance. An understanding of the slope distribution is
essential, because it provides information about settlement planning,
possibilities of agriculture, aforestation, deforestation, planning of engineering
structures, etc. (Sreedevi et al. 2005). In the Gurpur basin area, slope varies from2.48 to 878 (Figure 7). The maximum steepness was observed in SB-I, SB-II and SB-
III.
Ruggedness number (Rn) is a result of basin relief (R) and drainage density (Dd)
that indicates the structural complexity of the terrain (Schumm 1956). Higher values
ofRn are usually expected in a mountainous region of tropical climate with higher
rainfall. The Gurpur basin with a very high Rn value of 3.28 (Table 6) indicates
very high basin relief (1850 m). The SB-I, SB-II and SB-III have very high Rn, which
suggest high relief and drainage density.
Gradient ratio (Gr) is an indication of the channel slope from which the run-off
volume could be evaluated. The basin has a gradient ratio of 0.0328, while Gr ofsub-basins ranges from 0.0028 (SB-IV) to 0.1066 (SB-II) (Table 7).
4.3. Sub-basin-wise prioritization for groundwater prospect
Geomorphology and hydrological-drainage characteristics are important in terms
of evaluation of groundwater prospects. Based on various geomorphic units and
their characteristics, prioritization studies have been carried out for the Gurpur
river basin. The groundwater prospect for each unit has been categorized into
two major categories (i) poor to moderate and (ii) good to excellent for
Table 6. Relief aspects of the Gurpur basin.
Sub-basin/basin
Elevation in m Basinrelief (R)
(H7 h) (m)
Basinrelief (R)
(H7 h) (km)
LongestAxis L
(km)
Reliefratio(Rr)
RuggednessNumber (Rn)R6Dd(km)Max H Min h
I 1420 60 1360 1.36 21.66 0.0628 2.55II 1800 80 1720 1.72 16.13 0.1066 4.31III 1870 80 1790 1.79 16.97 0.1055 4.60IV 160 60 100 0.1 14.06 0.0071 0.09V 220 60 160 0.16 8.15 0.0196 0.20
VI 200 20 180 0.18 28.86 0.0062 0.31VII 100 20 80 0.08 6.4 0.0125 0.13Gurpur 1870 20 1850 1.85 56.36 0.0328 3.28
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prioritizing the sub-basins. Priority was assigned to every geomorphic unit based
on the areal coverage and groundwater prospect. For example, the unit that has
poor to moderate groundwater prospect with largest areal coverage of that
particular sub-basin is ranked as 1, next largest areal coverage is ranked as 2 and
so on. On the contrary, the unit that has good to excellent groundwaterprospect with smaller areal converge in a particular sub-basin is ranked as 1, next
smaller areal coverage is ranked as 2 and so on. After ranking all the geomorphic
Table 7. Gradient aspects of the Gurpur basin.
Sub-basin/basin
Elevation (m) atFall in height
(a7b) (m)Length of mainstream L (km)
Gradient ratioGr (a7b/L)Source a Mouth b
I 1380 60 1320 21.66 0.0609II 1800 80 1720 16.13 0.1066III 1870 80 1790 16.97 0.1055IV 100 60 40 14.06 0.0028V 160 60 100 8.15 0.0123VI 160 20 140 28.86 0.0049VII 80 20 60 6.40 0.0094Gurpur 1870 20 1850 56.36 0.0328
Figure 7. Slope map (in degree) of various sub-basins of the Gurpur basin.
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units, the ranked values for each sub-basin were averaged to arrive at a
compound value (Cg) (Table 8). The morphometric parameters such as linear/
areal (bifurcation ratio, drainage density, drainage texture and stream frequency)
and shape (form factor, elongation ratio, circularity ratio, shape factor) have been
used for prioritizing sub-basins to demarcate sub-basin-wise the most deficit zone
of groundwater. In linear/areal parameter, the highest value among the seven sub-
basins was ranked as 1, next higher value was ranked as 2 and so on. On the
contrary, in the shape parameters, the lowest value was ranked as 1, next lower
value was ranked as 2 and so on. After ranking the every morphometric
parameter, the ranked values for each sub-basin were averaged to arrive at a
compound value (Cm) (Table 8).
The total compound value was calculated by the sum of geomorphic units (Cg)
and morphometric parameters (Cm) as given in Table 8. Based on the total
compound value, first priority (1) is assigned for least compound value, which
indicates most deficit sub-basin for groundwater prospects. Likewise, next higher
value is assigned for next priority (2) and so on. The last priority number (7)
indicates that the sub-basin is the most surplus zone for groundwater potential.
Hence, the sub-basin-wise prioritization results show that SB-II would be the most
deficit zone of groundwater, while the SB-III, SB-VI and SB-I are the next
consequent deficit zones of groundwater. SB-V, SB-IV and SB-VII are found toshow increase in groundwater potentiality (Table 8, Figure 8).
Table 8. The sub-basin-wise prioritization based on geomorphology and morphometricparameters.
Geomorphic units SB-I SB-II SB-III SB-IV SB-V SB-VI SB-VII
SH 3 2 1 4 4 4 4
PD 2 3 4 1 1 1 1RH 2 1 3 4 4 4 4I 2 4 6 3 1 5 7LP 4 4 4 2 3 1 4PPM 2 3 4 5 1 6 7PPS 4 2 3 5 1 7 6PP 3 1 2 4 1 1 1FP 4 1 2 5 3 6 7Compound value (Cg) 2.9 2.3 3.2 3.7 2.1 3.9 4.6
Morphometric parametersFf 2 3 5 4 6 1 7Re 2 3 5 4 6 1 7
Rc 3 7 2 4 5 1 6Bs 6 5 3 4 2 7 1Rb 5 2 3 6 4 1 7Dd 3 2 1 7 6 4 5T 4 2 1 7 6 3 5Fs 5 2 1 7 6 3 4Compound value (Cm) 3.8 3.3 2.6 5.4 5.1 2.6 5.3Total compound value (CgCm) 6.64 5.58 5.85 9.04 7.24 6.51 9.81Final priority 4 1 2 6 5 3 7
Note: The first priority (i.e. 1) shows the most deficit zone of groundwater prospect while the last priority(i.e. 7) shows the potential of groundwater.
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5. Conclusions
This study reveals that the geomorphology and morphometric parameters are good
proxies to evaluate the deficit and surplus zones of groundwater for river basins/
watersheds. Quantification of geomorphic units showed that the maximum area (85%)
of SB-II falls under poor to moderate groundwater prospects, whereas the maximum
area (91.7%) of SB-VII is consisting of good to excellent groundwater prospects. The
observed mean Rb value of SB-VI is the influence of structural control on the
development of drainage network, whereas the Rb of SB-I to SB-V and SB-VII
indicates that geological structures do not seem to exercise a dominant control over the
drainage pattern of the basin. Analyses of areal parameters such as Ff, Re, Rc andBssuggest that the Gurpur basin is in an elongated form associated with high relief, steep
ground slopes and differences in the geomorphological features. High Fs values (42/
km2) in the SB-II, SB-III and SB-VI indicate the occurrence of steep ground slopes,
with less permeable rocks, which facilitate greater run-off, less infiltration, sparse
vegetation and high relief conditions. The Dd value suggests that the nature of the
surface strata of the river basin is permeable, which is a characteristic feature of a
coarse-drainage density. The high relief ratio (Rr) and gradient ratio values indicatehilly regions from which the run-off volume could be evaluated.
Figure 8. The sub-basin-wise prioritization based on geomorphology and morphometricparameters of the Gurpur basin.
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Sub-basin-wise prioritization results show that SB-II gets maximum priority for
the most deficit zone of groundwater. SB-III, SB-VI, SB-I, SB-V and SB-IV show a
decrease in deficiency of groundwater, while SB-VII is found to be a surplus zone
of groundwater potential. The priority results prove that geomorphology and
morphometric analyses clearly indicate hydrogeological relationships among the
various parameters of the basin, which help to understand the river processes and
groundwater prospects.
Acknowledgements
The first author thanks the Council for Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), India, forSenior Research Fellowship grant, and the Director, NCAOR, for his encouragement andsupport. The authors thank Mr. A.C. Dinesh, Senior Scientist, Geological Survey of India,Mangalore, for extending his suggestions and Mr. Pattabhi Rama Somayaji, AssistantProfessor, University College, Mangalore, for improving the language of the manuscript.Authors acknowledge anonymous reviewers and Dr. Kamlesh P. Lulla, editor, for theirinsightful comments and suggestions on the previous draft, which improved the quality of thearticle to a greater extent.
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