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Concreteandmetalrebarusedtobuildafloor

BuildingmaterialFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Buildingmaterialisanymaterialwhichisusedforconstructionpurposes.Manynaturallyoccurringsubstances,suchasclay,rocks,sand,andwood,eventwigsandleaves,havebeenusedtoconstructbuildings.Apartfromnaturallyoccurringmaterials,manymanmadeproductsareinuse,somemoreandsomelesssynthetic.Themanufactureofbuildingmaterialsisanestablishedindustryinmanycountriesandtheuseofthesematerialsistypicallysegmentedintospecificspecialtytrades,suchascarpentry,insulation,plumbing,androofingwork.Theyprovidethemakeupofhabitatsandstructuresincludinghomes.[1]

Contents

1Thetotalcostofbuildingmaterials1.1Economiccosts1.2Ecologicalcosts1.3Energycosts1.4Socialcosts

2Naturallyoccurringsubstances2.1Brush2.2Iceandsnow2.3Mudandclay

2.3.1Wetlaidclaywalls2.3.2Structuralclayblocksandbricks

2.4Sand2.5Stoneorrock2.6Thatch2.7Woodandtimber

3Manmadesubstances3.1Firedbricksandclayblocks3.2Cementcomposites3.3Concrete3.4Fabric3.5Foam3.6Glass3.7Gypcrete3.8Metal3.9Plastics3.10Papersandmembranes3.11Ceramics

4Buildingproducts5Testingandcertification6Seealso7References8Externallinks

Thetotalcostofbuildingmaterials

Inhistorytherearetrendsinbuildingmaterialsfrombeing:naturaltobecomingmoremanmadeandcompositebiodegradabletoimperishableindigenous(local)tobeingtransportedgloballyrepairabletodisposableandchosenforincreasedlevelsoffiresafety.Thesetrendstendtoincreasetheinitialandlongtermeconomic,ecological,energy,andsocialcostsofbuildingmaterials.

Economiccosts

Theinitialeconomiccostofbuildingmaterialsisthepurchaseprice.Thisisoftenwhatgovernsdecisionmakingaboutwhatmaterialstouse.Sometimespeopletakeintoconsiderationtheenergysavingsordurabilityofthematerialsandseethevalueofpayingahigherinitialcostinreturnforalowerlifetimecost.Forexampleanasphaltshingleroofcostslessthanametalrooftoinstall,butthemetalroofwilllastlongersothelifetimecostislessperyear.Riskswhenconsideringlifetimecostofamaterialisifthebuildingisdamagedsuchasbyfireorwind,orifthematerialisnotasdurableasadvertised.Thecostofmaterialsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationtobeartherisktobuycombustivematerialstoenlargethelifetime.Itissaidthat,'ifitmustbedone,itmustbedonewell'.

Ecologicalcosts

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ViewofagroupofMohavesinabrushhut

SodbuildingsinIceland

Pollutioncostscanbemacroandmicro.Themacro,environmentalpollutionofextractionindustriesbuildingmaterialsrelyonsuchasmining,petroleum,andloggingproduceenvironmentaldamageattheirsourceandintransportationoftherawmaterials,manufacturing,transportationoftheproducts,retailing,andinstallation.Anexampleofthemicroaspectofpollutionistheoffgassingofthebuildingmaterialsinthebuildingorindoorairpollution.RedListbuildingmaterialsarematerialsfoundtobeharmful.Alsothecarbonfootprint,thetotalsetofgreenhousegasemissionsproducedinthelifeofthematerial.Alifecycleanalysisalsoincludesthereuse,recycling,ordisposalofconstructionwaste.Twoconceptsinbuildingwhichaccountfortheecologicaleconomicsofbuildingmaterialsaregreenbuildingandsustainabledevelopment.

Energycosts

Initialenergycostsincludetheamountofenergyconsumedtoproduce,deliverandinstallthematerial.Thelongtermenergycostistheeconomic,ecological,andsocialcostsofcontinuingtoproduceanddeliverenergytothebuildingforitsuse,maintenance,andeventualremoval.Theinitialembodiedenergyofastructureistheenergyconsumedtoextract,manufacture,deliver,install,thematerials.Thelifetimeembodiedenergycontinuestogrowwiththeuse,maintenance,andreuse/recycling/disposalofthebuildingmaterialsthemselvesandhowthematerialsanddesignhelpminimizethelifetimeenergyconsumptionofthestructure.

Socialcosts

Socialcostsareinjuryandhealthofthepeopleproducingandtransportingthematerialsandpotentialhealthproblemsofthebuildingoccupantsifthereareproblemswiththebuildingbiology.Globalizationhashadsignificantimpactsonpeoplebothintermsofjobs,skills,andselfsufficiencyarelostwhenmanufacturingfacilitiesareclosedandtheculturalaspectsofwherenewfacilitiesareopened.Aspectsoffairtradeandlaborrightsaresocialcostsofglobalbuildingmaterialmanufacturing.

Naturallyoccurringsubstances

Brush

BrushstructuresarebuiltentirelyfromplantpartsandwereusedinprimitiveculturessuchasNativeAmericans,[2]pygmypeoplesinAfrica[3]Thesearebuiltmostlywithbranches,twigsandleaves,andbark,similartoabeaver'slodge.Thesewerevariouslynamedwikiups,leantos,andsoforth.

Anextensiononthebrushbuildingideaisthewattleanddaubprocessinwhichclaysoilsordung,usuallycow,areusedtofillinandcoverawovenbrushstructure.Thisgivesthestructuremorethermalmassandstrength.Wattleanddaubisoneoftheoldestbuildingtechniques.[4]Manyoldertimberframebuildingsincorporatewattleanddaubasnonloadbearingwallsbetweenthetimberframes.

Iceandsnow

Snowandoccasionallyice,[5]wereusedbytheInuitpeoplesforigloosandsnowisusedtobuiltasheltercalledaquinzhee.Icehasalsobeenusedforicehotelsasatouristattractioninnorthernclimates.[6]

Mudandclay

Claybasedbuildingsusuallycomeintwodistincttypes.Onebeingwhenthewallsaremadedirectlywiththemudmixture,andtheotherbeingwallsbuiltbystackingairdriedbuildingblockscalledmudbricks.

Otherusesofclayinbuildingiscombinedwithstrawstocreatelightclay,wattleanddaub,andmudplaster.

Wetlaidclaywalls

Wetlaid,ordamp,wallsaremadebyusingthemudorclaymixturedirectlywithoutformingblocksanddryingthemfirst.Theamountofandtypeofeachmaterialinthemixtureusedleadstodifferentstylesofbuildings.Thedecidingfactorisusuallyconnectedwiththequalityofthesoilbeingused.Largeramountsofclayareusuallyemployedinbuildingwithcob,whilelowclaysoilisusuallyassociatedwithsodhouseorsodroofconstruction.Theothermainingredientsincludemoreorlesssand/gravelandstraw/grasses.Rammedearthisbothanoldandnewertakeoncreatingwalls,oncemadebycompactingclaysoilsbetweenplanksbyhandnowadaysformsandmechanicalpneumaticcompressorsareused.[7]

Soil,andespeciallyclay,providesgoodthermalmassitisverygoodatkeepingtemperaturesataconstantlevel.Homesbuiltwithearthtendtobenaturallycoolinthesummerheatandwarmincoldweather.Clayholdsheatorcold,releasingitoveraperiodoftimelikestone.Earthenwallschangetemperatureslowly,soartificiallyraisingorloweringthetemperaturecanusemoreresourcesthaninsayawoodbuilthouse,buttheheat/coolnessstayslonger.[7]

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Todatribehut

AwoodframedhouseunderconstructioninTexas,UnitedStates

Peoplebuildingwithmostlydirtandclay,suchascob,sod,andadobe,createdhomesthathavebeenbuiltforcenturiesinwesternandnorthernEurope,Asia,aswellastherestoftheworld,andcontinuetobebuilt,thoughonasmallerscale.Someofthesebuildingshaveremainedhabitableforhundredsofyears.[8][9]

Structuralclayblocksandbricks

Mudbricks,alsoknownbytheirSpanishnameadobeareancientbuildingmaterialswithevidencedatingbackthousandsofyearsBC.Compressedearthblocksareamoremoderntypeofbrickusedforbuildingmorefrequentlyinindustrializedsocietysincethebuildingblockscanbemanufacturedoffsiteinacentralizedlocationatabrickworksandtransportedtomultiplebuildinglocations.Theseblockscanalsobemonetizedmoreeasilyandsold.

Structuralmudbricksarealmostalwaysmadeusingclay,oftenclaysoilandabinderaretheonlyingredientsused,butotheringredientscanincludesand,lime,concrete,stoneandotherbinders.Theformedorcompressedblockisthenairdriedandcanbelaiddryorwithamortarorclayslip.

Sand

Sandisusedwithcement,andsometimeslime,tomakemortarformasonryworkandplaster.Sandisalsousedasapartoftheconcretemix.AnimportantlowcostbuildingmaterialincountrieswithhighsandcontentsoilsistheSandcreteblock,whichisweakerbutcheaperthanfiredclaybricks.[10]

Stoneorrock

Rockstructureshaveexistedforaslongashistorycanrecall.Itisthelongestlastingbuildingmaterialavailable,andisusuallyreadilyavailable.Therearemanytypesofrockthroughouttheworld,allwithdifferingattributesthatmakethembetterorworseforparticularuses.Rockisaverydensematerialsoitgivesalotofprotectiontooitsmaindrawbackasamaterialisitsweightandawkwardness.Itsenergydensityisalsoconsideredabigdrawback,asstoneishardtokeepwarmwithoutusinglargeamountsofheatingresources.

Drystonewallshavebeenbuiltforaslongashumanshaveputonestoneontopofanother.Eventually,differentformsofmortarwereusedtoholdthestonestogether,cementbeingthemostcommonplacenow.

ThegranitestrewnuplandsofDartmoorNationalPark,UnitedKingdom,forexample,providedampleresourcesforearlysettlers.CircularhutswereconstructedfromloosegraniterocksthroughouttheNeolithicandearlyBronzeAge,andtheremainsofanestimated5,000canstillbeseentoday.GranitecontinuedtobeusedthroughouttheMedievalperiod(seeDartmoorlonghouse)andintomoderntimes.Slateisanotherstonetype,commonlyusedasroofingmaterialintheUnitedKingdomandotherpartsoftheworldwhereitisfound.

StonebuildingscanbeseeninmostmajorcitiessomecivilizationsbuiltentirelywithstonesuchastheEgyptianandAztecpyramidsandthestructuresoftheIncacivilization.

Thatch

Thatchisoneoftheoldestofbuildingmaterialsknowngrassisagoodinsulatorandeasilyharvested.ManyAfricantribeshavelivedinhomesmadecompletelyofgrassesandsandyearround.InEurope,thatchroofsonhomeswereonceprevalentbutthematerialfelloutoffavorasindustrializationandimprovedtransportincreasedtheavailabilityofothermaterials.Today,though,thepracticeisundergoingarevival.IntheNetherlands,forinstance,manynewbuildingshavethatchedroofswithspecialridgetilesontop.

Woodandtimber

Woodhasbeenusedasabuildingmaterialforthousandsofyearsinitsnaturalstate.Today,engineeredwoodisbecomingverycommoninindustrializedcountries.

Woodisaproductoftrees,andsometimesotherfibrousplants,usedforconstructionpurposeswhencutorpressedintolumberandtimber,suchasboards,planksandsimilarmaterials.Itisagenericbuildingmaterialandisusedinbuildingjustaboutanytypeofstructureinmostclimates.Woodcanbeveryflexibleunderloads,keepingstrengthwhilebending,andisincrediblystrongwhencompressedvertically.Therearemanydifferingqualitiestothedifferenttypesofwood,evenamongsametreespecies.Thismeansspecificspeciesarebettersuitedforvarioususesthanothers.Andgrowingconditionsareimportantfordecidingquality.

"Timber"isthetermusedforconstructionpurposesexcepttheterm"lumber"isusedintheUnitedStates.Rawwood(alog,trunk,bole)becomestimberwhenthewoodhasbeen"converted"(sawn,hewn,split)intheformsofminimallyprocessedlogsstackedontopofeachother,timberframeconstruction,andlightframeconstruction.Themainproblemswithtimberstructuresarefireriskandmoisturerelatedproblems.

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TheGliwiceRadioTower(thesecondtallestwoodenstructureintheworld)inPoland(2012).

Apileoffiredbricks.

Clayblocks(sometimescalledclayblockbrick)beinglaidwithanadhesiveratherthanmortar

Inmoderntimessoftwoodisusedasalowervaluebulkmaterial,whereashardwoodisusuallyusedforfinishingsandfurniture.HistoricallytimberframestructureswerebuiltwithoakinwesternEurope,recentlydouglasfirhasbecomethemostpopularwoodformosttypesofstructuralbuilding.

Manyfamiliesorcommunities,inruralareas,haveapersonalwoodlotfromwhichthefamilyorcommunitywillgrowandharvesttreestobuildwithorsell.Theselotsaretendedtolikeagarden.Thiswasmuchmoreprevalentinpreindustrialtimes,whenlawsexistedastotheamountofwoodonecouldcutatanyonetimetoensuretherewouldbeasupplyoftimberforthefuture,butisstillaviableformofagriculture.

Manmadesubstances

Firedbricksandclayblocks

Bricksaremadeinasimilarwaytomudbricksexceptwithoutthefibrousbindersuchasstrawandarefired("burned"inabrickclamporkiln)aftertheyhaveairdriedtopermanentlyhardenthem.Kilnfiredclaybricksareaceramicmaterial.Firedbrickscanbesolidorhavehollowcavitiestoaidindryingandmakethemlighterandeasiertotransport.Theindividualbricksareplaceduponeachotherincoursesusingmortar.Successivecoursesbeingusedtobuildupwalls,arches,andotherarchitecturalelements.Firedbrickwallsareusuallysubstantiallythinnerthancob/adobewhilekeepingthesameverticalstrength.Theyrequiremoreenergytocreatebutareeasiertotransportandstore,andarelighterthanstoneblocks.RomansextensivelyusedfiredbrickofashapeandtypenowcalledRomanbricks.[11]Buildingwithbrickgainedmuchpopularityinthemid18thcenturyand19thcenturies.Thiswasduetolowercostswithincreasesinbrickmanufacturingandfiresafetyintheevercrowdingcities.

Thecinderblocksupplementedorreplacedfiredbricksinthelate20thcenturyoftenbeingusedfortheinnerpartsofmasonrywallsandbythemselves.

Structuralclaytiles(clayblocks)areclayorterracottaandtypicallyareperforatedwithholes.

Cementcomposites

Cementbondedcompositesaremadeofhydratedcementpastethatbindswood,particles,orfiberstomakeprecastbuildingcomponents.Variousfiberousmaterials,includingpaper,fiberglass,andcarbonfiberhavebeenusedasbinders.

Woodandnaturalfibersarecomposedofvarioussolubleorganiccompoundslikecarbohydrates,glycosidesandphenolics.Thesecompoundsareknowntoretardcementsetting.Therefore,beforeusingawoodinmakingcementbondedcomposites,itscompatibilitywithcementisassessed.

Woodcementcompatibilityistheratioofaparameterrelatedtothepropertyofawoodcementcompositetothatofaneatcementpaste.Thecompatibilityisoftenexpressedasapercentagevalue.Todeterminewoodcementcompatibility,methodsbasedondifferentpropertiesareused,suchas,hydrationcharacteristics,strength,interfacialbondandmorphology.Variousmethodsareusedbyresearcherssuchasthemeasurementofhydrationcharacteristicsofacementaggregatemix[12][13][14]thecomparisonofthemechanicalpropertiesofcementaggregatemixes[15][16]

andthevisualassessmentofmicrostructuralpropertiesofthewoodcementmixes.[17]Ithasbeenfoundthatthehydrationtestbymeasuringthechangeinhydrationtemperaturewithtimeisthemostconvenientmethod.Recently,Karadeetal.[18]havereviewedthesemethodsofcompatibilityassessmentandsuggestedamethodbasedonthematurityconcepti.e.takinginconsiderationbothtimeandtemperatureofcementhydrationreaction.

BrickswerelaidinlimemortarfromthetimeoftheRomansuntilsupplantedbyPortlandcementmortarintheearly20thcentury.Cementblocksalsosometimesarefilledwithgroutorcoveredwithapargecoat.

Concrete

Concreteisacompositebuildingmaterialmadefromthecombinationofaggregateandabindersuchascement.ThemostcommonformofconcreteisPortlandcementconcrete,whichconsistsofmineralaggregate(generallygravelandsand),portlandcementandwater.

Aftermixing,thecementhydratesandeventuallyhardensintoastonelikematerial.Whenusedinthegenericsense,thisisthematerialreferredtobytheterm"concrete".

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FalkirkWheel

FoamedplasticsheettobeusedasbackingforfirestopmortaratCIBCbankinToronto.

Foraconcreteconstructionofanysize,asconcretehasaratherlowtensilestrength,itisgenerallystrengthenedusingsteelrodsorbars(knownasrebars).Thisstrengthenedconcreteisthenreferredtoasreinforcedconcrete.Inordertominimiseanyairbubbles,thatwouldweakenthestructure,avibratorisusedtoeliminateanyairthathasbeenentrainedwhentheliquidconcretemixispouredaroundtheironwork.Concretehasbeenthepredominantbuildingmaterialinthemodernageduetoitslongevity,formability,andeaseoftransport.Recentadvancements,suchasinsulatingconcreteforms,combinetheconcreteformingandotherconstructionsteps(installationofinsulation).Allmaterialsmustbetakeninrequiredproportionsasdescribedinstandards.

Fabric

Thetentisthehomeofchoiceamongnomadicgroupsallovertheworld.Twowellknowntypesincludetheconicalteepeeandthecircularyurt.Thetenthasbeenrevivedasamajorconstructiontechniquewiththedevelopmentoftensilearchitectureandsyntheticfabrics.Modernbuildingscanbemadeofflexiblematerialsuchasfabricmembranes,andsupportedbyasystemofsteelcables,rigidorinternal,orbyairpressure.

Foam

Recently,syntheticpolystyreneorpolyurethanefoamhasbeenusedincombinationwithstructuralmaterials,suchasconcrete.Itislightweight,easilyshaped,andanexcellentinsulator.Foamisusuallyusedaspartofastructuralinsulatedpanel,whereinthefoamissandwichedbetweenwoodorcementorinsulatingconcreteforms.

Glass

Glassmakingisconsideredanartformaswellasanindustrialprocessormaterial.

Clearwindowshavebeenusedsincetheinventionofglasstocoversmallopeningsinabuilding.Glasspanesprovidedhumanswiththeabilitytobothletlightintoroomswhileatthesametimekeepinginclementweatheroutside.

Glassisgenerallymadefrommixturesofsandandsilicates,inaveryhotfirestovecalledakiln,andisverybrittle.Additivesareoftenincludedthemixtureusedtoproduceglasswithshadesofcolorsorvariouscharacteristics(suchasbulletproofglassorlightemittance).

Theuseofglassinarchitecturalbuildingshasbecomeverypopularinthemodernculture.Glass"curtainwalls"canbeusedtocovertheentirefacadeofabuilding,oritcanbeusedtospanoverawideroofstructureina"spaceframe".Theseusesthoughrequiresomesortofframetoholdsectionsofglasstogether,asglassbyitselfistoobrittleandwouldrequireanoverlylargekilntobeusedtospansuchlargeareasbyitself.

Glassbrickswereinventedintheearly20thcentury.

Gypcrete

Gypcreteisamixtureofgypsumplasterandfibreglassrovings.Althoughplasterandfibresfiborousplasterhavebeenusedformanyyears,especiallyforceilings,itwasnotuntiltheearly1990sthatseriousstudiesofthestrengthandqualitiesofawallingsystemRapidwall,usingamixtureofgypsumplasterand300mmplusfibreglassrovings,wereinvestigated.Itwasdiscovered,throughtestingattheUniversityofAdelaide,thatthesewallshadsignificant,loadbearing,shearandlateralresistancetogetherwithearthquakeresistance,fireresistance,andthermalproperties.Withanabundanceofgypsum(naturallyoccurringandbyproductchemicalFGDandphosphogypsums)availableworldwide,gypcretebasedbuildingproducts,whicharefullyrecyclable,offersignificantenvironmentalbenefits.

Metal

Metalisusedasstructuralframeworkforlargerbuildingssuchasskyscrapers,orasanexternalsurfacecovering.Therearemanytypesofmetalsusedforbuilding.MetalfiguresquiteprominentlyinprefabricatedstructuressuchastheQuonsethut,andcanbeseenusedinmostcosmopolitancities.Itrequiresagreatdealofhumanlabortoproducemetal,especiallyinthelargeamountsneededforthebuildingindustries.Corrosionismetal'sprimeenemywhenitcomestolongevity.

Steelisametalalloywhosemajorcomponentisiron,andistheusualchoiceformetalstructuralbuildingmaterials.Itisstrong,flexible,andifrefinedwelland/ortreatedlastsalongtime.

Thelowerdensityandbettercorrosionresistanceofaluminiumalloysandtinsometimesovercometheirgreatercost.

Copperisavaluedbuildingmaterialbecauseofitsadvantageousproperties(see:Copperinarchitecture).Theseincludecorrosionresistance,durability,lowthermalmovement,lightweight,radiofrequencyshielding,lightningprotection,sustainability,recyclability,andawiderangeoffinishes.Copperisincorporatedintoroofing,flashing,gutters,downspouts,domes,spires,vaults,wallcladding,building

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CopperbelfryofSt.Laurentiuschurch,BadNeuenahrAhrweiler

PlasticpipespenetratingaconcretefloorinaCanadianhighriseapartmentbuilding

expansionjoints,andindoordesignelements.

Othermetalsusedincludechrome,gold,silver,andtitanium.Titaniumcanbeusedforstructuralpurposes,butitismuchmoreexpensivethansteel.Chrome,gold,andsilverareusedasdecoration,becausethesematerialsareexpensiveandlackstructuralqualitiessuchastensilestrengthorhardness.

Plastics

Theterm"plastics"coversarangeofsyntheticorsemisyntheticorganiccondensationorpolymerizationproductsthatcanbemoldedorextrudedintoobjects,films,orfibers.Theirnameisderivedfromthefactthatintheirsemiliquidstatetheyaremalleable,orhavethepropertyofplasticity.Plasticsvaryimmenselyinheattolerance,hardness,andresiliency.Combinedwiththisadaptability,thegeneraluniformityofcompositionandlightnessofplasticsensurestheiruseinalmostallindustrialapplicationstoday.

Papersandmembranes

Buildingpapersandmembranesareusedformanyreasonsinconstruction.Oneoftheoldestbuildingpapersisredrosinpaperwhichwasknowntobeinusebefore1850andwasusedasanunderlaymentinexteriorwalls,roofs,andfloorsandforprotectingajobsiteduringconstruction.Tarpaperwasinventedlateinthe19thcenturyandwasusedforsimilarpurposesasrosinpaperandforgravelroofs.Tarpaperhaslargelyfallenoutofusesupplantedbyasphaltfeltpaper.Feltpaperhasbeensupplantedinsomeusesbysyntheticunderlayments,particularlyinroofingbysyntheticunderlaymentsandsidingbyhousewraps.

Thereareawidevarietyofdampproofingandwaterproofingmembranesusedforroofing,basementwaterproofing,andgeomembranes.

Ceramics

FiredclaybrickshavebeenusedsincethetimeoftheRomans.Specialtilesareusedforroofing,siding,flooring,ceilings,pipes,flueliners,andmore.

Buildingproducts

Inthemarketplacetheterm"buildingproducts"oftenreferstoreadymadeparticles/sections,madefromvariousmaterials,thatarefittedinarchitecturalhardwareanddecorativehardwarepartsofabuilding.Thelistofbuildingproductsexcludesthebuildingmaterialsusedtoconstructthebuildingarchitectureandsupportingfixtures,likewindows,doors,cabinets,etc.Buildingproducts,rather,supportandmakebuildingmaterialsworkinamodularfashion.

"Buildingproducts"mayalsorefertoitemsusedtoputsuchhardwaretogether,suchascaulking,glues,paint,andanythingelseboughtforthepurposeofconstructingabuilding.

Testingandcertification

ASTMInternationalUL(safetyorganization)ETLSEMKOBuildingProductTestingLaboratoryintheUSA,partofIntertek,basedinLondonNTAIncBuildingProductCertificationAgencybasedinNappanee,Indiana,USA

Seealso

BiocidalnaturalbuildingmaterialListofbuildingmaterialsPhenomenology(architecture)Materiality(architecture)ThermalemittanceThermalmassPrefabrication

References1. "building"def.2and4,"material"def.1.OxfordEnglishDictionarySecondEditiononCDROM(v.4.0)OxfordUniversityPress2009

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Externallinks

MediarelatedtoBuildingmaterialsatWikimediaCommons

MaterialesdeConstruccin(http://materconstrucc.revistas.csic.es)Bilingual(Spanish/English)ScientificjournalpublishedbyConsejoSuperiordeInvestigacionesCientficas,Spain.InformesdelaConstruccin(http://informesdelaconstruccion.revistas.csic.es)ScientificjournalpublishedbyConsejoSuperiordeInvestigacionesCientficas,Spain.

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