an evaluation of marcotting techniques on

AN EVALUATION OF MARCOTTING TECHNIQUES ON

BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus altilis) VARIETY, ‘BALE KANA’

FOR IMPROVED MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTING

MATERIALS IN FIJI.

by

ILISONI LASAQA VUETINABOUONO LEWENIQILA

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Agriculture

Copyright © 2013 by Ilisoni Lasaqa Vuetinabouono Leweniqila

School of Agriculture Food and Technology

Faculty of Business and Economics

The University of the South Pacific

November, 2013

Declaration of Authenticity

Statement by Author

I, Ilisoni Lasaqa Vuetinabouono Leweniqila, declare that this thesis is my own work and

that, to the best of my knowledge, it contains no material previously published, or

substantially overlapping with material submitted for the award on any other degree at

any institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text.

Signature……………………………………Date…...……..…………………..

Name……………………………………………………………………………..

Student ID..........................................……………….…………..………………

Statement by Supervisor

The research in this thesis was performed under my supervision and to my knowledge is

the sole work of Mr. Ilisoni Lasaqa Vuetinabouono Leweniqila.

Signature……………………………………Date…...……..……………………

Name……………………… … ………………………………………………….

Designation..........................................……………….…………..………………

Mr Falaniko Amosa

Senior Lecturer for Crop Sciences

21/11/2013

Ilisoni.L.V.Leweniqila

S11051034

21/11/2013

iii

Dedication

“Proverbs 1:7, 33-To have knowledge, you must first have reverence for the Lord. Stupid

people have no respect for wisdom and refuse to learn. But whoever listens to me will have security.

He will be safe, with no reason to be afraid.”

To my dear parents (Peleki and Sokoveti Leweniqila)

For their indefatigable struggle in carrying me this far, to you both, I am indebted

for everything you have provided throughout my academic years, you sacrificed

everything and ensure that I got the privilege; it is an honor to have

parents like you. This thesis is the result of your labor and toil for me over the

years.

iv

Acknowledgement

No form of accomplishment in life is ever the result of individual isolated effort, but the

product of the contribution and corporate support of many people in our lives. First and

foremost, I would like to thank my Almighty God for bringing me through these

challenging times and has never failed me. Words cannot express the feeling of joy of

achieving a goal after so many struggles; all I can say is “THANK YOU LORD”. You

deserve the glory and all credit for my life.

Furthermore, this study would not have been possible without the support of numerous

people and organizations. In particular the Australian Center for International

Agriculture Research (ACIAR) for funding the study and the Pacific Breadfruit team

who tirelessly worked on the development of the proposal and implementation of the

trial itself. Without this there would have not been sufficient information to undertake

necessary quantitative analysis.

The following staff contributed substantially to the study: The University of the South

Pacific (USP) lecturers, Mr. Falaniko Amosa my internal supervisor. Dr Adama

Ebenebe, Mr. David Hunter and Mr. Sanjay Nand I say fa’afetaitele lava for your

continuous support and guidance.

A big “Vinaka vakalevu” to the numerous staff of the Ministry of Primary industries

(MPI), particularly the research and extension divisions. Last but not least I would like

to thank all my colleagues of 2013 at Alafua Campus.

v

LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NUMBERS

Figure 1.1: Fresh breadfruit exports to New Zealand…….………………. 3

Figure 2.1: Map of sigatoka research station showing location of experimental site……..………………………….…………… 16

Figure 3.1: Monthly averages of rainfall, temperature, and relative humidity

for Sigatoka Research Station…………………..…..…..….... 18

Figure 4.1 Onset of root growth on marcotted branches was affected by marcotting medium……………………………………..….... 25

Figure 4.2 Root ball percentages at harvest were affected by marcotting

media…………………………………………...…………..... 26

Figure 4.3 Time/days taken for marcotts to be harvested was affected by media………………………………………………………… 28

Figure 4.4 Time/days taken for marcotts to be harvested was affected by

media………………………………………………………… 29 Figure 4.5 Onset of root growth on marcotted branches was affected by

marcotting medium………………………………………...... 30 Figure 4.6 Root ball percentages at harvest………………..……………. 31 Figure 4.7 Effects of branch location and branch sizes on the number of

successful marcotts produced……………………………...... 32

vi

LIST OF APPENDICES PAGE NUMBER

Appendix 1: Balekana Breadfruit Germplasm – Field plan…………….. 39 Appendix 2: Twelveweeks of data collection on Experiment 1…...... 40 - 42

Appendix 3: Twelveweeks of data collection on Experiment 2...….. 43 - 45

Appendix 4: Photographs on the setting of marcott trials………….. 46 - 51

Appendix 5: Analysis of variance of the two experiments……………… 52

Appendix 6: Experiment 1 - Genstats analysis result on the means of the success marcotts……………………………………….... 53 - 55

Appendix 7: Experiment 2: Anova on two Branch location and two Branch sizes…...................................................................................... 56

Appendix 8: Chemical characteristics of the Breadfruit trial site………... 57

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………….………… ix ABBREVIATION……………………..………………………………………….……. x CHAPTER 1………………………………………………………………...................... 1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..……....…. 1 - 4 CHAPTER 2………….……………………………………………..………………..…. 5 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………...……5 2.1 Historical Background of Breadfruit………………………………………….…..... 5 2.2 Factors That Affect Breadfruit Growth…………………………........…………….. 5 2.2.1 Climatic Factors………………...................................................................... 6 2.2.2 Ground Water Level and its Salinity.………………………………………..6 2.2.3 Types of Soil and Soil Fertility.……………………………………………. 6 2.2.4 Exposure to Salt Water Spray……………………………………………… 7 2.2.5 Location of Human Settlement………………………………………..….…7 2.3 Methods of Propagating Breadfruit Tree.……………….…………………………. 7 2.3.1 Root Suckers……………………………………………….……………....... 8 2.3.2 Root Cuttings…………………………………………………………..….…. 8 2.3.3 Propagation by Marcotting.………………………………………………….. 9 2.3.4 Use of Rooting Hormones in Breadfruit Marcotting……………….….. 10 - 11 2.4 Effect of Branch Size on Marcotting……….……………………………………. 11 2.5 Propagation by Seeds………………….……………………………………….…. 12 2.6 Planting of young breadfruit shoots onto the Field.………………………….…… 12 2.7 Planting Material Collection in Fiji………………………………………..… 13 - 14 CHAPTER 3…………………………………………………………………………....15 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………………….......15 3.1 Location of the Study.…………………………………………………………... 15 3.1.1 Site Characteristics….………………………………………………….……... 15 3.1.2 Rainfall……….………………………………………………………….…..... 17 3.1.3 Relative Humidity…………….………………………………………………. 17 3.1.4 Air Temperature……….………………………………………….…………... 17 3.1.5 Soil Fertility…………………………………………………………………... 18 3.2 Field Experiments……………...….……………………………………………… 19 3.2.1 Field Experiment1:Evaluation on the effects of the four marcotting media….. 19 3.2.2 Objectives of Field Experiment One……………………………………….…. 19 3.2.3 Null-Hypotheses of Field Experiment One…………………………………… 19 3.2.4 Experiment Design……………………………………………………………. 21 3.2.5 Treatment Design……………….…………………………………………….. 20 3.3 Field Experiment 2: Evaluation study of two marcotted branch locations and size 21 3.2.2 Objectives of Field Experiment Two……………………………………….… 21 3.2.3 Null-Hypotheses of Field Experiment Two…………………………………... 21 3.2.4 Experiment Design………………………………………………………….… 22 3.2.5 Treatment Design…………………..…………………………………………. 22 3.4 Data collection………………………………………………………….……. 22 - 23

viii

3.5 Statistical Analysis………………………...……………………………………… 23 CHAPTER 4……………………………………………………………………..……. 24 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS…………………………………………………..….. 24 4.1 Field Experiment 1: Evaluation of the effects of the four marcotting media on the following………………………………………………………..………………….….. 24 4.1.1 Time taken to the onset of first root growth…………………………….... 24 - 25 4.1.2 Percent root ball on marcotts at harvest………………………………...... 25 - 26 4.1.3 Time taken to the harvest of the marcotts……………………………….... 27 - 28 4.1.4 The numbers of successful marcotts………………………………………..28 -29 4.2 Experiment 2: Comparison study of the two branch sizes and branch locations…...30 4.2.1 Time taken to onset of new roots……..………………………………….…. …30 4.2.2 Percent root ball on marcotts at harvest…………………………………......… 31 4.2.3 Number of successful marcotts…………………………………………..…… .32 4.2.4 Time taken to harvest a successful marcotts……………………………........... 33 CHAPTER 5………………………………………………………………….….......... 34 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………….. 34 - 35 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………….... 36 - 38 APPENDICES……………………………………………………...…………..… 39 - 57

ix

ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of different ‘techniques’ on the breadfruit variety ‘Bale kana’ to improve marcotting multiplication of planting materials in Fiji. Two trials were established at one trial site because of the young age and small sizes of the mother trees available at the time.

The first trial evaluated the effects of four (4) different marcotting media on the onset of first root growth; root mass at harvest; time to harvest of marcotts; and percent success. The marcotting media used were Control Medium (peat moss); Medium 1 (peat moss plus 10% sphagnum moss); Medium 2 (Peat moss with 10% sphagnum moss and liquid rooting hormone); and Medium 3 (peat moss plus 10% sphagnum moss plus powdered hormone) were randomly assigned to the 21 experimental blocks where each available breadfruit mother tree was treated as a block in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Results showed there was an effect of marcotting media on the onset of the first root growth; root mass at harvest; earliness of harvest; and on the total number of successful marcotts (P<0.05). Results showed that marcotting Medium 2 although not statistically different from the Control Medium provided the highest percentage of root mass at harvest, earliest harvest of marcotts and the highest total number of successful marcotts. This fast root appearance and growth is thought to be due to the medium’s good water holding capacity and the use of liquid rooting hormone which provided ideal conditions for good root growth. Field conditions during the time of the experiment were also favorable with high relative humidity (< 80%) and temperatures 30 – 32oC (Steward, 2012).

The second trial aimed to determine the effects of two branch sizes and two branch locations (high and low) on the onset of first root growth; root mass at harvest; time to harvest of marcotts; and percent success. The 4 treatment combinations (size & locations) were randomly allocated to the 21 experimental blocks where each available breadfruit mother tree was treated as a block using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Results showed that the big branches (3.5 to 4.5 cm in diameter) performed better than small branches (P<0.05). The onset of the first root growth in big branches was 10 days earlier; marcotts from big branches produced 3.2 times more root mass at harvest; and 2.2 times more successful marcotts. However, branch size did not affect time to harvest of marcotts at the 100% root ball stage. There was also no effect due to location of branches on the mother trees. The better performance of big branches is suggested to be due to a higher amount of carbohydrates in the big branches although not measured in this work (Stice, 2013).

x

ABBREVIATION

ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

DAM Dead after Marcotting

F.A.O Food and Agriculture Organization

FJD Fiji Dollar

HTFA High Temperature Forced Air

IA Indole Acetic Acid

LSD Least Significant Differences

PARDI Pacific Agribusiness Research for Development Initiative

PBP Pacific Breadfruit Project

RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design

RH Relative Humidity

TRTC Tutu Rural Training Centre

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), belongs to the botanical family of ‘Moreceae’

and has been grown throughout the Pacific region for millennia. According to

the Fiji Agricultural Census carried out in 1992, a total of 182,000 plants are

grown in the Fiji group. The tree grows between 12 to 15 meters in height and

can grow up to 21 meters (Ragone& Taylor, 2007).

Breadfruit is a cultural icon in the Pacific. Parts of the tree being used

medicinally, especially the latex, leaf tips, and inner bark. The wood is

lightweight, flexible, and resist to termites. It is used for buildings and for

making small canoes. The attractive wood is easily carved into statues, bowls,

and other objects or utilized as firewood throughout the region. The inner bark

is used to make bark cloth (tapa, siapo), but this formerly widespread custom is

now only practiced in the Marquesas. Large, flexible leaves are used to wrap

food for cooking in earth ovens. The sticky white latex is used as chewing gum

and as an adhesive and was widely used to caulk canoes and also as birdlime (to

catch birds). Dried male flowers can be burned to repel mosquitoes and other

flying insects (Bower, 1981).

Breadfruit grows in a wide range of ecological conditions and soil types. The

crop is found to be grown from sea level to an altitude of 1066m and

temperature ranging from 150C-37.80C. The apparent adaptability of the crop to

variable environmental conditions makes it an important crop in the face of

climate change and creates great potential for food security (Ragone, 1997).

In 1769, Sir Joseph Banks traveling with Captain James Cook to Tahiti

recognized the potential of breadfruit as a food crop for other tropical regions.

His observation was “if a man plants ten (breadfruit) trees in his life, which he

2

can do in about an hour, he would completely fulfill his duty to his own as well

as future generations,” This observation prompted the infamous voyage by the

HMS Bounty to collect breadfruit plants for introduction as a food source for

the British Colonies in the Caribbean. Unfortunately, in one frenzied moment,

riotous mutineers tossed overboard hundreds of breadfruit plants meticulously

collected by Captain Bligh’s gardeners and crew. Subsequent voyages were

more successful and breadfruit has been cultivated in the Caribbean and other

tropical regions since the late 1700s (Barrau, 1957).

Fiji has been exporting breadfruit to New Zealand since 2001(Figure 1). In

more recent years, these exports have oscillated around 10 tonnes annually

(McGregor, 2006).While these exports are a fraction of identified market

demand, it is proven that high temperature forced air (HTFA) treated breadfruit

will increase levels of breadfruit exports. According to the Nature’s Way

Cooperative Strategic Plan (2002-2006), Fiji should by now be exporting well

in excess of 200 tonnes of breadfruit annually. Experience in Fiji has shown that

the main reason why breadfruit exports have remained at a disappointingly low

level is that breadfruit is still harvested from the wild and also from the village

gardens.

Growing breadfruit as a crop in orchards will allow efficient production, easier

harvesting and an extended harvesting season contributing to food security. It is

estimated that a market approaching a thousand tonnes exporting to New

Zealand, Australia and the United States could realistically be developed over

the next decade. This would represent export earnings of around FJD 3 million

and farm income in the order of FJD 1 to FJD 1.5 million. This income would

be distributed amongst considerable numbers of rural households (McGregor

etal., 2007).

3

The breadfruit industry will have the potential to provide an extended food

security and an economic security by supplementing incomes of farmers who

depend largely on sugar cane as a source of income. Thus, the likely economic

and social impacts from this project are considerable. Therefore, there is a need

to promote the growing of breadfruit as a crop in orchards for those reasons, if

the breadfruit industry in Fiji is to realize the market potential of the crop. Since

we are harvesting from the wild and village gardens, the breadfruit export is not

meeting the demand required from markets in New Zealand and the United

State of America. Therefore, in order to plant breadfruit as a crop on orchards,

marcotting propagation is the planting techniques that will provide rapid

multiplication of breadfruit planting materials. In addition, the fruiting of

breadfruit plants will take 1.5 years with 3 harvesting periods a year.

On the other hand, while a foreseeable likely problem with insufficient supply

of good quality planting materials for growing breadfruit in orchards,

‘marcotting’ is predicted to rapidly increase production of good quality planting

material. Propagating plants by marcotts (air layering) is becoming popular as

it can produce a shorter tree that can start to bear fruit in 1.5 years compared to

Figure 1.1: Fresh Breadfruit Exports to New Zealand (2001-2005)

(Source: Nature’s way, 2005)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Tonnes

4

plants obtained from root suckers and root cuttings, which produce seedling

trees that are known to be slower producers or slow in fruiting (Stice, 2013).

This research study was to evaluate the ‘marcotting techniques’ on breadfruit

variety ‘Bale kana’ and also to improve multiplication of planting materials in

Fijifor improved commercial nursery practices. Bale kana variety was selected

because they could bear fruit 3 times a year and also their winning taste and

demand in overseas but most of all they are tolerant to cyclone. This project is a

full Australia Center for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR) Small

Research and Development Activity under the Pacific Agribusiness Research

for Development Initiative (PARDI) titled ‘Developing commercial breadfruit

production systems for the Pacific islands (PARDI/2010/005)’.

5

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical Background of Breadfruit

The breadfruit tree has a large center of origin, which includes the indo- Malaya

archipelago and New Guinea and extends northward as far as western

Micronesia (Coenen et al., 1961). It was first introduced into Europe by Spanish

navigators about the sixteenth century (Kanehira, 1931). However, breadfruit

only became well known when the British government dispatched two

expeditions, both commanded by Captain William Bligh, to obtain breadfruit

cuttings from Tahiti to be transplanted into the West Indies (Purseglove, 1968),

a famous event in British botanical exploration.

The ‘Bounty’, which was sent first, left Spithead on the 23rd December 1787

and arrived at Tahiti on the 26th October 1788 (Purseglove, 1968). Bligh

remained on Tahiti until 4th April 1789, when he sailed with 1,015 breadfruit

and other plants in 774 pots, 39 tubs and 24 boxes.

The mutiny created worldwide interest, not only in itself, but also in breadfruit.

Bligh returned to Tahiti in 1792 on board the ‘Providence’ for the second

exploration, and successfully carried 120 samples to St. Vincent and Jamaica

(Kanehira, 1931). According to Alexander (2009), the original breadfruit tree

planted by Bligh in 1793 still stands in the Botanical Gardens in St Vincent. In

1966, Queen Elizabeth planted a scion from it nearby.

2.2 Factors That Affect Breadfruit Growth

The distribution of breadfruit is governed by the factors of climate, ground

water level and salinity, soil type and fertility, exposure to salt water spray

and the location of human settlement.

6

2.2.1 Climatic Factors

Breadfruit a tropic plant that can be grown in low land conditions throughout

the Pacific islands. This is the case with most countries of the south pacific

with the exception of New Zealand where the temperature is low

(Goodman,1972).According to Purseglove (1968), the breadfruit tree is a tree

of hot ,humid tropical lowland and does best in insular climate with an

annual rainfall of 1.52-2.54 meter and temperature of around 220C.

2.2.2 Ground Water Level and its Salinity

Breadfruit need much water for growth (Bailey, 1950), however the most

important growth factor, is the salinity of the ground water. Trujillo (1971), has

reported that most species of breadfruit do not tolerate salinity, whether in

ground water, or in soil . He went on to mention that breadfruit is the least

tolerant member of the flora to salinity. The same author reported that

breadfruit tree do not grow where the ground water has a content higher

than 200 to 400ppm of chlorine . However ,these chlorine level are much

higher than most plants can tolerate. This may explain the repeated

appearance of contradictory information in the literature where some

authors have claimed that breadfruit can tolerate salinity. The fact is, salinity

tolerance varies between breadfruit varieties.

2.2.3 Types of Soil and Soil Fertility

Breadfruit can grow in a variety of soils, provided they are of sufficient

depth and are not waterlogged (Purseglove,1968). This characteristic of

breadfruit explains its distribution throughout the Pacific islands from high

islands to the atolls (Goodman 1972).

7

2.2.4 Exposure to Salt Water Spray

Salt water spray posed the most serious problem for plants grown at coastal

areas, especially during times of hurricanes or strong winds from the coast. As

mentioned earlier, breadfruit trees grow very well on sandy soil in coastal areas

because of the soils perfect drainage to ground water. However, these positions

make them more exposed to strong winds and salt water spray. The effect is,

either the plant is destroyed by strong wind or suffers from die-back due to salt

spray which exceeds its tolerance limit.

2.2.5 Location of Human Settlements

As most settlements of Fiji and Samoa are located around the coastal areas,

people utilize these conditions to propagate the trees both for food and for

ornamental purposes. This is very convenient for the people during the fruiting

seasons, when food is available. Such situations had been observed by the early

Pacific navigators which made them believe, “A breadfruit is a symbol of

abundance and easy living in the South Seas Islands” (Barrau 1954).

2.3 Methods of Propagating Breadfruit Trees

Polynesian countries have been reported to have the largest number of

breadfruit cultivars, yet very little scientific breeding of breadfruit plants are

done at these places (Purseglove, 1968). This creates interest in the traditional

methods of breadfruit propagation in these places since these are the only

methods available for the crop. Breadfruit is a seed bearing plant however, it is

normally propagated vegetatively by Polynesian farmers since sexual seedlings

are genetically different from the parental plants and would not have all the

desired characteristics of the parent plants.

The three common ways to vegetatively propagate breadfruit trees are:

1. Root suckers

2. Root cuttings

3. Marcotting also known as Aerial layering.

8

2.3.1. Root Suckers Mature breadfruit trees have roots close to the surface. New shoots or ‘suckers’

grow from these roots, especially when the roots are wounded. Some varieties

produce more root suckers than others. The Fijian variety Bale kana is one

such variety.

Propagation technique for Root Suckers:

The following is a description by Nature’s Way Cooperative (2005:10):

When the shoot is more than 0.3 meter high, roots are cut 100 mm on

either side of the sucker. Using a spade gently lift the cut section of root

together with the sucker from the ground. The complete plant can be

removed and planted in a damp shaded area in a nursery. It should

remain in the nursery until it has developed a strong root system of its

own. The young plant can be planted directly into the new orchard if it

is well watered and cared for. It should not be allowed to wilt. If

directly transplanted into the field, the sucker should be placed in a hole

containing plenty of organic material.

2.3.2 Root Cuttings

Propagation technique for root cuttings:

The following is an explanation of this technique by Mackenzie (et al., 1964):

It is best to collect roots after the fruiting season is over and when the

tree is in an active vegetative stage, producing new leaves. Listed below

are the procedures:

� Select healthy roots growing slightly below the soil that are 1.5

to 6 cm in diameter (3-4 cm is best).

� Cut roots into 12 to 30 cm long sections. Roots should be

scrubbed clean and kept moist.

9

� Root cuttings are then planted directly into the ground in loose,

organic soil or in a pot with well-drained soil. Roots can be

oriented horizontally below the surface of the soil or diagonally

with the upper few centimeters exposed to air.

� Make sure that the end that is cut from closest to tree is the one

that goes into the ground. To avoid confusion, the tip end

should be cut diagonally.

2.3.3 Propagation by Marcotting

There is limited information available in the literature on propagation of

breadfruit by marcotting. However, this method is described by Nature’s Way

Cooperative (2005), in their breadfruit manual and listed below are the

procedures:

� In this method of propagation, a young shoot coming off a branch is

selected and girdled about 30cm below the leaves.

� The bark around this branch is stripped (75 mm long) and the soft

cambium under the bark is removed, using a sharp knife.

� Squeeze the soil mixture firmly into shape; adjust the wrapping so that

it holds the marcotting mixture tightly. A piece of clear plastic is cut to

a convenient size is held in one hand and apply the damp growth

medium evenly around the stem. The growth medium should be damp,

but not so wet that water can be squeezed out of it. Using one of the

pre-cut rubber strips, wind it tightly two or three times around the

branch so that it holds the plastic sleeve tightly in place.

� Clear plastic enables root development to be observed so that the

branch can be cut from the parent tree at the correct time. Encase the

growth medium within the plastic wrapping.

During the next few months, roots will grow out into the damp growth medium.

When this happens, the branch can be cut below the roots at the bottom rubber

10

tie before the growth medium dries out. The bandage and ties are removed, and

the rooted cutting planted in a nursery area or a plastic bag where it can be

watered and easily cared for. The nursery planting medium should be course

weathered sand mixed with organic matter. Avoid the use of fine sand or sand

that has been sourced close to the sea. While in the nursery, the roots will

continue to develop. After a few weeks in the nursery the healthy plant will be

ready for planting.

2.3.4 Use of Rooting Hormones in Breadfruit Marcotting There are just a few studies on the use of rooting hormones on marcotting in

breadfruit reported in the literature.

Lopez (1975) reported the use of rooting hormones in breadfruit marcotting and

stem cuttings under controlled environment resulted in 95% of the marcotts and

cuttings producing sufficient root, shoot growth and stem elongation after ten

weeks. This early growth he found coincided with the highest levels of stored

carbohydrates in the mother plant and it inhibited the development of lateral

buds allowing the new plant maintain apical dominance. In the same study,

Lopez also proved that removed newly developed shoots from root cuttings

treated with rooting hormone and grown in sand were ready for field

transplanting after 6 months.

Hamilton et al. (1982) also demonstrated that the use of rooting hormones in

marcotting of breadfruit increased rooting. This, he explained, was due to the

action of the hormone, Indole Acetic Acid (IA) in root growth and

development.

Cerveny and Gibson at the University of Florida-Milton (2005) studied the

effectiveness of powdered rooting hormones and liquid hormones on stems

cuttings. In that work they found powdered forms of rooting hormones

generally less effective than liquid formulation applied at the same

concentration. They further added, marcotting media with rooting hormone

11

facilitate rooting, where cultural practices or environmental conditions are not

ideal and also in the propagation of moderate and difficult-to-root species.

In a more recent work the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the

United Nations in 2012 reported a study on the effects of marcotting media and

branch size on rooting and that was carried out in China, Thailand, India, and

Bangladesh. The results of that work showed, the medium consisting of 100

percent peat moss and medium mixed with rooting hormone improved rooting

of marcotts and resulted in more than 90 percent of the success rate.

Findings by Steward (2012) on his marcotting work with avocado explained

early rooting was due to the high relative humidity experienced in the research

area and the inclusion of rooting hormone which enhanced rooting.

2.4 Effect of Branch Size on Marcotting

Menzel (1991) in Southern Queensland studied the effects of size of breadfruit

branches on the success of marcotting. That work proved that big breadfruit

branches at the upper location on mature trees produce more successful

marcotts. Menzel explained this success was due to the age of the branches and

their high contents of carbohydrates that available for rooting.

Results from the same research cited above, the FAO report (2012) further

showed that the best rooting was obtained from sun-lit big branches on mature

trees. Marcotts taken from thin, shaded branches either died or took a longer

time to develop roots.

The support for big branches was further echoed in two personal interviews in

2012 with scientists from the “ACIAR Pacific Breadfruit Project” and the

“Ministry of Primary Industries” in Fiji. Mr. Tora and Mr. Erasito of the

“Pacific Breadfruit Project” have observed higher success in marcotts

performed on big breadfruit branches compared to small branches. Mr. Bole

and Mr.Yashwar of the Sigatoka Research Station confirmed this observation

12

with their experience where they have observed higher success using branch

sizes ranging from 3.5 – 4.5 cm in diameter.

Goebel, (1986) looking at breadfruit reported in his research on fruit trees that

early development of new roots on marcotts did not consistently rely on the size

of branches and their locations on mother trees but depend more on the vigor of

the mother plants. This suggested that the size of the branches collaborates with

vigor of the tree.

2.5 Propagation by Seeds

Although the vegetative methods are commonly used for breadfruit in the field,

it should be noted that breadfruit can be propagated by seed. The breadfruit

seed is taken and planted. Traditionally, this usually happened when visitors

returned to their home islands and took a seed of varieties they did not have.

Usually, the seeds are left to sprout under the breadfruit trees, and then they are

dug up and moved to a new location when ready. Seed propagation takes years

for trees to fruit, therefore, propagation by seeds is not applicable for

commercialization due to being time consuming (Mackenzie, 1960).

2.6 Planting of young breadfruit shoots onto the Field

Young breadfruit plants prepared by the above methods are usually planted

between seasons of harvest, mostly during rainy seasons (Mackenzie et al.,

1964). In Fiji, breadfruit should be planted in well enriched soil holes around

40cm deep and 50cm wide. In the Caribbean, breadfruit is planted at a distance

of around 8 to 12 meters. A wider spacing should be considered in Fiji for

disease control and to allow for intercropping. The Breadfruit Institute

recommended a 12-14 meter distances for orchard planting in the Pacific

Islands (McGregor et al., 2007). A linear orchard may be considered for

farmers who plant trees in a single row along the boundary of their land or

beside a river or creek.

13

2.7 Planting Material Collection in Fiji

A major component of the Pacific Breadfruit Project (PBP) is the mass

propagation of preferred variety of breadfruit trees that will enable the

establishment of orchards (Tora, 2011:2). This propagation activity is led by the

Nursery specialist Wais Bole. The propagation techniques used are marcotting

and the use of root suckers. The preferred varieties that are being targeted for

mass propagation are Uto Dina and Bale kana, because of their high demand in

overseas market because of their quality and taste. Uto Dina is commonly found

on Viti Levu and in the Nadi area whereas; bale kana variety is normally found

in the Cakaudrove province that includes Vanua Levu and Taveuni.

Marcotting began in the Nacocolevu area in October 2011 and some of the

marcotts have now been removed from the tree, potted in poly bags and are

recovering in the nursery.

Early indications are that 50% of Bale Kana variety success rate will be

achieved. At the Sigatoka Research Station propagation has been carried out

using the air layering (Tora, 2011:3).

The Pacific Breadfruit Project (PBP) is collaborating with the Tutu Rural

Training Centre (TRTC), Taveuni. Through its adult education training

programmes, TRTC encourages farmers to utilize their land for breadfruit and

improved household’s activities. The 2000 acre Tutu campus located on

Taveuni holds a wide diversity of naturalized breadfruit varieties including

hundreds of trees of the preferred Bale kana variety. The partnership between

Tutu and the Pacific Breadfruit Project exists to train and involve the Tutu staff

and young farmers in propagation technique for breadfruit and provide the

Pacific Breadfruit Project with planting material of the preferred variety, Bale

kana. In November 2011, members of the PBP team travelled to Taveuni on a

five day mission to train young farmers in breadfruit propagation techniques

and collecting planting materials. Over the course of the mission, 263 marcotts

were set around the Tutu Campus and 1000 root suckers were potted. Two

hundred and seventy three of these roots suckers have been transported to Nadi.

14

In addition to that, 115 marcotts and 1026 root suckers were collected on

January 2012 (Erasito, Personal Communication, December, 2011).

15

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Location of the Study

This research was carried out in Fiji. Fiji is a South Pacific island nation in

Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean, about 2000 km northeast of New

Zealand's North Island. Its more immediate neighbors are Vanuatu to the west,

New Caledonia to the southwest, New Zealand's Kermadec to the southeast,

Tonga to the east, Samoa and Wallis and Futuna to the northeast, and Tuvalu to

the north. Fiji comprises of an archipelago of more than 350 islands and islets

of which approximately 110 are inhabited. Fiji is the hub of the South West

Pacific, located between 176o 53’ east and 178o 12’ west. The total land area is

18, 333 sq km. The two major islands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. Fiji

experiences a tropical climate with the rainy season starting from November to

April and the dry season from May to October.

3.1.1 Site Characteristics

The experimental site was Sigatoka Research Station (Figure 3.1). The station is

situated at Nacocolevu in the lower reaches of the Sigatoka River. It is

6kilometers from Sigatoka Town in the province of Nadroga. The station

occupies an area of approximately 332hectares composed of 35hectaresof fertile

alluvial flats and 297ha of hill grazing land.

Weather data was collected daily. Monthly averages for rainfall, relative

humidity, and air temperatures were calculated at the end of each month for that

seven month period of the research.

16

Figure 2.1: Map of Sigatoka Research Station showing location of experimental site

(Source: http:www.placesonline.org)

17

3.1.2 Rainfall The average monthly rainfall (Figure 3.2) in the first four months of the trial

period saw a steady decline in precipitation levels. The dry season from May to

October marks a time of relatively low rainfall throughout the study area. The

trend normally favors an increase in precipitation nearing the wet months from

November to April. The observed rainfall in this region was average

3.1.3 Relative Humidity The relative humidity (RH) is influenced by several factors; the most important

being temperature. Warmer temperatures can cause the air to expand increasing

its maximum vapor pressure; as a result the percentage of the existing water

vapor in the air would decrease. Conversely, cooler temperatures can decrease

the maximum vapor pressure when air particles are closely packed together.

Hence the relative humidity increases as the air becomes saturated. Also water

vapor increases with increasing evaporation. Figure 3.2 shows the relative

humidity to increase with cooler temperatures and decrease with warmer

temperatures. For instance, the RH peaked in June when temperatures

continued to drop in 3 consecutive months. RH had dropped in July despite the

lowest observed temperatures. This drop in RH is due to the fact that July had

been the driest month in the trial period and therefore very little evaporation

occurred. In August, moist conditions and warmer temperatures returned hence

the slight increase in RH compared to the preceding month.

3.1.4 Air Temperature Figure 3.1 shows the normal trend in temperature during the dry season in Sigatoka. The

coolest temperature of 290Cwas recorded in July while the highest of 320C was recorded in

the seasonal transition month of April. Normally, the dry season is cool while the wet season

is warm.

18

Figure 3.1: Monthly averages of rainfall, temperature, and relative humidity for sigatoka research station.

3.1.5 Soil Fertility

Soil samples (Appendix 8) were taken from the trial site and was analyzed at Koronivia

research station. Results showed that the CEC (0.1 cmol/kg) of the area is low, whereas, the

total N (0.3%) was at the medium range. Olsen extractable P level (50mg/kg) in the area is

high and this provides acceptable correlation to the plant uptake. The results of the

exchangeable bases are Ca (2541 cmolc kg -1), Mg (7.741 cmolc kg -1), K (1.4641 cmolc kg -1)

and Na (0.41 cmolc kg -1). DTPA - extractable micro nutrients results are Cu (6 mg kg -1), Fe

(104.45 mg kg -1), Mn (15.1 mg kg -1), and Zn (3.6 mg kg -1), exchangeable Ca (2541 cmolc kg

-1), Mg (7.741 cmolc kg -1), and K (1.4641 cmolc kg -1).

Based on the soils of Fiji, Sigatoka Research Station subsurface horizons are rated at the Oxic

range, meaning it has high amount of trace elements.

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APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT

Monthly averages of Rainfall(mm), Temperature (degrees celsius) and Relative Humidity (%)

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19

3.2 Field Experiments

This research comprised of two experiments conducted in one site using the recommended

variety Bale Kana. The experiments were separated because of the young age and small sizes

of the mother trees available at the time. It was decided that overloading the trees with

marcotts might have adversely affected their health and performance.

3.2.1 Experiment 1: Evaluation on the effects of the four marcotting media

This field experiment was set up to study the effects of four marcotting media on root growth

of marcotts and the success of marcotting on the variety Bale Kana

3.2.2 Objectives of Field Experiment One

1. To determine the effects of four marcotting media on the onset of rooting on

marcotted breadfruit branches of variety Bale Kana

2. To determine the effects of four marcotting media on the growth of the root balls on

marcotted breadfruit branches of variety Bale Kana.

3. To determine the effects of four marcotting media on the number of successful

marcotts of breadfruit branches of variety Bale Kana.

3.2.3 Null-Hypotheses of Field Experiment One

1. Marcotting medium does not have an effect on the onset of rooting (measured by days

after application of marcotts).

2. Marcotting medium does not have an effect on the growth of root balls (measured by

percent volume of the marcotting plastic wrap fill by roots).

3. Marcotting medium does not have an effect on the success of marcotting (measured by

the number of marcotts with roots at the end of the experiment).

20

3.2.4Experimental Design The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 4

treatments replicated 21 times.

3.2.5 Treatment Design

The 4 treatments were randomly assigned to the 21 experimental blocks where each available

breadfruit mother tree was treated as a block.

Treatments

T1 Control

T2 Marcotting media 1



Key: Control- Peat moss (Standard marcott)

Marcotting Medium 1- Peat base + 10% sphagnum moss as aerator and moisture store.

Marcotting Medium 2- Peat base + 10% sphagnum moss + liquid plant rooting hormone @ 5mls to 4 liters of wet mix.

Marcotting Medium 3- Peat base + 10% sphagnum moss + powdered hormone @ 5mls to 4

liters of wet mix.

21

3.3 Field Experiment 2: Evaluation study of two marcotted branch locations and sizes

The second field experiment was developed to study the effects of branch size and location on

root growth of marcotts and the success of marcotting on breadfruit variety Bale Kana 3.3.1Objectives of Field Experiment Two

1. To determine the effects of two branch sizes and two locations on the onset of rooting

on marcotted breadfruit branches of variety Bale Kana

2. To determine the effects of two branch sizes and two locations on the growth of the

root balls on marcotted breadfruit branches of variety Bale Kana.

3. To determine the effects of two branch sizes and two locations on the number of

successful marcotts of breadfruit branches of variety Bale Kana.

3.3.2 Null-Hypotheses of Field Experiment Two

1. The size of a branch and its location on the mother tree does not have an effect on the

onset of rooting (measured by days after application of the marcotts).


growth of root balls (measured by percent volume of marcotting plastic wrap fill by

roots).


success of marcotting (measured by the number of marcotts with roots at the end of

the experiment).

22

3.3.3 Experimental Design

The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 21

replications

3.3.4 Treatment Design

The treatment design used was a factorial arrangement of 2 branch sizes and 2 locations. The 4

treatment combinations were randomly allocated to the 21 experimental blocks where each

available breadfruit mother tree was treated as a block.

3.4 Data Collection

The field experiments for this research were carried out within a seven-month period.

However this report presents data from the first three months. The breadfruit trees were

marcotted on the 23rd of April and data collection was carried out at every two weeks interval.

Cleaning of site was carried out at every three weeks to maintain quality results of the trial.

This included hand weeding and the use of bush cutters to clear unwanted weeds grown in the

trial area.

Treatment Combinations

T1 Upper branch location with Small branch size

T2 Upper branch location with Big branch size

T3 Lower branch location with Small branch size

T4 Lower branch location with Big branch size

Key: Branch Location 1- Upper branches (>1.5m high) Branch Location 2- Lower branches (<1.5m high) Branch size 1 - Big branches (3.5-4.5cm in

23

3.4.1 The following data was collected from both experiments:

1.Onset of root growth: Onset of root growth was measured by counting the number of

days from applying the marcotts to appearance of the first roots in the marcotting

plastic.

2. Percent root ball growth at time of harvest: Root ball growth was measured by

visual estimates of percent volume of the marcotting plastic filled by root growth at

the end of the experiment.

3. Time to harvest: Time to harvest was measured by counting the number of days from

applying the marcotts to the harvest of the developed marcotts; this was carried out

when the marcotts had a 100% root ball. However, all developing marcotts that did not

reach 100% root ball were harvested when this study ended after three months.

4. Percent of successful marcotts: Successful marcotts were determined by presence of

roots in the marcotting plastic at the end of the study.

3.5 Statistical Analysis

Data collected from Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 were subjected to the standard analysis

of variance (ANOVA) for a RCBD (refer to Appendix 1) using the statistical package Genstat

(Genstat Discovery Edition 4, 2011). The F-Test was used to test for treatment differences at

the 5% level and where differences were detected the LSD method was used for means

comparison (Gomez, A. A. & Gomez, K. A., 1984).

24

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section, Experiment 1, present results on

the effects off our marcotting media on rooting of marcotted branches and the total number of

successful marcotts. The second section, Experiment 2, show results of the effects of branch

size and branch location on rooting of marcotted branches and total number of successful

marcotts.

4.1. Field Experiment 1: Evaluation of the effects of the four marcotting media on the following:

4.1.1Time taken to the onset of first root growth There were significant differences (P<0.05) between media used with regards to the time

taken to first root growth. The marcotts on the Control Medium (Peat moss) and Medium 2

(Peat moss with 10% sphagnum moss and liquid rooting hormone) showed first root growths at35

days after marcotting(DAM) and were significantly early compared to marcotts on Medium

1(peat moss plus 10% sphagnum moss)and Medium 3(peat moss plus 10% sphagnum moss and

powder hormone)which showed first root growths at 57DAM(Figure 4.1).

This result is supported by the work reported by the FAO in 2012 that documented the use of

liquid rooting hormone resulting in good rooting and Steward (2012) on his marcotting work

with avocado. This fast root appearance and growth is explained to be due to the medium’s

good water holding capacity and the inclusion of the liquid rooting hormone providing ideal

conditions for good root growth. Steward further added that high field relative humidity also

contributed to the earliness of rooting.

25

Figure 4.1 Onset of root growth on marcotted branches wasaffected by

marcotting medium.

4.1.2 Percent root ball on marcotts at harvest There was a real effect of marcotting media on the growth of roots on the marcotted branches

as measured by the percent of root ball at harvest (P<0.05). The marcotts on the Control

Medium and on Medium 2 had 95.7 percent and100 percent of the marcotting plastics filled

with root growth respectively and were comparable at the time of harvest (Figure 4.2).

Marcotts on Medium 1 and Medium 3 were comparable and had significantly lower root

growth having root ball percentages of 35respectively at the time of harvest (Figure 4.2).

This result is supported by findings by Lopez (1975); Hamilton et al. (1982); FAO (2012);

Steward (2012); and Gibson (2005) where they attributed the higher root growth to the use of

liquid rooting hormones. Steward (2012) further added that high relative humidity

experienced in the research area also contributed to the enhanced root growth. This work also

reinforces Gibson’s finding in 2005when he found that liquid form of rooting hormone more

effective in root production than powdered forms.

It is believed that the higher percentages of roots developed in the marcotting media by

marcotts on the Control Medium and on Medium 2 at harvest resulted from the early onset of

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root growth in these media. The favorable high relative humidity experienced in the

experiment site is also thought to have a positive impact on rooting. This indicates, that the

earlier root growth occurs, the earlier the marcotts would develop a full or 100percent root

ball (Gibson, 2005).

Figure 4.2 Root ball percentages at harvest were affected by marcotting media.

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4.1.3 Time taken to the harvest of the marcotts There was a real effect (P < 0.05) of media on the time taken for marcotts to be harvested,

which was signaled by marcotts having reached about a 100 percent root ball. Marcotts on

Medium 2 and those on the Control Medium were comparable and were harvested earlier at

57 and 59 DAM respectively. Marcotts on Medium 1and Medium 3 attained only44 and 42

percent root balls respectively at the end of the experiment at 99 DAM (Figure 4.3).

The early attainment of a 100 percent root filled marcotting plastic hence the harvest

indicator, for the marcotts on Medium 2and those on the Control Medium is thought to be

attributed to the early onset of root growth brought about by the use of the liquid rooting

hormone in Medium 2.This result is again supported by the works of Lopez (1975); Hamilton et

al. (1982); FAO (2012);Steward (2012); and Cerveny and Gibson (2005) that the use of liquid

rooting hormone resulted in good rooting. The FAO report also pointed to the medium’s good

water holding capacity and Steward suggested the favorable high relative humidity experienced in

his experiment site providing additional ideal conditions for good root growth. This suggests,

that use of liquid hormone initiates early root growth and the earlier the roots grow, the earlier

the marcotts would develop a full or 100 percent root ball, therefore an early harvest.

28

Figure 4.3 Time/days taken for marcotts to be harvested was affected by

media.

4.1.4 The numbers of successful marcotts There were significant differences (P < 0.05) in the total number of successful marcotts of

breadfruit produced with the use of different marcotting media. Medium 2(produced

significantly higher number of successful marcotts (P< 0.05) than Medium 1 as well as

Medium 3 but were comparable to the Control Medium. There was also a real difference

between Control Medium and Medium 3 but was comparable to medium 2 (Figure 4.4). This

result further support the work reported FAO in 2012 that more than 90 percent success rate

was achieved using a medium consisting of 100 percent peat moss and a medium mixed with

liquid rooting hormone. The report has attributed this success to the media’s good water

holding capacity and the inclusion of the liquid hormone providing ideal conditions for good

root growth. Cerveny and Gibson, (2005) also proved that powdered forms of rooting

hormones are generally less effective than liquid formulation applied at the same

concentration. They then explained that marcotting medium with rooting hormone facilitate

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rooting, where cultural practices or environmental conditions are not ideal and also in

propagation of moderate and difficult-to-root species.

Figure 4.4 Time/days taken for marcotts to be harvested was affected by media.

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4.2 Experiment 2: Comparison study of the two branch sizes and branch locations on

4.2.1. Time taken to onset of new roots A real effect of branch size on the early appearance of root growth was observed (P < 0.05).

Marcotts performed on big branches (Figure 4.5) had their first roots appeared 10 days earlier

(35DAM) compared to marcotts on small branches (45DAM). No real effect of the location of

branches on the mother plants or its interaction with branch size was determined.

The findings of Goebel 1986 who worked on fruit trees also support the result of this research.

He reported that early development of new roots on marcotts was affected by branch size and

location on the mother plants.

However, the results of this work contradicts the work of Steward (2012) where he found that

developing of new roots on marcotted branches is not affected by size of branches but by

environmental conditions that can bring about stress to the marcotted branches and mother

plant.

Figure 4.5: Onset of root growth on marcotted branches was affected by

marcotting medium.

05

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4.2.2 Percent root ball on marcotts at harvest Real differences (P < 0.05) were seen in root mass measured by percent root ball at harvest

between branches of different sizes. Root growth from marcotts developed from big branches

filled 96 percent of the marcotting plastic (Figure 4.6), whereas only 22 percent was filled by

marcotts from small branches. No real differences (P > 0.05) were seen resulting from

location of branches on the mother plant or its interaction with branch size.

The result of this work is in agreement with findings of previous works in Southern

Queensland by (Menzel, 1991) where he studied the effects of breadfruit branch size on the

success of marcotts. He found that big branches at the upper location on mature trees

produced more successful marcotts. He explained this to be due to the high amounts of

carbohydrates in the big branches.

Figure4.6: Root ball percentages at harvest were affected from

different branch sizes and locations.

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4.2.3 Number of successful marcotts

Result showed that there was a significant difference (P< 0.05) in the number of successful

marcotts produced between branches of different sizes. Marcotting big branches produced

more success compared to small branches (Figure 4.7). There was no effect of location and

the interaction of size and location on the number of successful marcotting.

The results of this research are supported by work of the Pacific Breadfruit Project

Newsletter (2013, p.2-3) and (Menzel 1991) where they obtained more successful marcotts

from big branch sizes in any location on the tree. They suggested a higher amount of

carbohydrates in the bigger branches was responsible for the success.

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Figure 4.7: Effects of branch location and branch sizes on the number of successful marcotts produced. differences were found in treatment 2 andtreatment 4 branch sizes thus, branch location does not vary.

33

4.2.4 Time taken to harvest a successful marcotts There were no effects (P > 0.05) of branch size or location and their interaction on the time

taken to harvest a fully developed marcotts. This result suggests that the length of time

required for marcotts to develop a full root ball may depend more on factors other than the

size and location of the branch on the mother plant. This result is supported by the findings of

the first experiment in this work which showed the time taken for marcotts of breadfruit to

develop a full root ball which signals harvest is affected by the marcotting medium.

34

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The comparison study of marcotting media in Experiment One revealed that there is an effect

of marcotting media on the onset of the first root growth; root mass at harvest; earliness of

harvest; and on the total number of successful marcotts. Results showed that marcotting

Medium 2 (Peat moss with 10% sphagnum moss and liquid rooting hormone) although not

statistically different from the Control Medium (peat moss) which is the standard medium

currently used in Fiji, provided the highest percentage of root mass at harvest, earliest harvest

of marcotts and the highest total number of successful marcotts. These findings have

significant implications for the Breadfruit Rapid Multiplication Project in Fiji where they are

using marcotting using only the standard medium which is the Control Medium. It is therefore

recommended that the Project uses Medium 2 with the current medium in their marcotting

operations for the rapid multiplication of planting materials of breadfruit. This work also

found that the use of liquid rooting hormone was more effective than the powdered form and

therefore recommends the use of liquid form of hormone.

Experiment two studied the effects of different branch sizes and locations of branches on the

mother plant on the onset of the first root growth; root mass at harvest; earliness of harvest;

and on the total number of successful marcotts. Results indicated that all these variables (the

onset of the first root growth; root mass at harvest; earliness of harvest; and the total number

of successful marcotts) were dependent on the size of the branches the marcotts were

performed on. Again this information is very useful for the Pacific Breadfruit Project in Fiji

and it is therefore recommended that marcotting operations should be performed on branches

of not less than 3.5 to 4.5 centimeters in diameter if rapid multiplication of breadfruit planting

materials is to be successful.

Fiji is now targeting the world markets for breadfruit and in pursuing that goal, farming the

crop in orchards is necessary to meet market demands. This requires rapid production of

planting material of which marcotting is one of the most appropriate propagation methods

35

currently in-use and it is envisioned that many Fijian farmers in the future will be utilizing

this technology. In order to be successful our goal is to improve and perfect that technology

and this thesis may have taken one small step towards that goal.

36

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39

APPENDICES Appendix 1: BALEKANA BREADFRUIT GERMPLASM – FIELD PLAN

FIELD NAME: SRS FIELD 4 VARIETY: BALEKANA SAMOA PLACE OF ORIGIN: NAVAKAKA, KOROALAU, CAKAUDROVE PLANTING DATE: 04/10/2007

MECHANIC’S HOUSE / REST HOUSE

F

I

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O

A

D

GARDEN - CASSAVA PATCH

SIGATOKA RIVER

NAV1

NAV2

NAV3

NAV4

NAV5

NAV6 NAV9 NAV12

NAV8 NAV11

NAV7 NAV10 NAV13 NAV16 NAV19

NAV14 NAV17 NAV20

NAV15 NAV18 NAV21 NAV22

NAV23

SRS

40

TOTAL Marcotts Total Total Media Branch

Total Number of Number of moisture stress Treatment Block/Tree Success fruits shoots

1 1 0 0 0 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 2 1 5 6 1 1 2 2 0 3 2 1 1 3 2 0 2 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 0 0 0 3 2 2 3 1 2 4 1 1 3 3 0 1 3 1 1 4 3 0 1 3 1 1 1 4 1 2 3 1 1 2 4 1 2 4 1 1 3 4 0 1 1 1 1 4 4 0 1 3 1 1 1 5 1 3 7 1 1 2 5 0 1 6 1 1 3 5 1 2 5 1 1 4 5 0 2 2 1 1 1 6 1 3 5 1 1 2 6 0 0 0 3 2 3 6 1 5 6 1 1 4 6 0 0 0 3 2 1 7 1 3 5 1 1 2 7 1 4 3 1 1 3 7 1 2 5 1 1

Appendix 2: SUMMARY OF THE ELEVEN WEEKS OF DATA COLLECTION ON MARCOTTING MEDIA

41

4 7 0 2 6 1 1 1 8 1 1 1 1 1 2 8 1 2 2 1 1 3 8 0 3 2 1 1 4 8 0 2 3 1 1 1 9 1 2 3 1 1 2 9 0 2 3 1 1 3 9 1 2 2 1 1 4 9 1 3 3 1 1 1 10 1 4 2 1 1 2 10 1 5 7 1 1 3 10 1 3 3 1 1 4 10 1 3 2 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 3 2 2 11 0 0 0 3 2 3 11 1 3 6 1 1 4 11 1 5 6 1 1 1 12 1 4 7 1 1 2 12 0 0 0 3 2 3 12 1 3 3 1 1 4 12 1 4 6 1 1 1 13 0 3 2 1 1 2 13 0 3 4 1 1 3 13 1 3 6 1 1 4 13 0 0 0 3 2 1 14 1 1 6 1 1 2 14 0 0 0 3 2 3 14 1 1 4 1 1 4 14 0 3 4 1 1 1 15 1 5 3 1 1 2 15 0 0 0 3 2

42

3 15 1 3 3 1 1 4 15 0 0 0 3 2 1 16 1 2 3 1 1 2 16 0 2 3 1 1 3 16 1 5 5 1 1 4 16 0 2 2 1 1 1 17 0 0 0 3 2 2 17 1 4 3 1 1 3 17 1 1 4 1 1 4 17 0 2 4 1 1 1 18 1 1 2 1 1 2 18 1 4 6 1 1 3 18 1 1 2 1 1 4 18 0 3 2 1 1 1 19 1 4 6 1 1 2 19 0 1 2 1 1 3 19 1 5 5 1 1 4 19 0 2 2 1 1 1 20 1 7 7 1 1 2 20 1 3 3 1 1 3 20 1 5 8 1 1 4 20 0 3 4 1 1 1 21 0 4 4 1 1 2 21 0 4 5 1 1 3 21 0 0 0 3 2 4 21 0 0 0 3 2

43

TOTAL Sigatoka Data Marcotts Number Number Media Branch Total fruits shoots moisture stress LOCATIONS/SIZES Block Success U 1 0 0 0 3 2 L 1 1 3 5 1 1 B 1 1 5 1 1 1 S 1 1 3 10 1 1 U 2 1 4 8 1 1 L 2 0 2 2 1 1 B 2 1 12 7 1 1 S 2 1 2 2 1 1 U 3 0 3 3 1 1 L 3 1 3 4 1 1 B 3 1 4 6 1 1 S 3 0 0 0 3 2 U 4 1 3 4 1 1 L 4 0 1 3 1 1 B 4 0 2 2 1 1 S 4 2 2 6 1 1 U 5 0 0 0 3 2 L 5 0 0 0 3 2 B 5 1 14 3 1 1 S 5 0 2 4 1 1 U 6 1 3 4 1 1 L 6 0 0 0 3 2 B 6 1 3 3 1 1 S 6 0 1 6 1 1 U 7 1 3 3 1 1 L 7 0 0 0 3 2 B 7 1 4 4 1 1

Appendix 3: SUMMARY OF THE ELEVEN WEEKS OF DATA COLLECTION ON BRANCH LOCATIONS

AND BRANCH SIZES

44

S 7 1 4 6 1 1 U 8 0 0 0 3 2 L 8 1 2 4 1 1 B 8 0 3 3 1 1 S 8 1 3 4 1 1 U 9 1 2 4 1 1 L 9 0 0 0 3 2 B 9 1 2 2 1 1 S 9 1 3 6 1 1 U 10 1 4 7 1 1 L 10 0 1 6 1 1 B 10 1 2 2 1 1 S 10 0 0 0 3 2 U 11 0 1 6 1 1 L 11 0 1 6 1 1 B 11 0 2 3 1 1 S 11 1 4 6 1 1 U 12 0 3 2 1 1 L 12 1 3 8 1 1 B 12 1 3 3 1 1 S 12 0 0 0 3 2 U 13 0 2 2 1 1 L 13 1 2 7 1 1 B 13 1 4 4 1 1 S 13 1 5 5 1 1 U 14 0 3 4 1 1 L 14 1 1 2 1 1 B 14 1 2 6 1 1 S 14 1 2 7 1 1 U 15 0 3 4 1 1 L 15 1 4 3 1 1 B 15 1 3 6 1 1 S 15 1 3 3 1 1

45

U 16 0 2 2 1 1 L 16 1 3 6 1 1 B 16 0 1 6 1 1 S 16 1 3 4 1 1 U 17 1 2 3 1 1 L 17 1 2 4 1 1 B 17 1 4 7 1 1 S 17 1 2 6 1 1 U 18 1 3 3 1 1 L 18 1 2 3 1 1 B 18 0 1 2 1 1 S 18 1 3 3 1 1 U 19 1 3 7 1 1 L 19 1 4 6 1 1 B 19 1 6 5 1 1 S 19 1 4 6 1 1 U 20 1 2 4 1 1 L 20 0 2 3 1 1 B 20 1 6 6 1 1 S 20 1 2 3 1 1 U 21 1 1 3 1 1 L 21 0 1 3 1 1 B 21 1 6 7 1 1 S 21 1 6 6 1 1

Keys ROOT SPREADMedia MoistureBranch Stress 0 - No Sign of Root Development 1 – Excellent 1 - Marcotted Branch is Healthy 1 - Root Develops2 –Poor2 – Marcotted Branch is Stressed or Broken and Dead

52

EXPERIMENT 1: Randomized Complete Block Design

Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom

Replication (r-1) 3

Treatment (t-1) 3

Error (r-1) (t-1) 74

Total (tr-1) 83

EXPERIMENT 2: Factorial Experiment in a Randomized Complete Block Design

Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom Replication (r-1) 3

Treatment (ab) 3

Branch Locations A (a-1) 1

Branch Sizes B (b-1) 1

A x B (a-1) (b-1) 1

Error (r-1) (ab-1) 74

Total (ab – 1) 83

Appendix 4: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE TWO EXPERIMENTS

53

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE – NUMBER OF SUCCESSFUL MARCOTTS Variate: marcotts Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Block stratum 20 3.8095 0.1905 0.83 0.665 block.*Units* stratum Media 3 3.2857 1.0952 4.79 0.005 Residual 60 13.7143 0.2286 Total 83 20.8095 Message: the following units have large residuals. Block 10 0.452 s.e. 0.213 Block 21 -0.548 s.e. 0.213 Tables of means Variate: marcotts Grand mean 0.548 Media 1 2 3 4 0.714 0.429 0.762 0.286 Standard errors of means Table media rep. 21 d.f. 60 e.s.e. 0.1043 Standard errors of differences of means Table media rep. 21 d.f. 60 s.e.d. 0.1475

Appendix 5: EXPERIMENT 1: GENSTATS ANALYSIS RESULT OF THE FOUR MARCOTTING MEDIA

54

Least significant differences of means (5% level) Table media rep. 21 d.f. 60 l.s.d. 0.2951 Analysis of variance – Percentage root of balls on different medium used for marcotting Variate: %Root of ballson different medium used for marcotting Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocks stratum 20 9852.0 492.6 2.46 Blocks.*Units* stratum Treatments 3 112789.0 37596.3 187.81 <.001 Residual 60 12010.8 200.2 Total 83 134651.8 Tables of means Variate: %Root of balls on different medium used for marcotting Grand mean 61.2 Treatments 1 2 3 4 95.7 35.5 100.0 33.8 Standard errors of means Table Treatments rep. 21 d.f. 60 e.s.e. 3.09 Standard errors of differences of means Table Treatments rep. 21 d.f. 60 s.e.d. 4.37

55

Least significant differences of means (5% level) Table Treatments rep. 21 d.f. 60 l.s.d. 8.73 Analysis of variance- Percentage of root balls on different branch sizes and

location Variate: %of root balls on different branch sizes and location Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocks stratum 20 3379.2 169.0 0.76 Blocks.*Units* stratum Treatments 3 115396.0 38465.3 172.45 <.001 Residual 60 13383.2 223.1 Total 83 132158.4 Tables of means Variate: %of root balls on different branch sizes and location Grand mean 59.1 Treatments 1 2 3 4 32.4 96.9 31.7 95.4 Standard errors of means Table Treatments rep. 21 d.f. 60 e.s.e. 3.26 Standard errors of differences of means Table Treatments rep. 21 d.f. 60 s.e.d. 4.61 Least significant differences of means (5% level) Table Treatments rep. 21 d.f. 60 l.s.d. 9.22

56

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE - NUMBER OF SUCCESSFUL MARCOTTS

Variate: Marcotts Success Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr. Blocks stratum 20 5.23810 0.26190 3.00 Blocks.*Units* stratum Size 1 4.76190 4.76190 54.55 <.001 Location 1 0.00000 0.00000 0.00 1.000 Size. Location 1 0.00000 0.00000 0.00 1.000 Residual 60 5.23810 0.08730 Total 83 15.23810 Tables of Means Variate: Marcotts Success Grand mean 1.238 Size big small 1.476 1.000 Location lower upper 1.238 1.238 Size Location lower upper big 1.476 1.476 small 1.000 1.000 Least significant differences of means (5% level) Table Size Location Size Location rep. 42 42 21 d.f. 60 60 60 l.s.d. 0.1290 0.1290 0.1824

Appendix 6: EXPERIMENT 2: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ON TWO BRANCH LOCATIONS AND BRANCH SIZES

57

APPENDIX 8 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BREADFRUIT

TRIAL SITE

Soil Parameter Value

Soil pH (1:1, soil water) 6.3

CEC (cmol (+) / kg) 0.1

Organic C (%) 3

Total N (%) 0.3

Olsen extractable P (mg/kg) 50

Exchangeable Ca 2541cmolc kg -1

Exchangeable Mg 7.741cmolc kg -1

Exchangeable K 1.4641cmolc kg -1

Exchangeable Na 0.41cmolc kg -1

DTPA- extractable Fe 104.45 mg kg -1

DTPA- extractable Mn 15.1 mg kg -1

DTPA- extractable Cu 6 mg kg -1

DTPA- extractable Zn 3.6 mg kg -1

an evaluation of marcotting techniques on

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