an introduction to slope stability and protection · 2012-06-09 · an introduction to slope...

PDHonline Course C547 (6 PDH)

An Introduction to Slope Stability and Protection

2012

Instructor: J. Paul Guyer, P.E., R.A., Fellow ASCE, Fellow AEI

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© J. Paul Guyer 2012 of 56

An Introduction to Slope Stability and Protection

J. Paul Guyer, P.E., R.A., Fellow ASCE, Fellow AEI

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 2. TYPES OF FAILURES 3. METHODS OF ANALYSIS 4. TRANSLATIONAL FAILURE ANALYSIS 5. REQUIRED SAFETY FACTORS 6. EARTHQUAKE LOADING 7. EFFECTS OF SOIL PARAMETERS AND GROUNDWATER ON STABILITY 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 9. GLOSSARY 10. SYMBOLS

This course is adapted from the Unified Facilities Criteria of the United States government, which is in the public domain, is authorized for unlimited distribution, and is not copyrighted.

The Figures, Tables and Symbols in this document are in some cases a little difficult to read, but they are the best available. DO NOT PURCHASE THIS COURSE IF THE FIGURES, TABLES AND SYMBOLS ARE NOT ACCEPTABLE TO YOU.



1. INTRODUCTION

1.1SCOPE. This discussion presents methods of analyzing stability of natural slopes

and safety of embankments. Diagrams are included for stability analysis, and

procedures for slope stabilization are discussed. This is not a design manual; this is an

introduction only to the topic. Additionally, some of the figures, tables and symbols in

this course are not particularly clear and easy to read….but they are the best available.

Persons who are not comfortable with the figures, tables and symbols in this course

should not purchase this course.

1.2 APPLICATIONS. Overstressing of a slope or reduction in shear strength of the soil

may cause rapid or progressive displacements. The stability of slopes may be evaluated

by comparison of the forces resisting failure with those tending to cause rupture along

the assumed slip surface. The ratio of these forces is the factor of safety.

1.3 REFERENCE. For detailed treatment of some topics refer to appropriate

publications of the Transportation Research Board.

2. TYPES OF FAILURES

2.1 MODES OF SLOPE FAILURE. Principal modes of failure in soil or rock are (i)

rotation on a curved slip surface approximated by a circular arc, (ii) translation on a

planar surface whose length is large compared to depth below ground, and (iii)

displacement of a wedge-shaped mass along one or more planes of weakness. Other

modes of failure include toppling of

rock slopes, falls, block slides, lateral spreading, earth and mud flow in clayey and silty

soils, and debris flows in coarse-grained soils. Tables 1 and 2 show examples of

potential slope failure problems in both natural and man-made slopes.



2.2 CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE. Slope failures occur when the rupturing force

exceeds resisting force.

2.2.1 NATURAL SLOPES. Imbalance of forces may be caused by one or more o the

following factors:

• A change in slope profile that adds driving weight at the top or decreases

resisting force at the base. Examples include steepening of the slope or

undercutting of the toe.

• An increase of groundwater pressure, resulting in a decrease of frictional

resistance in cohesionless soil or swell in cohesive material.

• Groundwater pressures may increase through the saturation of a slope from

rainfall or snowmelt, seepage from an artificial source, or rise of the water table.

• Progressive decrease in shear strength of the soil or rock mass caused by

weathering, leaching, mineralogical changes, opening and softening of fissures,

or continuing gradual shear strain (creep).

• Vibrations induced by earthquakes, blasting, or pile-driving. Induced dynamic

forces cause densification of loose sand, silt, or loess below the groundwater

table or collapse of sensitive clays, causing increased pore pressures. Cyclic

stresses induced by earthquakes may cause liquefaction of loose, uniform,

saturated sand layers.



Table 1 Analysis of Stability of Natural Soils



Table 1 (continued) Analysis of Stability of Natural Soils



Table 2 Analysis of Stability of Cut and Fill Slopes, Conditions Varying with Time



2.2.2 EMBANKMENT (FILL) SLOPES. Failure of fill slopes may be caused by one or

more of the following factors:

2.2.2.1 OVERSTRESSING OF THE FOUNDATION SOIL. This may occur in cohesive

soils, during or immediately after embankment construction. Usually, the short-term

stability of embankments on soft cohesive soils is more critical than the long-term

stability, because the foundation soil will gain strength as the pore water pressure

dissipates. It may, however, be necessary to check the stability for a number of pore

pressure conditions. Usually, the critical failure surface is tangent to the firm layers

below the soft subsoils.

2.2.2.2 DRAWDOWN AND PIPING. In earth dams, rapid drawdown of the reservoir

causes increased effective weight of the embankment soil thus reducing stability.

Another potential cause of failure in embankment slopes is subsurface erosion or piping

(see Chapter 6 for guidance on prevention of piping).

2.2.2.3 DYNAMIC FORCES. Vibrations may be induced by earthquakes, blasting, pile

driving, etc.

2.2.2.4 EXCAVATION (CUT) SLOPES. Failure may result from one or more of the

factors described in (a). An additional factor that should be considered for cuts in stiff

clays is the release of horizontal stresses during excavation which may cause the

formation of fissures. If water enters the fissures, the strength of the clay will decrease

progressively. Therefore, the long-term stability of slopes excavated in cohesive soils is

normally more critical than the short-term stability. When excavations are open over a

long period and water is accessible, there is potential for swelling and loss of strength

with time.

2.3 EFFECT OF SOIL OR ROCK TYPE



2.3.1 FAILURE SURFACE. In homogeneous cohesive soils, the critical failure surface

usually is deep whereas shallow surface sloughing and sliding is more typical in

homogeneous cohesionless soils. In nonhomogeneous soil foundations the shape and

location of the failure depends on the strength and stratification of the various soil types.

2.3.2 ROCK. Slope failures are common in stratified sedimentary rocks, in weathered

shales, and in rocks containing platy minerals such as talc, mica, and the serpentine

minerals. Failure planes in rock occur along zones of weakness or discontinuities

(fissures, joints, faults) and bedding planes (strata). The orientation and strength of the

discontinuities are the most important factors influencing the stability of rock slopes.

Discontinuities can develop or strength can change as a result of the following

environmental factors:

• Chemical weathering.

• Freezing and thawing of water/ice in joints.

• Tectonic movements.

• Increase of water pressures within discontinuities.

• Alternate wetting and drying (especially expansive shales).

• Increase of tensile stresses due to differential erosion.

3. METHODS OF ANALYSIS 3.1 TYPES OF ANALYSIS. For slopes in relatively homogeneous soil, the failure

surface is approximated by a circular arc, along which the resisting and rupturing forces

can be analyzed. Various techniques of slope stability analysis may be classified into

three broad categories.



3.1.1 LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHOD. Most limit equilibrium methods used in

geotechnical practice assume the validity of Coulomb's failure criterion along an

assumed failure surface. A free body of the slope is considered to be acted upon by

known or assumed forces. Shear stresses induced on the assumed failure surface by

the body and external forces are compared with the available shear strength of the

material. This method does not account for the load deformation characteristics of the

materials in question. Most of the methods of stability analysis currently in use fall in this

category. The method of slices, which is a rotational failure analysis, is most commonly

used in limit equilibrium solutions. The minimum factor of safety is computed by trying

several circles. The difference between various approaches stems from (a) the

assumptions that make the problem determinate, and (b) the equilibrium conditions that

are satisfied. The soil mass within the assumed slip surface is divided into several

slices, and the forces acting on each slice are considered. The effect of an earthquake

may be considered by applying appropriate horizontal force on the slices.

3.1.2 LIMIT ANALYSIS. This method considers yield criteria and the stress-strain

relationship. It is based on lower bound and upper bound theorems for bodies of elastic

- perfectly plastic materials.

3.1.3 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD. This method is extensively used in more complex

problems of slope stability and where earthquake and vibrations are part of total loading

system. This procedure accounts for deformation and is useful where significantly

different material properties are encountered.

3.2 FAILURE CHARACTERISTICS. Table 1 shows some situations that may arise in

natural slopes. Table 2 shows situations applicable to man-made slopes. Strength

parameters, flow conditions, pore water pressure, failure modes, etc. should be selected

as described herein.



Figure 1

Method of Slices – Simplified Bishop Method (Circular Slip Surface)



Figure 1 (continued)

Method of Slices – Simplified Bishop Method (Circular Slip Surface)



3.3 SLOPE STABILITY CHARTS.

3.3.1 ROTATIONAL FAILURE IN COHESIVE SOILS (Φ = 0) 3.3.1.1 For slopes in cohesive soils having approximately constant strength with depth

use Figure 2 to determine the factor of safety.

3.3.1.2 For slope in cohesive soil with more than one soil layer, determine centers of

potentially critical circles from Figure 3. Use the appropriate shear strength of sections

of the arc in each stratum. Use the following guide for positioning the circle.

• If the lower soil layer is weaker, a circle tangent to the base of the weaker layer

will be critical.

• If the lower soil layer is stronger, two circles, one tangent to the base of the upper

weaker layer and the other tangent to the base of the lower stronger layer,

should be investigated.

• With surcharge, tension cracks, or submergence of slope, apply corrections of

Figure 4 to determine safety factor.

3.4 EMBANKMENTS ON SOFT CLAY. See Figure 5 for approximate analysis of

embankment with stabilizing berms on foundations of constant strength. Determine the

probable form of failure from relationship of berm and embankment widths and

foundation thickness in top left panel of Figure 5.

4. TRANSLATIONAL FAILURE ANALYSIS. In stratified soils, the failure surface may

be controlled by a relatively thin and weak layer. Analyze the stability of the potentially

translating mass as shown in Figure 6 by comparing the destabilizing forces of the

active pressure wedge with the stabilizing force of the passive wedge at the toe plus the

shear strength



along the base of the central soil mass. See Figure 7 for an example of translational

failure analysis in soil and Figure 8 for an example of translational failure in rock.

Jointed rocks involve multiple planes of weakness. This type of problem cannot be

analyzed by two-dimensional cross-sections.

5. REQUIRED SAFETY FACTORS. The following values should be provided for

reasonable assurance of stability:

• Safety factor no less than 1.5 for permanent or sustained loading conditions.

• For foundations of structures, a safety factor no less than 2.0 is desirable to limit

critical movements at foundation edge.

• For temporary loading conditions or where stability reaches a minimum during

construction, safety factors may be reduced to 1.3 or 1.25 if controls are

maintained on load application.

• For transient loads, such as earthquake, safety factors as low as 1.2 or 1.15 may

be tolerated.



Figure 2

Stability Analysis for Slopes in Cohesive Soils, Undrained Conditions, i.e. Ф = 0



Figure 3

Center of Critical Circle, Slope in Cohesive Soil



Figure 4

Influence of Surcharge, Submergence, and Tension Cracks on Stability



Figure 5

Design of Berms for Embankments on Soft Clays



Figure 6

Stability Analysis of Translational Failure




Stability Analysis of Translational Failure



Figure 7

Example of Stability Analysis of Translational Failure




Example of Stability Analysis of Translational Failure



Figure 8

Stability of Rock Slope

6. EARTHQUAKE LOADING. Earthquake effects can be introduced into the analysis

by assigning a disturbing force on the sliding mass equal to kW where W is the weight

of the sliding mass and k is the seismic coefficient. For the analyses of stability shown

in Figure 9a, k+s,W is assumed to act parallel to the slope and through the center of

mass of the sliding mass. Thus, for a factor of safety of 1.0:

Wb + k+s,Wh = FR

The factor of safety under an earthquake loading then becomes



F+Se, = FR/( Wb + k+s,Wh)

To determine the critical value of the seismic efficient (k+cs,) which will reduce a given

factor of safety for a stable static condition (F+So,) to a factor of safety of 1.0 with an

earthquake loading (F+Se, = 1.0), use

k+cs, = (b/h) (F+So, - 1) = (F+So, -1)(sin θ)

If the seismic force is in the horizontal direction and denoting such force as k+ch, W,

then k+ch, = (F+So,-1) (tan θ). For granular, free-draining material with plane sliding

surface (Figure 9b): F+So, = tan φ /tan θ, and k+cs, = (F+So, -1)(sin θ). Based on

several numerical experiments k+ch, may be conservatively represented as k+ch,

[approximately] (F+So, -1)(0.25).



Figure 9

Earthquake Loading on Slopes

The above equations are based on several simplifying assumptions: (a) failure occurs

along well defined slip surface, (b) the sliding mass behaves as a rigid body; (c) soils

are not sensitive and would not collapse at small deformation; and (d) there is no

reduction in soil strength due to ground shaking.

7. EFFECTS OF SOIL PARAMETERS AND GROUNDWATER ON STABILITY

7.1 INTRODUCTION. The choice of soil parameters and the methods of analyses are

dictated by the types of materials encountered, the anticipated groundwater conditions,

the time frame of construction, and climatic conditions. Soil strength parameters are

selected either on the basis of total stress, ignoring the effect of the pore water



pressure, or on the basis of effective stress where the analysis of the slope requires that

the pore water pressures be treated separately.

7.2 TOTAL VS. EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS. The choice between total stress

and effective stress parameters is governed by the drainage conditions which occur

within the sliding mass and along its boundaries. Drainage is dependent upon soil

permeability, boundary conditions, and time.

7.2.1 TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS. Where effective drainage cannot occur during

shear, use the undrained shear strength parameters such as vane shear, unconfined

compression, and unconsolidated undrained (UU or Q) triaxial compression tests. Field

vane shear and cone penetration tests may be used. Assume [phi] = 0. Examples

where a total stress analysis are applicable include:

7.2.1.1 ANALYSIS OF CUT SLOPES OF NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED OR SLIGHTLY PRECONSOLIDATED CLAYS. In this case little dissipation of pore water

pressure occurs prior to critical stability conditions.

7.2.1.2 ANALYSIS OF EMBANKMENTS ON A SOFT CLAY STRATUM. This is a

special case as differences in the stress-strain characteristics of the embankment and

the foundation may lead to progressive failure. The undrained strength of both the

foundation soil and the embankment soil should be reduced in accordance with the

strength reduction factors R+E, and R+F, in Figure 10.

7.2.1.3 RAPID DRAWDOWN OF WATER LEVEL PROVIDING INSUFFICIENT TIME FOR DRAINAGE. Use the undrained strength corresponding to the overburden condition within the structure prior to drawdown.



Figure 10

Correction Factors RE and RF to Account for Progressive

Failure in Embankments on Soft Clay Foundations



7.2.1.4 END-OF-CONSTRUCTION CONDITION FOR FILLS BUILT OF COHESIVE SOILS. Use the undrained strength of samples compacted to field density and at water

content representative of the embankment.

7.2.2 EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS. The effective shear strength parameters (c',

[phi]') should be used for the following cases:

7.2.2.1 LONG-TERM STABILITY OF CLAY FILLS. Use steady state seepage

pressures where applicable.

7.2.2.2 SHORT-TERM OR END-OF-CONSTRUCTION CONDITION FOR FILLS BUILT OF FREE DRAINING SAND AND GRAVEL. Friction angle is usually approximated by

correlation for this case.

7.2.2.3 RAPID DRAWDOWN CONDITION OF SLOPES IN PERVIOUS, RELATIVELY INCOMPRESSIBLE, COARSE-GRAINED SOILS. Use pore pressures corresponding

to new lower water level with steady state flow.

7.2.2.4 LONG-TERM STABILITY OF CUTS IN SATURATED CLAYS. Use steady state

seepage pressures where applicable.

7.2.2.5 CASES OF PARTIAL DISSIPATION OF PORE PRESSURE IN THE FIELD. Here, pore water pressures must be measured by piezometers or estimated from

consolidation data.

7.3 EFFECT OF GROUNDWATER AND EXCESS PORE PRESSURE. Subsurface

water

movement and associated seepage pressures are the most frequent cause of slope

instability. See Table 1 for illustrations of the effects of water on slope stability.



7.3.1 SEEPAGE PRESSURES. Subsurface water seeping toward the face or toe of a

slope produces destabilizing forces which can be evaluated by flow net construction.

The piezometric heads which occur along the assumed failure surface produce outward

forces which must be considered in the stability analysis. See Table 3 and the example

of Figure 1.

7.3.2 CONSTRUCTION PORE PRESSURES. When compressible fill materials are

used in embankment construction, excess pore pressure may develop and must be

considered in the stability analysis. Normally, field piezometric measurements are

required to evaluate this condition.

7.3.3 EXCESS PORE PRESSURES IN EMBANKMENT FOUNDATIONS. Where

embankments are constructed over compressible soils, the foundation pore pressures

must be considered in the stability analysis. See top panel of Table 3.

7.3.4 ARTESIAN PRESSURES. Artesian pressures beneath slopes can have serious

effects on the stability. Should such pressures be found to exist, they must be used to

determine effective stresses and unit weights, and the slope and foundation stability

should be evaluated by effective stress methods.



Table 3

Pore Pressure conditions for Stability Analysis of Homogeneous Embankment



7.4 STABILITY PROBLEMS IN SPECIAL MATERIALS 7.4.1 CONTROLLING FACTORS. Primary factors controlling slope stability in some

special problem soils vary.

7.4.2 STRENGTH PARAMETERS. 7.4.2.1 OVERCONSOLIDATED, FISSURED CLAYS AND CLAYSHALES. See Table

2.

Cuts in these materials cause opening of fissures and fractures with consequent

softening and strength loss.

• ANALYSIS OF CUT SLOPES. For long-term stability of cut slopes use residual

strength parameters c' and φ’ from drained tests. See Chapter 3. The most

reliable strength information for fissured clays is frequently obtained by back

figuring the strength from local failures.

• OLD SLIDE MASSES. Movements in old slide masses frequently occur on

relatively flat slopes because of gradual creep at depth. Exploration may show

the failure mass to be stiff or hard; but a narrow failure plane of low strength with

slickensides or fractures may be undetected. In such locations avoid construction

which involves regrading or groundwater rise that may upset a delicate

equilibrium.

7.4.2.2 SATURATED GRANULAR SOILS IN SEISMIC AREAS. Ground shaking may

result in liquefaction and strength reduction of certain saturated granular soils. Empirical

methods are available for estimating the liquefaction potential.

7.4.2.3 LOESS AND OTHER COLLAPSIBLE SOILS. Collapse of the structure of

these soils can cause a reduction of cohesion and a rise in pore pressure. Evaluate the



saturation effects with unconsolidated undrained tests, saturating samples under low

chamber pressure prior to shear.

7.4.2.4 TALUS. For talus slopes composed of friable material, [phi] may range from 20

deg. to 25 deg. If consisting of debris derived from slate or shale, [phi] may range from

20deg. to 29 deg., limestone about 32 deg., gneiss 34 deg., granite 35 deg. to 40 deg.

These are crude estimates of friction angles and should be supplemented by analysis of

existing talus

slopes in the area.

7.5 SLOPE STABILIZATION

7.5.1 METHODS. See Table 4, for a summary of slope stabilization methods. A

description of some of these follows:

7.5.1.1 REGRADING PROFILE. Flattening and/or benching the slope, or adding

material at the toe, as with the construction of an earth berm, will increase the stability.

Analyze by procedures above to determine most effective regrading.

7.5.1.2 SEEPAGE AND GROUNDWATER CONTROL. Surface control of drainage

decreases infiltration to potential slide area. Lowering of groundwater increases

effective stresses and eliminates softening of fine-grained soils at fissures.

7.5.1.3 RETAINING STRUCTURES.

• APPLICATION. Walls or large diameter pilings can be used to stabilize slides of

relatively small dimension in the direction of movement or to retain steep toe

slopes so that failure will not extend back into a larger mass.

• ANALYSIS. Retaining structures are frequently misused where active forces on

wall are computed from a failure wedge comprising only a small percentage of



the total weight of the sliding mass. Such failures may pass entirely beneath the

wall, or the driving forces may be large enough to shear through the retaining

structure. Stability analysis should evaluate a possible increase of pressures

applied to wall by an active wedge extending far back into failing mass, and

possible failure on sliding surface at any level beneath the base of the retaining

structure.

Table 4

Methods of Stabilizing Excavation Slopes



Table 4 (continued)

Methods of Stabilizing Excavation Slopes

• PILES OR CAISSONS. To be effective, the piles should extend sufficiently below

the failure surface to develop the necessary lateral resistance. Figure 11 shows

how the effect of the piles is considered in calculating the factor of safety. The

distribution of pressure along the pile can be computed from charts shown in

Figure 12. This assumes full mobilization of soil shear strength along the failure

surface and should be used only when the safety factor without the piles is less

than 1.4.



See Figure 13 for example computations. Note the computations shown are for only one

of the many possible slip surfaces.

7.5.1.4 OTHER METHODS. Other potential procedures for stabilizing slopes include

grouting, freezing, electro osmosis, vacuum pumping, and diaphragm walls.

7.6 SLOPE PROTECTION 7.6.1 SLOPE EROSION. Slopes which are susceptible to erosion by wind and rain-fall

should be protected. Protection is also required for slopes subjected to wave action as

in the upstream slope of a dam, or the river and canal banks along navigational

channels. In some cases, provision must be made against burrowing animals.

Figure 11

Influence of Stabilizing Pile on Safety Factor




Influence of Stabilizing Pile on Safety Factor



Figure 12

Pile Stabilized Slope



Figure 13

Example Calculation – Pile Stabilized Slopes




Example Calculation – Pile Stabilized Slopes



7.6.2 TYPES OF PROTECTION AVAILABLE. The usual protection against erosion by

wind and rainfall is a layer of rock, cobbles, or sod. Protection from wave action may be

provided by rock riprap (either dry dumped or hand placed), concrete pavement, precast

concrete blocks, soil-cement, fabric, and wood.

7.6.2.1 STONE COVER. A rock or cobbles cover of 12" thickness is sufficient to protect

against wind and rain.

7.6.2.2 SOD. Grasses suitable for a given locality should be selected with provision for

fertilizing and uniform watering.

7.6.2.3 DUMPED ROCK RIPRAP. This provides the best protection against wave

action. It consists of rock fragments dumped on a properly graded filter. Rock used

should be hard, dense, and durable against weathering and also heavy enough to resist

displacement by wave action. See Table 5 for design guidelines.

7.6.2.4 HAND-PLACED RIPRAP. Riprap is carefully laid with minimum amount of

voids and a relatively smooth top surface. Thickness should be one-half of the dumped

rock riprap but not less than 12". A filter blanket must be provided and enough openings

should be left in the riprap facing to permit easy flow of water into or out of the riprap.

7.6.2.5 CONCRETE PAVING. As a successful protection against wave action concrete

paving should be monolithic and of high durability. Underlying materials should be

pervious to prevent development of uplift water pressure. Use a minimum thickness of

6".

When monolithic construction is not possible, keep the joints to a minimum and sealed.

Reinforce the slab at mid depth in both directions with continuous reinforcement through

the construction joints. Use steel area in each direction equal to 0.5% of the concrete

area.

7.6.2.6 GABIONS. Slopes can be protected by gabions.



Table 5 Thickness and Gradation Limits of Dumped Riprap

Gradation, percentage of stones of various weights, pounds (1)

Slope Nominal thickness,

inches Maximum size

40 to 50% greater than

50 to 60% from-to

0 to 10% less than (2)

3:1 30 2,500 1,250 75 – 1,250 75

2:1 36 4,500 2,250 100 – 2,250 100 (1) Sand and rock dust shall be less than 5%, by weight, of the total riprap material (2) The percentage of this size material shall not exceed an amount which will fill the voids in larger rock.



8. BIBLIOGRAPHY American Society of Photogrammetry, Manual of Photo Interpretation, Washington, D. C., 1960. ASTM STP 447, Determination of the In Situ Modulus of Deformation of Rock, Symposium, Denver, February 2-7, 1969. Ash, J. L. et al., Improved Subsurface Investigation for Highway Tunnel Design and Construction, Vol. 1, Subsurface Investigation System Planning, FHWA, May 1974. Burmister, D. M., Physical, Stress-Strain, and Strength Responses of Granular Soils, ASTM Spec. Pub. No. 322, ASTM, Philadelphia, pp 67-97, 1962. Cedergren, H., Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1967. Chen, W. F., Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., New York, 1975. Dallaire, G., Controlling Erosion and Sedimentation at Construction Sites, Civil Engineering, ASCE, pp 73-77, 1976. Foster, C. R. and Ahlvin, P. G., Stresses and Deflections Induced by Uniform Circular Load, Highway Research Board Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Washington, D. C., 1954. Harr, M. E., Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1962. Hoek, E. and Bray, J. W., Rock Slope Engineering, 2nd Edition, The Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, London, 1977. Menard, L. F., Interpretation and Application of Pressuremeter Test Results, Soils-Soils, Vol. 26, pp 1-43, 1975. Mooney, H. M., Handbook of Engineering Seismology, Bison Instruments, Inc., Minneapolis, MN., 1973. Noorany, I. and Gizienski, S. F., Engineering Properties of Submarine Soils, A State-of-the-Art Review, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol. 96, No. SM5, 1970. Peck, R. B., Stability of Natural Slopes, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, No. SM4, 1967.



Poulos, N. C. and Davis,E. H., Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1974. Seed, H. B., A Method for Earthquake Resistant Design of Earth Dams, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol. 92, No. SM1, 1966. Seed, H. B., Makdisi, F. I. and De Alba, P., Performance of Earthdams During Earthquakes, Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 104, No. GT7, 1978. Skempton, A. W., and Hutchinson, J., Stability of Natural Slopes and Embankment Foundations, State-of-the-Art Paper, Proceedings, Seventh International Conference Soil Mechanics Foundation Engineering, Mexico, pp 291-340, 1969. Soil Conservation Service, USDA, A Comprehensive System, 7th Approximation, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. p. 265, 1960, and supplement 1967, 1968, and 1970. Sowers, C. F., Shallow Foundations, Foundation Engineering, Leonards, Editor, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, Chapter 6, 1962. Stagg, K. G., Insitu Tests on the Rock Mass, Rock Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Stagg and Zienkiewicz, Editors, John Wiley and Sons, New York, Chapter 5, 1969. Terzaghi, K., Varieties of Submarine Slope Failures, Proceedings, Eighth Texas Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1956. Terzaghi, K., Stability of Steep Slopes on Hard, Unweathered Rock, Geotechnique, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1962. Transportation Research Record 581: Innovations in Subsurface Exploration of Soils, Transportation Research Board, 1976. Underwood, L. B., Exploration and Geologic Prediction for Underground Works, Subsurface Exploration for Underground Excavation and Heavy Construction, ASCE, New York, pp 65-83, 1974. U.S.G.S., Earth Science Information in Land-Use Planning –Guidelines for Earth Scientists and Planners, Geological Survey Circular No. 721, U. S. Geological Survey, Fairfax, VA., 1976.



9. GLOSSARY Activity of Clay - The ratio of plasticity index to percent by weight of the total sample that is smaller than 0.002 mm in grain size. This property is correlated with the type of clay material. Anisotropic Soil - A soil mass having different properties in different directions at any given point referring primarily to stress-strain or permeability characteristics. Capillary Stresses - Pore water pressures less than atmospheric values produced by surface tension of pore water acting on the meniscus formed in void spaces between soil particles. Clay Size Fraction - That portion of the soil which is finer than 0.002 mm, not a positive measure of the plasticity of the material or its characteristics as a clay. Desiccation - The process of shrinkage or consolidation of the fine-grained soil produced by increase of effective stresses in the grain skeleton accompanying the development of capillary stresses in the pore water. Effective Stress - The net stress across points of contact of soil particles, generally considered as equivalent to the total stress minus the pore water pressure. Equivalent Fluid Pressure - Horizontal pressures of soil, or soil and water, in combination, which increase linearly with depth and are equivalent to those that would be produced by a heavy fluid of a selected unit weight. Excess Pore Pressures - That increment of pore water pressures greater than hydro-static values, produced by consolidation stresses in compressible materials or by shear strain. Exit Gradient - The hydraulic gradient (difference in piezometric levels at two points divided by the distance between them) near to an exposed surface through which seepage is moving. Flow Slide - Shear failure in which a soil mass moves over a relatively long distance in a fluid-like manner, occurring rapidly on flat slopes in loose, saturated, uniform sands, or in highly sensitive clays. Hydrostatic Pore Pressures - Pore water pressures or groundwater pressures exerted under conditions of no flow where the magnitude of pore pressures increase linearly with depth below the ground surface. Isotropic Soil - A soil mass having essentially the same properties in all directions at any given point, referring directions at any given point, referring primarily to stress-strain or permeability characteristics.



Normal Consolidation - The condition that exists if a soil deposit has never been subjected to an effective stress greater than the existing overburden pressure and if the deposit is completely consolidated under the existing overburden pressure. Overconsolidation - The condition that exists if a soil deposit has been subjected to an effective stress greater than the existing overburden pressure. Piezometer - A device installed for measuring the pressure head of pore water at a specific point within the soil mass. Piping - The movement of soil particles as the result of unbalanced seepage forces produced by percolating water, leading to the development of boils or erosion channels. Plastic Equilibrium - The state of stress of a soil mass that has been loaded and deformed to such an extent that its ultimate shearing resistance is mobilized at one or more points. Positive Cutoff - The provision of a line of tight sheeting or a barrier of impervious material extending downward to an essentially impervious lower boundary to intercept completely the path of subsurface seepage. Primary Consolidation - The compression of the soil under load that occurs while excess pore pressures dissipate with time. Rippability - The characteristic of dense and rocky soils that can be excavated without blasting after ripping with a rock rake or ripper. Slickensides - Surfaces with a soil mass which have been smoothed and striated by shear movements on these surfaces. Standard Penetration Resistance - The number of blows of a 140-pound hammer, falling 30 inches, required to advance a 2-inch O.D., split barrel sampler 12 inches through a soil mass. Total Stress - At a given point in a soil mass the sum of the net stress across contact points of soil particles (effective stress) plus the pore water pressure at the point. Underconsolidation - The condition that exists if a soil deposit is not fully consolidated under the existing overburden pressure and excess hydrostatic pore pressures exist within the material. Varved Silt or Clay - A fine-grained glacial lake deposit with alternating thin layers of silt or fine sand and clay, formed by variations in sedimentation from winter to summer during the year.



10. SYMBOLS Symbol Designation A Cross-sectional area. A+c, Activity of fine-grained soil. a+v, Coefficient of compressibility. B,b Width in general; or narrow dimension of a foundation unit. CBR California Bearing Ratio. C+c, Compression index for virgin consolidation. CD Consolidated-drained shear test. C+r, Recompression index in reconsolidation. C+s, Swelling index. CU Consolidated-undrained shear test. C+u, Coefficient of uniformity of grain size curve. C+z, Coefficient of curvation of gradation curve. C+[alpha], Coefficient of secondary compression. c Cohesion intercept for Mohr's envelop of shear strength based on total stresses. c' Cohesion intercept for Mohr's envelope of shear strength based on effective stresses. c+h, Horizontal coefficient of consolidation. c+v, Vertical coefficient of consolidation. D,d Depth, diameter, or distance. D+r, Relative density.



D+10, Effective grain size of soil sample; 10% by dry weight of sample is smaller than this grain size. D+5,, D+60, Grain size division of a soil sample. D+85, percent of dry weight smaller than this grain size is indicated by subscript. E Modulus of elasticity of structural material. E+s, Modulus of elasticity or "modulus of deformation" of soil. e Void ratio. e+f, Final void ratio reached in loading phase of consolidation test. e+o, Initial void ratio in consolidation test generally equal to natural void in situ. e+r, Void ratio existing at the start of rebound in a consolidation test. F Shape factor describing the characteristics of the flow field in underseepage analysis. F+s, Safety factor in stability or shear strength analysis. G Specific gravity of solid particles in soil sample, or shear modulus of soil. H,h In general, height or thickness. For analysis of time rate of consolidation, H is the maximum vertical dimension of the drainage path for pore water. h+c, Capillary head formed by surface tension in pore water. H+t, Depth of tension cracks or total thickness of consolidating stratum or depth used in computing loads on tunnels. H+w, Height of groundwater or of open water above a base level. I Influence value for vertical stress produced by superimposed load, equals ratio of stresses at a point in the foundation to intensity of applied load.



i Gradient of groundwater pressures in underseepage analysis. K+A, Coefficient of active earth pressures. K+p, Coefficient of passive earth pressures. K+v, Modulus of subgrade reaction for bearing plate or foundation of width b. K+v*, Modulus of subgrade reaction for 1 ft square bearing plate at ground surface. k Coefficient of permeability in general. k+H, Coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction. k+m, Mean coefficient of permeability of anisotropic subsoil. ksf Kips per sq ft pressure intensity. ksi Kips per sq in pressure intensity. k+V, Coefficient of permeability in vertical direction. L,1 Length in general or longest dimension of foundation unit. LI Liquidity index. LL Liquid limit. m+v, Coefficient of volume compressibility in consolidation test. n Porosity of soil sample. n+d, Number of equipotential drops in flow net analysis of underseepage. n+e, Effective porosity, percent by volume of water drainable by gravity in total volume of soil sample. n+f, Number of flow paths in flow net analysis of underseepage. OMC Optimum moisture content of compacted soil.



P+A, Resultant active earth force. P+AH, Component of resultant active force in horizontal direction. pcf Density in pounds per cubic foot. P+c, Preconsolidation stress. P+h, Resultant horizontal earth force. P+o, Existing effective overburden pressure acting at a specific height in the soil profile or on a soil sample. PI Plasticity index. PL Plastic limit. P+P, Resultant passive earth force. P+PH, Component of resultant passive earth force in horizontal direction. P+v, Resultant vertical earth force. P+w, Resultant force of water pressure. p Intensity of applied load. q Intensity of vertical load applied to foundation unit. q+u, Unconfined compressive strength of soil sample. q+ult, Ultimate bearing capacity that causes shear failure of foundation unit. R,r Radius of pile, caisson well or other right circular cylinder. R+o, Radius of influence of a well, distance from the well along a radial line to the point where initial groundwater level is unaltered. r+e, Effective radius of sand drain. r+s, Radius of smear zone surrounding sand drain.



r+w, Actual radius of sand drain. S Percent saturation of soil mass. SI Shrinkage index. SL Shrinkage limit. S+t, Sensitivity of soil, equals ratio of remolded to undisturbed shear strength. s Shear strength of soil for a specific stress or condition in situ, used instead of strength parameters c and [phi]. T+o, Time factor for time at end of construction in consolidation analysis for gradual loading. T+v, Time factor in consolidation analysis for instantaneous load application. tsf Tons per sq ft pressure intensity. t,t+1, t+2,,t+n, to Time intervals from start of loading the points 1, 2, or n. t+50,,t+100, Time required for a percent consolidation to be completed indicated by subscript U Resultant force of pore water or groundwater pressures acting on a specific surface within the subsoils. U Average degree of consolidation at any time. u Intensity of pore water pressure. UU Unconsolidated-undrained shear test. V+a, Volume of air or gas in a unit total volume of soil mass. V+s, Volume of solids in a unit total volume of soil mass. V+v, Volume of voids in a unit total volume of soil mass. V+w, Volume of water in a unit total volume of soil mass.



W+s, Weight of solids in a soil mass or soil sample. W+t, Total weight of soil mass or soil sample. W+w, Weight of water in a soil mass or soil sample. w Moisture content of soil. [gamma]+D, Dry unit weight of soil [gamma]+MAX, Maximum dry unit weight of soil determined from moisture content dry unit weight curve. [gamma]+SAT, Saturated unit weight of soil. [gamma]+SUB, [gamma]+b, Submerged (buoyant) unit weight of soil mass. [gamma]+T, Wet unit weight of soil above the groundwater table. [gamma]+W, Unit weight of water, varying from 62.4 pcf for fresh water to 64 pcf for sea water. [epsilon] Unit strain in general. [epsilon]+a, Axial strain in triaxial shear test. [W-DELTA]e Change in void ratio corresponding to a change in effective stress, [W-DELTA]p. Magnitude of settlement for various conditions conditions [delta], [delta]+v, [delta]+c, [phi] Angle of internal friction or "angle of shearing resistance," obtained from Mohr's failure envelope for shear strength. [sigma] Total major principal stress. [sigma]+3, Total minor principal stress [sigma]*. Effective major principal stress [sigma]+3, Effective minor principal stress.



[sigma]+x,, Normal stresses in coordinate directions. [sigma]+y,, [sigma]+z, [tau] Intensity of shear stress. [tau]+MAX, Intensity of maximum shear stress. [upsilon] Poisson's Ratio

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