approaches to the history of the english language20130709_12392827

7/28/2019 Approaches to the History of the English Language20130709_12392827

1/156

APPROACHES TO THE HISTORY

OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

David F. Maas, Ed.D.

Edited by

Benjamin Boyer

Ambassador College

Pasadena, California

copyright 1990 David Maasrevised edit ion

All rights reservedPrinted in the USA


2/156

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgement is made to the following students, who contributed to this project. The texts

with an asterisk next to them were critiqued by the author in the original survey. The two-letter

abbreviation is used to identify texts where used in charts throughout.

Abbreviation

BA

BL

BK

BT

CK

FR

GN

HK

MT

MS

MC

MYNI

PE

PY

R NSV

SGW I

Text

Bambas*BaughBerndt

*BloomfieldBoltonBradley

*Brook*BryantBurchfieldCannonClaiborneClark

*Cook

DonahueEmerson

Fernald

* Francis* Gordon

Groom*Hook*Marckwardt*MartinMcCrumMcKnight

*McLaughlin*Myers*Nist* Peters*Pyles* Robertson*Stevick*Strang*WiIliamsWrenn

Contributor

Susan GathersDavid F. MaasDennis Tse

David F. Maas

Julie E. AndersonDavid F. MaasDavid F. Maas

Paul ForesterKathryn CarsonCheryl StuderMatt FeakesDavid F. MaasPhilip AustTonya CookmanDebbie Aitchison

David F. MaasDavid F. Maas; Gina Caldwell

Shannon McKenzieDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasKim KundertDavid SorensonDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDavid F. MaasDan Reedy


3/156

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Grateful acknowledgement mu stbe given to R u th Muench for

he r monumentaleffort of keying th e original projectfrom typewritten

form to the electronic format. Her editorial assistanceof adding th e

new contributionsfrom the students' papersis greatly appreciated. She

was assisted in this pioneering project by PaulaJohnson. Thanks must

also be given for the typing and editorial assistanceof Vicki Fuessel,

Sondra Peters, and Dianne Seelhoff.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


4/156

Table of Contents

Introduction v

General Description of Textbooks Surveyed 1

Analysis of Selected Descriptors 13

Language (Origin and Na ture) 15

Germanic Characteristics 19

Grimm's Law 25

Indo-European Fam ily Divisions 33

Scandinavian Influence and the Danelaw 39

Grammatical Gender 43

Inflection in Old English 48

Caxton and Printing 56

Inflectional Decay in Middle English 60

Factors In Middle English Inflectional Decay 68

The Great Vowel Shift 69

Diagrams of the Great VowelShift 74

Borrowing: Enrichment 79

The English Academy 87

Prescriptive Grammar 91

Semantics 96

American and British Compared 101

American Dialects 105

Appendix A 109

Appendix B 112

Appendix C 116

Selected Bibliography 147

111


5/156


6/156

Introduction

The purpose of this project is to provide materialsfor a judicious selectionof a textbook for an

undergraduatecourse in the history of the English langu age. The orig inal impetus for this study was a

pressing need to prepare for my doctoralqualifying exams, coupled w ith a respon sibility to dev elop a

syllabus for such a course I would be teaching th e following year.The data were collectedan d processed in seven distinct stages:

1. Determining the list of textbooks to compare.

2. De termin ing criteria for screening and elimination.

3. Determining the major componentsfor the structure of the discipline.

4. De term ining specific descriptors (general descriptions of recurr ing concepts) which wo uld be

used to an alyze the contents ofspecific textbooks.

5. Determining the penetration givento each descriptoras determined by the number of pages

devoted to each topic.

6. Collecting pagin ation datafrom 20 textbooks for each of the 71 descriptors decided upon.

7. Collecting specific data from nine textbooks for more detailed descriptive analysis.

The first stage was accomplished by perusing the bibliographies of a large assortment of

textbooks on thehistory of the Eng lish language, takenfrom the stacks at the lib raries of East Texas

State Un iversity, the Univ ersity of M innesota, and M ank ato State University. Fu rthe r advice in the

selection of texts was given by Dr. Jo hn B.Foster, of M ank ato State U niversity; Dr. David H arrington,

of Gustavus Adolphus College, in St. Peter, Minnesota; Dr. Edith Hols, of the University of Minnesota;

and D r. No rm an F. Christensen, of the U niversity of Wisconsin.

The scope of this study would include any textbook which could be considered themajortextbook for an un de rgra du ate course in the history of the English language. One of the mai n

difficulties with this criterionis that courseson the history of the English languageare being absorbed

into introductory linguisticsor gene ral ling uistics coursesat an increasing rate. Moreover, th e increasing

discoveries in linguistic sciencear e continually changingthe content an d configurat ionof such courses.

Consequently, the 20 texts selected fo r initial comparison wereno t exactly hom ogen ous. Eleven

were specifically designedas histories of the English language,four were prim arily introductio nsto

linguistics, two were gra mm ar texts with a historical o rientation, and the remaining two were an thologies

of readings on the histo ry of the language. Some were straight expository treatm ents, others w ere

inductive treatments, an d some were a combinationof the two. Traditional historicalan d modernlinguisticapproaches competefo r dominancein the field.

The first phase of determiningth e proper criteriafo r selection an d eliminationwas to discover

the most favored topicsof discussion. To find these most favored topics,the tables of contents were

placed in alphabetical order on a set ofchartsonearranged alphabetically and one arranged


7/156

chronologically. Th e frequency with whicha topic appeared was carefully noted, both in terms of a

single descriptor and as a part of a cluster.

The alphabetical arrangem entof topics teased ou t clusters of related topics which would have

been more difficult to discover otherwise. For example, "sounds and sound change," "sounds of English,"

"sounds of language," and "sounds of speech" could all be grouped and cou nted u nde r one cluster.

When this cluster could be combined with"phonology"and "phonological change," new relationshipscould be identified. The alphabetical listsof tables of contents are found in Appendix A.

When the major topics for the history of the English language were first determined,textbooks

which highlighted most of these topics were selected forfurther analysis of specific topics. Albert

Baugh's outline appearedto be the most practical blendof all the components of the history of the

language. Consequently, Bau gh's outlinewas used to estimate the proportion of emphasis devoted to

each area. A modified form of this outline is found in Appendix B.

Determining thespecific descriptors to examine was one of the most difficult parts of this study.

The difficulties could be explained as follows:

1. Synonym proliferation: Authors are sensitive about pirating each other's terminology.

Consequently, "Old English"can also be rendered "Early English"; "outer history"can also be

rendered "external history"; "Latinist-N ativist" couldalso be rendered "Classicist-Purist."

2. Abstrac tion levels: By cha ngin g levels ofspecificity, authors have been able to increase the

num ber of subunits. Consequently, thefollowing units can be generated:

Grammar/ \y Syntax

NounsAdjectivesAdverbs

Etc.

3. Arbitrary sub-categories: Just when the stude ntfeels that he has mastered the main

classifications, such as Old English, Middle English,an d Modern English,the author subdivides

one or more of the categories into smaller units, such as Early Modern and Mature Modern or

Authoritarian and Renaissance.

After perusing the list of topics, 71 selected descriptors were placedon data collection cards

keyed to 19 of the 20 textbooks. Th e Martin and Steinberg text had no index to aid in the collection

and was not, therefore, used in this phase. Altern ate forms of the descriptor were placedon the cards,

as well as some other identifying terms in case the index did not contain the main descriptor.

Consequently, the "C lassicist-Purist Debate" card had in brackets "L atinist-Na tivist," "Ink hornterms,"

"Cheke," and so on. The list of descriptors and the number of pages devoted to each by the authors are

placed in Appendix C, a ready-reference list for 34 textbooks.

vi


8/156

General Description of Textbooks Surveyed

A History of theEnglish Language,by Albert C. Baugh, is one of those reference pointsor bench

marks from which other similar worksin its field can be measured. This assertioncan be supported by

the number of times Baugh's nameis mentioned in the acknowledgements or cited in bibliographies.

Baugh's History has been for years the leading textbook on the subject, designed both for a graduate

course in the history an d development of the English languageand for an upper division unde rgraduate

course.

In hi s preface Baugh states that he desires to maintain a blend of internal

(structural) historyand external (social, political, economic, etc.) history.The approach, consequently,is

chronolog ical by way of periods or stages in the develop ment of the language.

The scholarship is widely recognized. Roland G. Kent calls Baugh a "master of all the original

sources" (72). Kent feels that the relationship between the French and En glish lang uageafter the

Norman Conquest is given full an d complete treatment. Bibliographiesare partially annotatedat the

conclusio n of each chapter. Specimens of M iddle Eng lish dialects and Eng lish spelling are placed in his

appendix.

The English Language:It s Origin an d History, by Rudolph Bambas, treatsthe subjects

chronologically, with the oldest period first. This organizational system tendsto cause some choppiness;

for instance, one must search all over the book to find all the information on borrowing. The structural

outline also seems choppy;its page headingsand flow are not conducive to smooth transitionsan d easy

understanding.

On the positive side, Bamb as uses many examples to m ake his case clear. He p refersclarity to

pedantic language. His book is also interesting reading, especially th e history containedin chapters 1and 2. The several maps he has included are veryhelpful, as is the chart on the physiology of speech.

Rolf Berndt's text, A History of th e English Language,printed in the German Democratic

Republic, is writte n with German-spea king students in min d. Other interested readers, however,will

find it a source of valuable info rmatio n. In the preface, the purpose of the book is stated: "to ac qu ain t

the student with some of the major aspects of the history of the language in order to widen his or her

understanding of present-day English as a historically evolved social phenomenon" (3). Berndt's main

approach in organ izing his text is based o n the threemain sections in the study of language. Thus, the

three main sections of the book are divided into lexical, morphological/syntactic,an d phonological

developments. In the begin ning , Berndt also provides a historical back groun d on the dev elopm ent of

the English language.

Among the merits of this text are the copious lists provided,giving examples in the original Old

an d Middle English. The book also traces in detail the many areas of development underth e three


9/156

linguistic areas mentioned above. In the back of the book there is a very useful an d comprehensive

glossary of Old and Middle English words used in the text. The glossary covers 129 pages.

One of the weaknesses of the text is a poor layout, with an ineffective use of white space. Lists,

text, an d diagrams all run together, one after the other, making th e pages look clutteredan d hard to

read. Berndt's writing style, at times, seems cryptic, stringing out lengthy sentences by the use of

commas.Overall, this text can provide in-depth information on the development of the English language

in the three areas of lexis, morphology/syntax,an d phonology.

Bloomfield and Newmark'sA Linguistic Introductionto the English Languageis intended as an

introductory text fo r linguistics, presum ablyat the undergraduate level. The authors are eclectic an d

steadfastly refuse to subscribe to any one linguistic position. The rationale for this approach is that

students should be exposed to manydifferent varieties of linguistic inquiry whilestudying the history of

the language. One of the unique feature s of thiseclectic approach is the generation of theLord's Prayer

through rules of transformational grammar. Some critics, including JamesSledd, take issue with this

approach, stating thatthe continuous "shifting of methods an d points of view makes it impossible fo r

the student to put together a connected account" (482).

One of the special features besides the transformational grammar generation of theLord's Prayer

is a useful index of morphem es, words, and phrases. A special unit in the appen dix treats the "ev olution

of root vowels in the first six classes of Old English strong verbs"(367).

Arnold Bolton wrote his text,A ShortHistory of Literary English, in order to give the reader a

better understanding of how history hasaffected the English language. He breaks this analysis dow n

into a brief yet somewhat comprehensive discussion of the internal components and changesfrom Old

to Middle, then Earlyan d Late Modern English. The external influencesof history on the English

language are also discussed, but in substantially less detail than the internal influences. It is written

primarily from a historical perspective; topics such as dialectic differen ces and other im po rta nt ling uis tic

areas such as morphology an d semantics are barely covered. This book w ould serveas the ideal

introduction to a linguistic study, givingthe necessary historical background to the development of the

English lan guage over tim e, wh ile also giving a taste of other imp ortan t areas ofstudy within the field.

However, the somewhat limited internalreferencing makes this text difficult for classroom use.

The stated purpose of The Making of English,by Henry Bradley, is "to give to educated readers

unversed in philology some notion of the causes tha t have produc ed the excellences and defects of

modern English." The introduction gives the format or "skeleton" of the book. He begins by describingthe similarities an d dissimilaritiesof German an d English, then proceeds to sketch the character of

Anglo-Saxon. His purp ose thereon is "not to focus upo n the changes tha t have taken place in

chronological sequence but to give some idea of thecauses by which the more remarkable changes were

brought about, and to estimate theeffect which these changes have had on the fitness of English as an


10/156

instrument for the expression of thought." Scattered throughoutall of this are insights into the nature

of language.

Brook's History of theEnglish Languageis a general text written from a thematic orientation

rather than a historical orientation. A unit on phonetic terms is included although the history of the

vocabulary is not emphasized. The synchronicapproach makes it possible for many of the chapters to

be read o ut of sequence. Because of its low rating in the treatme nt of key descriptors, it was n otchosen to be surveyed.

Bryant's Modem Englishand Its Heritage is not primarily designed to be a major textbook for a

course in the history of the language, although its detailed organization in thefirst part, "The Heritage

of Modern English," makesit a most valuable reference book. This textis intended to be an

introduc tion to the field of linguistics, with history, phonology, g ram ma r, and vocab ulary given equ al

treatment. The portion mostuseful for this study is the first part, which examines the historical

development of the language from its Indo-European origins to the present. A very useful feature of

this text is its chapter bibliographies, providing paginationfor many leading authoritiesin the field

discussed.

The English Language,written by Robert Burchfleld, is abrief surveyof the development of th e

English language. He stresses both the flexibility and theresilience of the language, giving special

prominence to the recording of the language in dictionaries an d grammars. He discusses the linguistic

importance of migrationfrom the homeland. Close attention is paid to partic ular areas such as

pronunciation, dialect,slang, th e formation of words, the language of literature, and the language of the

English Bible. Burchfield also exam ines the method s of some mo dern scholars. He does not discuss to

any degree the differences between American dialectsan d those of other English-speakingpeoples.

Burchfield shows us the beauty andfull richness of our extraordinary language.

Garland Cannon'sA History of th e English Languageis a good introductorytext for begin ning

students. Coverageof the various descriptors is not detailed, but the basic concepts are made clear an d

understandable, even to the novice. The aspect most stressed is the acquisition and developmentof

words as the English language changed.The approach taken by the text is chronological, showing both

internal and external influences. Cannon's book features exercisesat the end of each chapter as well as

a reasonably thorough glossary. The table of contents, however, doesno t cite very many page numbers.

Moreover, there is no index,which makes finding material on a certain subject tedious and laborious, if

not impossible, for the beginn er. There is no bibliography.

Overall, Cannon provides a good general introduction to the history of the English language,valuab le as a bridge to other texts which assume a knowledg e of the basic concepts. It is not surp rising

that Cannon's workhas been a popular textbook in high schools.

Claiborne's Our Marvelous Native Tounge is a general text which portraysthe history of the

ever-changing English Language.Claiborne begins his text with a chapter on the importance of

speaking English. He refers to it as " . . . a most extraordinarylanguage." In an interesting chapter


11/156

called "Not Everybody's English," he provides some arresting informationon dialects, both in the United

States and abroad.

Claiborne's is an engaging bookon the history of English. It is good for someone who is

interested in reading a brief, bu t fairly thorough synopsisof the chronology of English. Claiborne's

main source of information is Albert Baugh's A History of the English Language.

Cecily Clark's text, An Introductio n to theHistory of the English Language,is an Englishadaptation of Georges Boarder's book by the same name. Accordingto Clark, in her translator's note:

"The basic concept behind this book remains that of Monsieur Bourcier. This English versionis,

however, an adaptation rather thana word-for-word translation... the purpose has been to interpretan essentially French book for readers to whom English ways of life and thought are more familiar than

French ones." The book is a thematic studyof the history of the English languageand not a study by

periods. It is me ant to be an"introduction"to history an d, secondarily, to linguistics; it is in tend ed for

the underg raduate. Perhaps because Bourcierrealizes that his book is only an introduction,he provides

an extensive list of further readings on many topics previously coveredin each chapter. Thissection at

the end of every chapter is quite useful. The book is weak in its coverage of early and recent history.

He does no t discuss the origin of language,no r does he cover American dialects, Britishan d American

dialects in comparison, or semantics.

Albert Cook's Introduction to the English Languageis designed for an undergraduatecourse

introducing the student to the general field of linguistics. It could be used in an upper division

undergraduate course if it could be supplemented by advancedresource works in the field. The

orientation is both inductive and scientific, the studen t being given enough backg round infor m ation and

data to discover the answers for him self.

The chronology is presented in reverse order, the most recent historical events givenfirst. Many

of the inductive exercises involve studying passagesof literature, a feature which should appealto

English majors withan orientation to literature. The organization is basically them atic, withtheories of

grammar, sentence patterns, an d dialects givenseparate treatment. A unique featureof this text which

should appeal to potential English teachers is aunit that discusses the place o f ling uistics in the

English-teaching profession.

Delia Donahue'sOutline of the Growthan d Developmentof the English Languageis a linguist's

historical approach to understandingth e English language. The book begins with Donahue's citingth e

origin of English as coming from an Indo-European language;sh e then proceeds through succeeding

important events which affected the language we know today as Present Modern English (5). Don ahueincludes such eventsas the Norman Conquest, Caxton's printing press, an d many other highlights (6).

She concludes by predicting that Englishwill always change,an d that the English vocabulary will

continue to increase. Basinghe r speculations on past trends, sh e believes that English is increasing in

appeal to all speakers an d will undoub tedly becomethe scientific languageof tomorrow (105).


12/156


13/156

James Gordon, in his The English Language:An Historical Introduction,attempts to fulfi l l the

tw o important needs of providing a textbook for an undergraduate history-of-the-English-language

course, as well as bringing the student up-to-date on many of the newfindings of structu ral linguistics.

Gordon feels that the many processes of language changeare exciting phenomena which should not be

wasted on a handful of experts. He suggests that the high level of abstraction w ith which most l ingu istic

findings are presented to studentsoften "alienates the very students (potential Englishteachers with anorientation towards literature) whomwe wouldbe most eager to attract" (preface).

Consequently, manyconcrete examples from literature are used to illustrate sophisticated

linguisticconcepts. The organization is chronological, with phonemic, grammatical,an d lexical change

treated in compartmentalized units, illustrating transitionfrom one period to the next. There is an

introductory unit on the generalprocesses of linguistic change with semantical, phonological, and

grammatical components examined separately. As the chronological-historical progression develops, the

same compo nents are examined independ ently.

A Short History of English Words, by Bernard Groom,is exactly whatthe title suggests:a short

history. The text is organized in a somewhat chronological m anner. Chapters1 and 2 are devoted to

Old English wordsand foreign words which have been adoptedby the English language.The last tw o

chapters concentrateon the historical developmentsof the vocabularyfrom 1500 to 1934. The chapters

in between deal witha variety of topics, including"Poetic Words" and "Changes ofMeaning."

Groom writes in his preface that A ShortHistory was written as a"guide to the intelligentuse of

the English D ictionary." This explains his thoroughn ess in dealin g w ith thetopic of English words, as

well as his lack of attention to the history of the English languagein general. Another problemis the

choppiness of the text. Instead of covering a sub ject discretely, he seems to intersperse bits andpieces

throughout the whole book.

J. N. Hook directs his textbook,History of the English Language,at prospective English teachers,

both secondary and collegiate, providing suggestions for classroom activities which could be immediately

used in the secondary classroom. Althou gh mo derate attention is given to phonol ogy and syntax, the

greatest emphasis is onwordsetymology,vocabulary, and semantic change. Hook is sym pathetic to the

philosophy an d contributionsof general semanticists.

One of the u n iq u efeatures of this text is its "Index of Words," which cross-references over3,000

words. Becauseof the large numberof descriptors treated, this textw as chosen for more descriptive

analysis.

Albert Murkwardt 'stext, Introduction to the English Language,draws very heavilyon the findingsof historical and descriptive l inguistics. The orientation is both ind u ctive and scientific, giving the

student enough data to generalize for himself. In the same format that Cook used, the chronology is

presented in reverse order w ith the most recent historical events given f irst. Th e stude nts for wh om this

text is intended are upperdivision undergraduate students.


14/156

Martin and Steinberg's Then and Now is not a history of the English language text in the usual

sense of the word, but isprimarily an anthology of readings, chronologically developed byhistorical

periods, utilizing essays writtenby experts such as Albert Baugh, Margaret Bryant, ThomasPyles, L. M.

Myers, et al. Ab und ant literary passagesare used to provide inductive exercisesto help th e student

make generalizations aboutth e nature an d development of the English language. Sincethe anthology

contains no index, individual descriptors could not be analyzed.The Storyof English,by Robert McCrum and Robert MacNeil, covers the growth of English

from its beginnings to its present status of being spoken by over on e billion people. The book

dem onstrates how the earliest inha bitan ts of Brita in influence d the Eng lish languag e. It also traces the

developm ent of English. Wh ile looking at Anglo-Am erican, it also deals quite extensively with Scottish-

English, Irish-English, Black-E nglish, and other newforms of English, such as Caribbean-English and

English in Africa an d India.

The authors of this book make the history of the English languagefull of color and drama by

not looking at it scientifically, but m ore journalistically, as a "journey m oving throug h tim e and space."

They describe the varieties of English, rather than talk about the fine line between "accent, dialect, and

language."

In Modern English in the Making,McKnight truly executes the purpose he outlined for this book.

In the preface he states that the book is an"attempt to show the principle changes that have taken

place in the English language sincethe adoption, in the fourteenthcentury, of the East Midland dialect

as the standard form of English" (v). Alth oug h M cKn ight does not cover the history of English, its

relatives, or ancestors, the amount of thou ght, research, an d insight that has gone into this vivid,

readable book ade qua tely covers the English language's history and form ulatio n. Because it was

published in 1928, this book lacksthe linguistic knowledgeof the English language thathas beencompiled since that time.

Two texts which wereno t selected fo r more intense penetration becauseof the disproportionate

am ount of space devoted to developing transfo rm ational gram m ar models were Martin andRulon's The

English Language: Yesterday an d Today, and McLaughlin'sAspectsof the History of English. Martin and

Rulon include transformational gram m ar modelsto illustrate a largely internal history. The overall aim

of the text is to utilize the principles of transformational grammarin order to blend diachronic (changes

through history) andsynchronic (changes within the structure) viewpoints.

McLaughlin also appliesthe branching tree diagrams of transformational grammarto Old

English and Middle English. He utilizes findingsfrom other branches of linguistics, including an arrayof semantic theories. Semantic fields and ranges, Osgood's substitution theory,an d Ogden an d Richards'

triangle are given more attention thanin m ost other histories. Ne itherof these texts is surveyed in the

next section because of low rating in the descriptors for external history.

In terms of a historical introduction to the English language, Myers, in hisThe Roots of Modern

English, could be classified as a lightwe ight Bau gh. M yers acknowledgeshis indebtedness to the


15/156

scholarship of A. C. Baugh and G. L. Brooks. Except for two special units on language theory and

phonology, the text is organized chronologicallyby periods followingthe pattern of Baugh.

Although he claims to have omitted many detailson phonology, Myers providesan excellent

introduction to phone mics and phonemic transcription-essential tools for understanding a highly

important part of language and language change.

Also treated with brevity,bu t with concentrated thoroughnessan d clarity, are his explanationsand descriptions of stru ctu ral linguistics, generative-tran sform ational g ram ma r, andother current

developments in language study.

In the descriptor analysis, Myers ranked near the top in terms of items discussed although the

pages devoted to each item are far fewer than in Baugh orPyles.

Of all the texts surveyed in this study, John Nist's A StructuralHistory of Englishleads the field

in terms of organization and proportion. In ma nyways it combines the best fea ture s of the

chronological and the thematic approachesto the history of the English language.

Even though Mist includ es the tools and techniques of mod ern lin guistic analysis, hedoes no t

cast aside the external history (political, social, economic, and geographical factors) so vital to the

understanding of the complete picture of language change.

The attentio n to linguistic symm etry isseen in Nist's division of the text into twelve equally

proportioned units. The organization is basically chronological althoughthe work begins with the

present status of English and ends with thefuture status of English. The units arecarefully an d

proportionally compartmentalized, with the external history treated first, followed by a systematic

investigation of the phonological, morphological, syntactical, and formal aspects of the language

structure. To aid in the understandingof the phonology of English, Nist ha s included a pronunciation

key with a complete phonemic inventory , including descriptive key words. Suprasegm ental phonemes

an d other linguistic symbolsfollow the inventory. To aid in the comprehension of external history, a

summary of important dates, persons,an d characteristics of the language begins each unit. At the end

of each chapter, Nist not only includes an annotated bibliography but provides specific pagination

information forcertain texts. Imm ediately precedingth e helpful bibliographyis a list of questions fo r

research an d discussion which directsth e student to materials both insideand outside th e text. A

glossary of terms at the con clusion of the text provides ready infor m atio n for some of the mo re

technical terms introduced.

After survey ing the tables of contents in the textbooks in this section, I have concluded tha t

Nist's organizational pattern is by far the mostcarefully organized in terms of chronology, theme, andstructure. Consequently, the model outline which is placed in the appendix den otingareas from which

descriptors were takenis largely derived an d patterned after Nisl's. A course outline basedon Nist's

categories would ensure adequate penetration intoth e historical an d structural aspects of what might be

covered in a semester course entitled"The Histo ry and Development of the English Language."


16/156

Robert Peters designed A LinguisticHistory of English as an introductory undergraduatecourse

in the history of the English languagefo r "English and secondary education majors" (vii). Peters

realized that English majorsare ill-informed about developmentsin linguistic science; he consequently

feels a need to present a very elementary introduction to modern linguistic approaches. The internal

history of the language is terribly slighted, as one can seefrom the number of descriptors treated.

Plotkin, in his review of this text, suggests tha t the discussion of gram m ar is biased agains t all but thegenerative-transformational gram marians. The historical treatment of the m orphology and syntaxdiffers

from most other comparable texts.

While Nist uses the historical periods to compartmentalize externalan d structural history

(further subdivided into phonology, morphology, and syntax),Peters starts with minor units, such as

morphology and syntax, further subdividing them into even sm aller units on "historical verbs, adverbs,

etc.," illustrating Old, Middle, Early Modern,an d Late Modern English varieties within these subunits.

Consequently, while Nistis able to compress his units into 12 compartments, Peters requires28. Thus,

m aterials which ideally should be studied together (tha t is, phonology, m orphology, and syntax) are

studied separately.

In a course based on the outline of the text, the instructor would be tempted to spend one day

on "historical nouns"and one day on "historical pronouns" while earlier in the semester, he might spend

two days on "Old English phonemes" and two days on "Middle English phonemes."

If one is in the habit of eating his meals one portion at atime-vegetables first, meat next,

garnish later-this text would probably be afine arrangeme nt. I would, however, have to concur with

V. J. Plotkin that althoughit is "undoubtedlyan innovation among manualsof the history of English, it

cannot be regarded as an improvement" (89).

In a critical review of Pyles' The Origins and Developmentof the English Language,Ruper t

Palmer refers to Pyles' orientation as thoroughly pre-Bloomfieldian, despitePyles' claim of having

examined current linguistic scholarship.

Pyles, in the preface to his second edition, answers this chargean d makes clear the real

rationale of his text. He states, "This is not a book about current linguistic theories,and it employs no

polemics. Its primary concern, as isimplicit in its title, is the internal history of our language,

presented in a chronological treatmentof its phonological-gramm atical developmentfrom prehistoric

times to the present" (vi). Although treated with limited penetration,the external history is not

excluded in Pyles' wo rk as it has been in ma ny of the post-Bloom fieldian texts.

In Palmer's review of Pyles, the most negative remarks are made against the perfunctory aspectof the phonetics chapter, which is only 13 pages long. In addition to its brevity, the chapter is criticized

for its rejection of the Trager-Smith concept thatthe vowel nucleus soundsin bait, boat, an d boot are

diphthongs rather tha n mon ophthongs . M any of the other items criticized by Palmer, such as the lack

of a vowel quadrangleand lack of a diagram of the vocal organs, are rectified by Pyles in the second

edition.


17/156

One of the strong points of Pyles' text is its emphasis on the writing system, vocabulary,and

semantics. Many of the texts utilizing the tools and techniques of modern linguisticresearch slight these

aspects. An extensive indexof Modern English words,affixes, and phrases followsa selected

bibliography. The organization consists largelyof chronological periods, with the modern period broken

into two chapters-one for sounds and spelling and one for forms and syntax. Three chapters are

devoted to the vocabularyof the language-one emphasizing borrowing,one emphasizing adaptation,an don e emp hasizing m eaning change. Becauseof the high numberof descriptors treated, Pyles' text was

rated as one of the texts to receive a more detailed descriptive analysis in the next section.

When Frederick G. Cassidy revised Stuart Robertson's text in 1954, he did so with the view of

retaining the essential scholarship of the original 1934 text, rejectingor altering, however, those portions

which had not withstood th e test of time. Consequently,th e Robertson text to this day ranks up near

th e top of the list in its historical treatmentof the English language. Robertsonan d Cassidy treat 67

out of the 71 descriptors,placing this text at the top of the list of the 20 texts surveyed.Cassidy's

thorough scholarship has made this text aformidable competitor in the field.

Balance an d proportion are two of the reasons the Robertson an d Cassidy text ha s achieved this

high numerical r ating. In his origin al preface, Stuart Robertson claimed to desire a "just balance am ong

the topics . . . and not to allow the greater attention thatis paid to some of them today (phonetics,for

instance) to dictate that an undue amountof space be given to these" (vii). NeitherRobertson nor his

successor, Frederick Cassidy, loses his sense of proportion whennew facts an d theories seem to jar and

jolt the rest of the linguisticfield. Both Cassidy an d Robertson have remained steadfastin their

objective to treat fact as fact and the ory as theory. An exam ple of this sense of propo rtion is Cassidy's

treatment of the study of general semantics,a movement he treats neither as the lunatic fringe nor as

the panacea to all linguistic ailments. Realizing thata full treatment is outside the scope of the study,

significant attention is nevertheless given in a major footnote. It would be refreshing to see such a

sense of proportion in many of the post-Bloomfieldian,post-Chomsky textbooks.

In his preface toEnglish and ItsHistory, Robert Stevick claims that his text is going todispose

of many areas which are commonly studied in other comparable texts, such as the Indo-European family,

lexicography, and a capsu le history of England . Stevick refuses to endorse a ny specific lingu isticschool.

He also refuses to engage in any competitive polemics. Th e text is written without footnotes

(considered by Stevick as an inconvenience for the student) although a complete bibliography is included

at the end of the text.

Th e orientation is almost totally internalor structural, excludinglarge blocks of external history.Phonology is treated in chapters 3 through 10, in which "consonant systems"and "vocalic units" are some

of the subunits. Chapters 11 through 16 treat sub-groupsof morphology, with nouns, adjectives,and

verbs treated separately. The third group, chapters17 through 21 , deals with the lexicon. Separate

units are devoted to spelling, syntax,an d mean ing change.

10


18/156

Barbara Strong's A History of th e English Language is a new arrangement of the English

language, treating the subject in the traditional mode and making no excursions into current linguistic

theory. Af ter an introduc tory section, in wh ich she discusses theprocesses of linguistic change (lexical,

phonological, and gram matical), under the section heading "synchronic variation an d diachronic change,"

Strang launches intoa historical treatment.

Like Cook's arrang em ent, the chronology is presented in reverse o rder with the most recenthistorical events given first. She does not use the traditional periods outlined by Baugh an d others,

attempting, rather, to break the time segments into 200-year divisions. In each of these periods, Strang

discusses lexical, gram ma tical, and pho nological changes as well as some dem ograp hic ma terial ab ou t the

size and composition of the speech community.These nine 200-year periods do not have as clearly

divided compartmentsas does Nist's text,and consequently, a sense of continuityis difficult to maintain.

Strang believes that a sense of unity can be attained by rejecting quasi-scientific classifications made by

many historical linguists, focusing instead on the continuingprocess of language change.

Although Strang has cut through the "corsetted manageable chunks," her alternative arrangement

makes it more difficult to see the "peaks and the valleys." The arran gem ent instead presents the reader

with a "ceaselessly, oceanic, heaving,swelling" mass (xv). Consequently, althoughthe scholarship is

impeccable, the arrang emen t creates a certain degree of cognitive strain. When one tries to retrieve this

mass of information,he grasps handfuls of disjointed data.

Joseph M. Williams' text, Origins of theEnglish language,is perhaps the most truly inductive text

found w ithin this particular grou p. Williams' goal, to make the course as teacher-proof a s possible, is

stated in his preface in which he claims, "a single studentcan teach himselfthe history of English if he

merely reads the text and turns in the problems to be checked by an instructor"(vii). A plethora of

inductive exercises is placed within each unit. These problems are structured so that the student makesspecific generalizations abouta huge mass of data, usuallyin the form of lists of words or phrases.

In addition to the inductive approach, this textfa r outstrips al l others in the number an d kind

of diagrams, models, paradigms,an d theoretical constructs. Althoughit has clearly delved into current

linguistic practice, it has retained enough informationfrom the traditional modeto give it a high

descriptor rating in the quantita tive analysis. Alth oug h I wo uld hesitate to use it as themajor text,

since I am conditioned to a more expository approach, I wouldhighly recommend this text to any

student who is earnest about thoroughly saturatinghimself in the material.

C. L. Wrenn's English Language is a general text, as the title suggests, and is intended for home

study. This book was written in 1949 by an Oxford Anglo-Saxon professorin London. Although verysmall, it is, nevertheless, helpful, with a good table of contents and a thorough index. Little or no

depth is reached in the areas of sema ntics, English Academy, and Grim m's Law. However, it is strong

in the realm of history an d development,with numerous examplesfo r each contributionto the

progressive stages of English vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation,and syntax.

11


19/156

Completely separate unitsare devoted to the impact of prominent individual authorson

language, mo dern day usage analysis, and a final section on "aims and me thods of study." Th rou gho ut

the text, emphasis from an Englishm an's point of view is evident. The effectiveness of the text could be

improved with a more "user-oriented"layout. Although there is a thorough index,the addition of

subheadings throughout each section would greatly enhancean d make more readily availablethe

material he has to offer.

12


20/156

Analysis of Selected Descriptors

The following section is a comparative description of the method and intensity of treatment

given to 19 selected descriptors (from a list of 71) from nine English language history textbooks (from a

field of 20). The textbooks were selected on the basis of their having touched upon a large proportion

of the original list of 71 terms. The nine textbooks compared in this section all have no fewer than 50

of the 71 descriptors and identifiers. A numerical table of the specific numbers of descriptors wi th the

intensity of penetration given by each textbook is provided at the conclusion of the study.

The nine textbooks with their numerical scores are the following:

Number of descriptorsAbbr. Textbooks (with author) treated (out of 71)

BA Baugh, Albert C. A History of the English Language. 642n d ed . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pren-tice-Hall, 1957.

BL Bloomfield, Morton W., and Leonard Newmark. A 61LinguisticIntroduction to theHistory of English.New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963.

BT Bryant, Margaret M. Modem English and Its Heritage. 59New York: MacMillan, 1948.

HK Hook, J. N. History of th e English Language. Ne w York: 63Ronald, 1975.

MY Myers, L. M. Th e Roots of Modem English. Boston: 58Little, Brown, 1966.

NI Nist, John. A StructuralHistory of English. New York: 60Saint Martin's Press, 1966.

PY Pyles, Thomas. Th e Origins an d Development of the 58English Language. 2nd. ed. New York:Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, 1971.

RN Robertson, Stuart , and F. G. Cassidy. The Development 67of Modem English. 2nd. ed . Englewood Cliffs,New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1954.

WI Williams, Joseph M . Origins of the EnglishLanguage. 59New York: Macmillan, 1975.

13


21/156

If one were to judge the worth of a text by quantitative data only, Robertson and Cassidy's text

examines more topics than any of the others compared. If logic and organization are chief criteria,

however, John Nist's structural history is most conveniently arranged in terms of chronology, thematic

compartmentalization, and a sensible blending of inner and outer history. If the criterion is the number

of inductive exercises and the number of linguistic theories and models, Joseph Williams' text would be

judged the best. If readability and ability to hold interest are the chief criteria, L. M Myers' text wouldwin the popularity contest. If originality of scholarship is the criterion, Albert Baugh would be the

undisputed leader. If thoroughness of scholarship is the criterion, Pyles would probably win most of the

votes. If eclecticism is the criterion, Bloomfield an d Mardkwardt would probably emerge as the most

acceptable. If accuracy an d conciseness are the criteria, Margaret Bryant leads the field. If

transferability and usefulness to English teachers are the criteria, J. N. Hook's text would prove the most

valuable. One could say that all of these textbooks mutually excel each other.

The following analysis will be arranged both chronologically and alphabetically. The

chronological arrangement will follow the "historical periods" pattern found in most textbooks of English

language history. The textbooks will be examined in alphabetical order although specific comparisons

between two or more texts are subject to arbitrary considerations. (Baugh's text, being regarded as the

seminal work among the books examined in this study, is listed first in each of the sections that follow.)

In some cases, certain textbooks have given no treatment whatsoever to the descriptors under

consideration. This factor in itself might play a significant role in textbook selection.

Th e two-letter author abbreviation will be used to identify works in the charts an d appendices

throughout.

In the following sections, a brief synopsis of the descriptor is followed by representative

approaches of the 34 selected English language historians.

14


22/156

Language (Origin and Nature)

Perhaps no question is more disputed than the question of where to begin studyingthe history

of the English language. Sterne,in Tristram Shandy, states that the proper place to begin Tristram's

biography is well before his conception. W hile somehistorical linguists feel thatthe appropriate

beginning of the history of the English languageis with the far-fetched bow-wow,pooh-pooh, or

yo-he-ho theories, others feel that the Indo-European family is the appropriate place to begin. Others

prefer to plunge rightin at the point at which cleavage occurred between Anglo-Saxonan d German.

Others feel that the most appropriate place to begin is with a systematic abstract definition of language.

No two works agree on the appropriate starting point.

Baugh devotes little timeto definitionsof language althoughhe recognizes the process of

change which makes language analogous to aliving organism. Extending the living organism analogy,

Baugh suggests that"when a language ceases to change," it dies (2). The scope of this text excludes

theories of the origin of language. Instead,the student is almost immediately called uponto speculateabout the future possibilities for the English language.

Expounding on his statement that languageis actually a matter of speech, no t writing, Bambas

attempts to explain that the only thing knownabout language origin is that "somehow, at various times

and places, a man realized thathe could make a variety of sounds with his vocal organs. He then made

combinations of sounds and assigned meaningsto various combinations. Eventually, combinations were

strung together into sentences,and man wasable to communicate complex messages. . . by means ofspeech." Bam bas says th at these prehistoric events were unrecordedan d therefore cannotbe analyzed

(37-38).

Berndt does no t treat th e origin an d nature of language in general, but specifically treats the

origin an d nature of the English language quite thoroughly, devoting31 pages to the topic. He divides

this subject intotw o sections. In the first section, he discusses the history of the British Isles, relating

conquests an d movementsof peoples that influenced th e language's development. First, he devotes a

short paragraphto the Celts and to the Romans, then he continues with more informationon the

Anglo-Saxons, th e Viking invasion,and the Norman Conquest.

In the second section, Berndt showshow the English language evolvedfrom the time before Old

English to Modern English, emphasizingin detail its Germanic origin. He divides Old, Middle,and

Modern English into readablesections. With Middle English, Berndt presentsa map of southern

Britain, showingthe geographical distributionof four late Middle English variantsof the word that

became "they" in Modern English (36).

Bloomfield and Newmark acknowledge definitionsof language which encompass "languagesof

science, of animals, of gesture, of music and art, as well as 'natural ' languages," but for thepurpose of

15


23/156

their study, they delimitthe definition to a "socially learned, orally transmitted systemof

com mu nication" (9). They describe Englishas a "natural language"--oneout of 3,000.

Bolton clearly indicates thatthere has been Germanic influenceon the English language, yet he

concludes that there is little evidence as to the origin before the first Germanic settlers. A possible

reason given is that ou r knowledge (of a particular dialect)is "limited to the linguistic forms commonto

a few inscriptions, someglosses (interlinear translationsof Latin texts), and a few poems" (1). M oreeffective than examining writtenrecords is a linguistic comparisonof the four original dialects. He later

acknowledges thatthe "comparative method"enables students to draw fur the r conclusions. Hypotheses

beyond this purelyspeculatory indication are lacking.

Bounder does no t cover the origin an d nature of language.

Bradley does no t directly address this subject, but,as stated, his insights on the nature of

language are scattered throughoutthe text. He does not discuss the origin of languageas such; rather,

he deals with the history as far as it bears significanceon the special topics whichhe addresses.

Bryant describes languageas the "preponderanceof likeness in the speech habitsof persons

inhabiting a particular regionat a certain period" (5). Beyon da short paragraphin the brief subu nit

"What Constitutes a Language," thereis neither a systematic definitionof languagenor the speculations

about the origins of language typicalof man y introductory history texts.

Burchfield says in his book, The English Langua ge,that the origin of language is unknow n. He

says that therehas never been a languageless society. The faculty of speech precedes recorded history.

Burchfield asserts that the doctrine of Hobbes, which states thatthe language of Adam and Eve was lost

at the tower of Babel by a divine act of God, is engagingbu t unacceptable (4).

Cannon begins his discussion of this topic by explaining the more widely knowntheories of

lingua l origins, man's possession of langu age, and thedefinition of language. In the second ch apter, hediscusses dialects and the causes fo r dialects an d reconstructs a "linguistic genealogy." He also explains

linguistics, the divisions of linguistics,and four basic differences among m any languages. Chapter three

is devoted to an explanationof the Indo-European language family-its originan d influence. Grimm's

an d Verner's Laws are also introduced. After presenting some linguistic term inolo gyin the fourth

chapter, Cannon uses these termsto analyze the nature of English from its beginningto the present.

Richard Claiborne speaks of English as being more thana system of communication. He states

that " . . . it enables us to convey to others whatwe think, feel an d wan t" (8). He also describes

language as " . . . th e prime means fo r organizing th e cooperative activities that enableus as groups to

accomplish thingswe could no t possibly do as individuals" (8).

Donahue does no t cover the origin of language in general but concentrates on the origin of the

English language. Sh e feels that English originated withthe West Germanicpeoples, who spoke Indo-

European languages. This Indo-E uropean languag ewas highly inflected,yet its structural patterns have

been retained until today (10).

16


24/156

These early pastureland peoples were simplein language, "borrowing only those words which

their barbarian minds couldappreciate-not ideas, but homely instruments,useful plants and methods of

cultivatio n" (14). Do nahue focuseson the Teutonic tribes, from which the Anglo-Saxons originated (11).

Emerson devotes no time to the definition of language; instead, he focuses on the origin and

natu re of the English language itself. The auth or states tha t the English language stemsfrom the

Teutonic branch of the Indo-Europeanfamily. He continues, showing that as thefamily members beganto separate themselves, changes beganto become apparent in the spoken language, "whichin time

resulted in different dialects" (1).

Fern ald does not discuss the origin of langu age in general. He does, however, provide an

analysis of the ba ckgro und of English and its origins. He devotes most of his text to the con tribut ions

of the Anglo-Saxons, with a short chapter referring to the Norm an transformation of the language.

Gordon feels that the student must think like a historian in order to understand the history of

language. He believes that language has two histories-one in the life of the individualand one in the

life of the speech community.

He cites several reasons why the system of written language is not the most important aspect of

a language. He asserts that the relationship between a langu age and its writtenform is arbitrary and

that the relationship between the written languageand the spoken is less than perfect since there are

many more sounds in our languag e than there are letters in our alphabet. Thefamily tree of English,

according to Gordon,follows these stages: Proto-Indo-European,Proto- or Primitive Germanic, West

Germanic, LowWest Germanic, Old English, Middle English, Modern English.

Gordon gives a thorough descriptionof the origin and nature of language.

Although Groom doesno t discuss the origin of language in general, he does trace the source of

the En glish language. The roots go back to the West Aryan tribes who spoke Primitiv e Teuto nic (16).These tribes settled in Greece, Italy, France, and Britain. Their langu age is thefoundation of the

English language (15).

Hook devotes considerable attentionto theories of the origins of language. Hypotheses under

examination include the Genesis account, the echoic"bow-wow" theory, the interjectional "pooh-pooh"

theory, Revesz's Hypothesis-the formulation of a hierarchy of simple to highly complex vocal sounds

ending in the singleword-and Wilson's Hypothesis, which explains language as a "conventionalizing of

sounds" (15). Hook observes th at none of these hypotheses can explain langu age behavior m uch beyond

the development of a single word. He borrows thefictional story of Og from Cha rlton Laird's Th e

Miracle of Language as a hypothesis to illustrate howmankind has developed increasingly more

sophisticated syntactical patterns.

McCrum begins his discussion of English w ithou t def ining language or its origin and natu re,

other than describing that "w e live in and by language" (14).

In the preface to his book, McKnight stresses the wealth of languageby using the analogy of a

plant. He writes that it is not a "wayside tree that ha s grown up wild; it is, rather, a highly cultivated

17


25/156

plant" (v). McKnight explains the main cultivated changes that have broughtth e English language from

the adoption of the East Midland dialect to the present. Very little time is spent on language origins

although the fact that these origins wouldtrace back to the common Teutonic language,an d still further

back to the Indo-European language,is briefly mentioned (3). No discussion of formal language

description or definition is made.

Myers devotes slightly more thana page to theories of language origin, concluding withanobservation that noneof them explains very much. Whathe considers useful in the description of

language is a hierarchy of the structural levels of language, whichhe develops in outline form

immediately followingthe perfunctory treatmentof various language origin hypotheses.

Pyles apparently feelsit pointless to give an y more than passing recognitionto the language

origin theories. Instead, he provides a definition of language along with descriptionsof several language

systems. Excluding paralinguistic pheno me na, suchas gestures and facial expressions, he defines

language as a "systematized com binationof sounds which have meaningfor all persons in a given

cultural community" (5).

Robertson, in his discussion of the nature of language,notes the yawning chasm which separates

th e communication capabilitiesof hum an beings from animals. At some point, he suggests, the h uma n

being is to have discovered the "symbolic process," makingit possible to conventionalize and combine

sounds (4). Social necessityis listed as the chief impetus fo r language production.

Joseph Williams produces a rather detailed listof what he considers to be "crucial design

features of hum an language,many of which incorporate featuresof recent communications modes."

Some of the characteristics whichhe considers crucialare "broadcast transmission, rapidfading, complete

feedback, displacement,crossmodelcommunication, sign change, etc." (16).The 24 crucial features are

given short descriptions.Wrenn believes that distinction betweenspeech and language is intrinsic to his definition of

language, which is "the natural, normal,and enduring method of expressing the human mind" (1).

Wrenn refers to language as the general and particular uses of words, apart from speaker or situation,

while speech refers to the words used in a precisely known contextor situation. He admits, however,

that no book can pretend to treat this subject withoutconfining itself to a comparatively small number

of the many facets of language.

18


26/156

Germanic Characteristics

No discussion of the prehistory of the English language would be complete without a discussion

of the features which distinguish the Germanic group from the rest of the Indo-European family. The

languages which make up the Germanic family are distinguished from the rest of the Indo-European

family by the following four characteristics:

1. Germanic languages, following the great consonant shift, otherwise known as Grimm's Law

(described on page 23), regularly substitute an entire class of consonant sounds, differentiating

the Germanic branch from the other branches of the Indo-European family. For example, when

the Latinate or Romance languages (French, Spanish, and Italian) use a /p/, as in padre or pater,

the Germanic branch of the family (including English, German, and Swedish) uses the H I sound

(father or Vatef). When th e Latinate language uses a /d/ (as indentio), th e Germanic language

uses a A / (as in tooth). A fuller explanation is found in the section which discusses Grimm's

Law.2. Germanic languages divide verbs into two classes-regular (or weak) and irregular (or strong).

Strong verbs change tense by changing the vowel within the verb (sing, sang, sung) , and weak

verbs change tense by adding an ending (walk, walked, walked) .

3. Germanic languages all (at one time) possessed the double declension of adjectives. Modern

English no longer has this characteristic as it once did before th e inflectional decay. Modern

German still has this characteristic to a limited degree:

Modern High German Old English

Der gute Mann Se gode Mann

Ein guter Mann En goder Mann

The adjective endings depend upon whether the definite or the indefinite article is used.

4. Germanic languages usually accent the first syllable of the word, even loan words from other

languages. For example, while the original French loan word (plumage) accents the second

syllable, Germanic speakers (including English) accent the first syllable (p/wmage). Exceptions

m ay occur in the case of a few compounded prefixes (uninteresting, insincere)and loan words

which have resisted the pressure to conform.

Baugh lists the Germanic branch as the Teutonic group. He does not group together specific

characteristics of the Germanic family, as Bloomfield,Bryant, and others have done. Th e effect of Jacob

Grimm*s Law is treated with more penetration than the other features, such as the fixed stress and the

double declension of adjectives. Baugh suggests that th e sound changes as illustrated by Grimm's L aw

"[are] th e most distinctive feature[s] marking off the Germanic languages from th e languages to which

they are related" (21).

19


27/156

Bambas treats the Germanic in fluenc e on our language as one of nine principal branches of the

Indo-European family of languages. More specifically,he mentions in the beginningof his section that

English is a mem ber of the Germanic Indo-European branch. After giving a historical outline of the

Germanic peoples, Bambas briefly explains the forms of Germanic which have been recordedover time.

As does Bryant, Bambas givesfour changes which Proto-Germanic speakers induced and which set

Germanic apartfrom other Indo-European languages: (1) a simplification of the morphology of the verb

system, (2) the provision of a "weak" adjective declension, (3) thefixing of the Indo-European stress on

the base syllable of a word, and (4) a consonantshift known as Grimm 's Law. Following the list is a

thorough explanationof each of the four points (28-35).

It is not surprising that Berndt discussesthe different aspects of Germ anic characteristics

throughout his book since it was written with the German student in mind. He devotes on e section to

the "importance of the inherited Germanic lexical material in present-day English" (69).Here he

presents a table wh ich comparesthe frequency of usage of Modern English wordsto Old English and

"loans." The table illustratesthe importance of inherited Germanic vocabulary, muchof which is still in

use today.

In a later section, Bern dt touches on another aspect of the German ic characteristics. Hetraces

the progress of the Germanic diphthongs /au/ and /eu/(177). In another area, he examines the non-

weakening of the German phonemes /p/ andA/ in English (192).

Bloomfield enum erates five characteristics which he identifies (w ith a brief explanation an d one

or two examples) as "a unique set of vocabulary items,a special kind of verb inflection (strong-weak

distinctions), tw o sets of adjective forms (oneset for those following 'particularizing adjective* and one

set for adjectives w hich stand alone), and thefixed stress," in which the accent is placed on theroot

syllable (113).Bolton fails to enumerate any of the disting uishin g characteristicsof the Germanic group; rather,

he settles for a summary statement about the influenceof German on English by means of inflected

"word endings." In addition , he minim izes the impo rtan ce of stress levels. This lim ited discussion is

surprisingly summed up by the author when he boldly states, "These features underliemany of

[English's] most literary techniques, both in prose and in poetry." This statement, unfo rtun ately , is not

backed up by any substantial evidence.

20


28/156

Bourcier identifies four distingu ishing characteristicsin a small four-page sectionof his

introductory chapter. Of the four points, onlythe effects of Grimm's Law are given more thana half-

page explanatio n (iv). Thefour points are as follows (23):

1. The creation of the so-called "weak" verbs.

2. Use o f a do uble system of adjectival inflectio n, also called "stro ng" and "weak."

3. Replacement of the mobile pitch-accentby a stress-accent fixed on the root syllableof eachword,

4. Particular developmentsof the stop consonants.

Bradley stresses the resemblances between English and Germ an in his first chapter . Some o f

the similarities he finds are as follows: stock of wo rds (vocabulary), gram mar, form ation of genitives,

formation ofcomparatives and superlatives of adjectives throughthe addition of -e r and -est, and the

conju gation of verbs. Bradley provides an example or two to illustrate each of thesefindings.

Bradley's thoughtson English and German are as such: ". . . not that English is derived from

German or Germanfrom English, but that both have descended, with gradual divergent changes,from a

prehistoric languagewhich scholars have called Prim itive Germanic or Pr imitive Teutonic. Lo w Ge rm an

or Plattdeutsch, the dialect spoken (now only by the commonpeople) in 'Low' or Northern Germany, is

much more like English than literary High German is."

Bryant identifies four characteristics in a short unit entitled "Common Features of the Germanic

Language." This u nit isconcise, thor ou gh, and logically organized. Br yant includes all but the "u niqu e

vocabulary." His four features include (21):

1. A simpler conjugation of the verb than in other Indo-Euro pean languages.

2. A two-fold adjective declension.

3. A fixed stress accent.4. Grimm's Law (also called the Great Consonant Shift).

Burchfield says that the English languagewas a richly endowed languageof the Germanic

family. He maintains that it isfaithful to its Germanic roots in that its vocabulary is almost entirely

Germ anic. The English langua ge has remained a recognizable branch of the Germ anicfamily, but by

the 1470's, it had been severed from its Western European analogues (19).

Cannon stresses the Ger manic branch of the Indo-Eu ropeanfamily, concentratingmainly on the

sound shifts illustrated by Grimm's andVerner's Laws. He also tracesbriefly some of the dialects

resulting from Germanic differentiations.

Donahue writes that the earliest nomadic tribes bore eight distinct language groups and that

Primitive Germ anic was one o f these divisions (5). She divides the G erman icpeoples in Britain into

three dialects, as opposed to three separate languages (20). Do nahu e notes thatthe Old English chief

word formationprocesses came from suffixes and compounding (23-24).

Donahue parallelsOld English and German in an effort to demonstrate the similar

characteristics o f the two languag es. The Old English vo cabular y was mo re complicated than the

21


29/156

German, ye t both were similarin their "elaborate system of genders." Both languagesalso had the

adjectives in agreement withthe nou ns (26). Both languages were also highly inflected.Old English

adjectives were "strong and weak according to theirfunction an d position," this being a German

characteristic as well (38).

Emerson, in a unit entitled "TheTeutonic Languages: Common Characteristics," identifiesfour

characteristics of the Germanic languagein its relationship to the other Teutonic languages. These four

features are: 1) a great consonant change,or shifting of consonants, 2) the accent of words, 3) a two-

fold declension of adjectives, and 4) the verbal system.

Emerson describes the Western Germanic language as having a two-part division: Low German

and High Germ an. The English language stemsfrom the Low Germanic branch, with an example of

this further illustrated by Emerson on page 13.

In the remainder of the chapter, the authorproceeds to discuss the effects of Grimm's Law and

the second consonant shift on the Indo-European languages.

Fernald does no t refer to Germ anic characteristics as such. Hesimply states that German is

among the many tongues from which English ha s borrowed freely (45).

Gordon compares 12 comm on German words with their English counterparts to show

similarities (207). Herefers to two phenomena that occurred inProto-Germanic. One was the first

sound shift, or Grimm's Law,and the other was the fixing of the stress or accent on the first syllable of

all words except verbs. "This is carried over into the M odern English language and accounts for

contrasting stress patterns, the noun conduct and the verb conduct, or theadjective perfect and the verb

perfect" (90).

Groom does not compare English with Germ an. Instead, he concentrates on the words of

English that have been adoptedfrom German. Mawan (to mow) is an example of an Aryan wordadopted into Anglo-Saxon (15). A modern illustration is the Ge rm an wo rdLarche, which was converted

to the English larch (211).

Hook identifies five features of the Germanic languages although he does not enumerate them

as do Bryant an d Bloomfield. Hook presents as one characteristic the "common vocabu lary,"as do

Bryant and Bloomfield, although the po ints are not presented with cardinal numb ers; the p arag raphs a re

begun with ordinal numbersto introduce the discrete characteristics.

McCrum writes in story form of the influence of the invasion of the Germanic tribes on the

English langu age. He says tha t the extent to which the Anglo-Saxons "overwhelmed the native Britons

is illustrated in theirvocabulary" (62). He describes how the m ost com mon wo rds in English areal l of

Anglo-Saxon origin,an d that since th e Anglo-Saxonshad an oral culture, their oral traditions were

highly developed. However, McCrum doesnot give lists of specific characteristics or examples, other

than a few words in English that o riginally camefrom Old English.

22


30/156


31/156

TOPICS

1. Grimm's Law

2. Vocabulary

3. Simplified verb inflection

4. Two-fold adjective declension

5. Fixed stress

BA

X

BL

X

X

X

X

X

BT

X

X

X

X

HK

X

X

X

X

X

M Y

X

X

N I

X

X

X

X

X

PY

X

X

X

X

RN

X

X

X

X

W I

X

X

24


32/156

Grimm's La w

Grimm's Law concerns a predictable shift in the consonant sounds from Latin to Germanic

languages. Grimm looked at a number of words in Latin and English and noticed a regular pattern.

Wherever an / occurred in English (or German) a p occurred in Latin. Grimm and Verner suggested

that "the consonants have moved about in an orderly way, taking each other's place in accordance with

linguistic principles" (Laird 126). Laird provides this simplified diagram of Grimm's and Veraer's Laws:

Voiceless Stops

Voiced Stops Voiceless Fricatives

Voiced Fricatives

Grimm's Law is one significant item no language textbook would dare to slight. Historical

linguists, however, treat this subject with different degrees of penetration; some thoroughly illustrate the

concept with elaborate diagrams while others provide a short comparative list of Latinate-Germanic

pairs.

Although Baugh provides no diagrams, his explanation is adequate and concise. He states,

"original voiceless stops (p, t, k) were changed to spirants (f, p [th], h). Thus, th e Latin tres becomes in

English three, and the Latin centum is the English hundred* (21). With that short explanation he

accomplishes his objective of exposing the reader to the concept. He places a more detailed description

of the other consonants in a footnote.

Bambas introduces a short treatment of Grimm's Law by stating, "Proto-Germanic underwent a

shift in its system of consonants." He finds it unacceptable to believe t hat similarities between pairs of

Latin and Germanic words were due to common origin. Grimm's explanation of the shift is written as:

"the Indo-European voiced stops (b, d, g) shifted in Germanic to their voiceless equivalents (p, t, k)

25


33/156


34/156

as follows: vaterffather, mat te r /mo the r,bruder lbrother, schwester ls is ter,haus /house ,and so on. Bradley sums

up Grimm's Law in one sentence: "An Englisht is usually represented in Germ an by z,/z, or ss ; an

English th by d \n English p by pf or /; an English d by t \d an English v in themiddleof a word by

b. "

Bradley justifieshis book in this way:

The transformationof English . . . into the widely different language whichwe speaktoday has . . . been the result of gradual changes. We do not propose in this little

volume to treat these changes in their chronologicalsequence. Information of this kind

must be sought for in regular histories of the English language. Our purpose is merely

to give some idea of thec a u se sby which the more remarkable changes in the language

were brought about, and to estimate theeffect which these changes have had on its

fitness as an instrumentfor the expression of thought.

Bryant, quoting the words of Leonard Bloomfield, suggests that to refer to the discovery of

Grimm as a law "could be a dange rous metaphor." The observation would also be true forVerner's

"Law" of accent. Bryant has pointed out that Grimm's discovery has helped to create a classification

system for grouping Germanic (and non-Germ anic) Indo-European languages. Bryant provides no

diagram bu t gives a few examples to illustrate each consonantshift. The description is succinct bu t

highly adequate.

Burchfield does no t mention Grimm's Law.

In a brief explanation,Claiborne describes that the effect of Grimm's Law is easily the trait that

distinguishes Germanicfrom other Indo-European tongues.He uses no diagramsbut sufficiently

explains the changes by giving examples of actual word changes which have occurred.One example he

gives is the Indo-Europeanp being used for the Germanic /, as in the G erma nicfa ther lyversus the Latinpate rna l . H e also gives the example of the change from th e Indo-European t to the Germanic th .

He goes on to describebriefly how each loss was recouped. For example, hestates that

Germanic regained the loss by making a newp out of the Indo-Europeanb (46).

Cannon spends two of the three pages devoted to Grimm's Law in explaining the formation of

consonan ts, their linguistic grouping s,and their representative notation s. Grimm 'sLaw is then

presented and illustrated.

Donahue does no t make an y direct reference to Grimm's Law.

Emerson records the Great ConsonantShift as having first been discovered by the Danish

scholar Rask (1787-1832). Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) is noted as having added to Rask's discovery,and

from him it became more commonly knownas Grimm's Law. A definition of the law is not given by

the author.

27


35/156

Emerson finds fault with Grimm's statement of the lawbecause the classical languages"do no t

perfectly preserve the Indo-European consonant system" (15). Shown beloware four series of Indo-

European consonants affected by the consonantshift as recorded byEmerson:

1. The labials: bh, b, p

2. The dentals: sh,d, t

3. The palatals: gh',g', k'4. The velars: gh, g, k

These are further explained throughoutthe chapter (15).

Gordon describes Grimm's Law as"a description of important consonantal changes which

distinguish th e Germanic from th e other Indo-Europeanlanguages." Inother words, changes occurred

in all the early Germanic dialects but not inall other languages that descendedfrom the parent tongue.

He simplifies and condenses theshift of consonant changes tothree points:

1. Voiceless stops (p, t, k) became fricatives, respectively(f, 6, x).

2. Voiced stops (b, d, g) became voiceless stops, respectively(p, t, k).

3. Voiced aspirated stops through intermediate stages became non-aspirated voicedstops (b, d, g).

He also refers to Karl Verner, whom he feels refined Grimm's Law.

Groom briefly mentions Grimm 's Law. His definition explains tha t the consonantsp, t, and k

(or c) of Greek and L atin correspond to the consonantsf, th, and h of Teutonic languages. In ad dition,

b, d, and g of Greek and Latin correlate withp, t, and k (or c) of the Teutonic languages. Tw o

examples Groom includes to demon strate this law at work are the Latinpiscis, compared to the Anglo-

Saxon fish, and the Latincanis, compared to the Anglo-Saxonhund (8).

Hook does not generalize the concept as do Baugh andBloomfield, but he has provided a

convenient comparative listto illustrate each consonantal change.The list includes some non-Latin(non-Germanic) languages.

p to / : Greek podos, Englishfoot; Persian pitar, Latin pater, English father

t to th : Polish tarn, English thorn; Latin tu, English thou (25)

McCrum me ntion s Grim m's Law only in passing. He is discussing the "commonsource" of

Indo-European langua ges when he says, "'Grimm's Law' established beyond question tha t the Germa n

voter and the English father have the same root as the Sanskrit/Latin pitarlpatef (52).

McKnight dwells little on the characteristics that distinguish English, along withother Germanic

languages, from therest of the Indo-Europeanfamily. There is a brief appendix entitled"The Near

Relations of English," which compares English to its kindred Teu tonic la nguages. It lists various

versions of the Lord's prayer, including Old High German, Gothic, Icelandic,Old English, and Modern

Welsh. Grimm's Law is not even mentioned.

28


36/156

Myers produces both a list of Latin (or Greek) and English cognates and a simplified diagram

to illustrate the Great Consonant Shift. The cognates are arranged in the following pattern on page 54:

/p/ becomes H I /t/ becomes /6/ /k / becomes /h/

pater becomes father tu becomes thou caput becomes head

piscus becomes fish tres becomes three cornu becomes horn

The diagram consists of three parallel consonant flowcharts illustrating the Great Consonant Shift.

/P /- n i - + /b /+ -

in - y e /-* /d/

(55)

The Greek letters used in the bottom two patterns have been selected to prevent confusion

between voiced an d voiceless fricatives. Myers informs th e student that th e /x / "stands for the sound like

tha t in German dock."

Nist provides an enumerated set of generalizations along with a simplified chart. The followingis an illustration of the Voiceless stop to voiceless fricative pattern":

1. Indo-European voiceless stops lost their stopped quality and became Germanic voiceless

fricatives (80).

2. Voiceless stops became voiceless fricatives:

Indo-European /p/ /t/ /k/

4 - 4 - 4 -

Germanic /f/ /6/ /h/

(81)

Th e diagram is followed by a list of illustrations made up of Latin and Germanic cognates.

Pyles provides a series of comparative tables, utilizing Latin, Greek, and Germanic cognates-at

least four to six forevery consonant shift generalization. Th e following example illustrates th e d-to-t

shift:

29


37/156

Indo European "d" / Germanic "t"

duo/two (Gr.) drys "oaW/tree

dentisltooth decem/tem(Gothic taihuri)

damare/tame edere/eat

This set of tables is followed by a compact diagram, stating the general tendencies of the soundshift:

First Sound Shif t (Grimm's Law)

Indo-European bh, dh, gh - (respectively) Germanicb, 6, - b, d, g

Indo-European p, t, k -* (respectively) Germanicf, 6, x ( -+ h initially)

Indo-European b, d, g -* (respectively) Germanicp, t, k

The first line of the diagram contains non-Roman symbols in the Germanic since voiced

aspirated symbolsare hard to represent.

30


38/156

Robertson and Cassidy's diagram indicates tha t these shifts took place in stages. Th e diagram is

conveniently joined to the generalizations:

Voiced aspirated stops

bh dh gh

I 4 - 4

b d g

Indo-European voiced aspiratedstops lost aspiration and becameGermanic voiced stops.

(Stage 3)

* Sounds are voiced when the vocal cords are vibrating during their production, voiceless when the vocal cords are notvibrating. Aspiration is the quality of a sound produced by puffing the breath out, with slight constriction of the oralor throat passage.

**A spirant (or fricative') is a sound made by forcing the breath, without actually stopping it, through a narrowed outlet inthe oral or throat passage.

(29)

The tabulation of the examples is done horizontally with each sound change illustrated by pairs

of three Germanic/non-Germanic cognates:

Change: d > t

Voiced stops

b d

4 - 4 -

P '

g

4 -

k

Indo-European voiced stops lostvoice and became Germanicvoiceless stops.

(Stage 2)

Voiceless stops*

p t k

4 . 4 - 4 -

f th h

Indo-European voiceless stopslost their stopped quality andbecame Germanic voicelessspirants.**

(Stage 1)

GreekDirt Pnolkh

eat

(30)

Since Williams' text is basically an inductive approach, he provides an exercise in which the

student is expected to make generalizationsfrom a comparative list of 32 pairs ofcognates. The list is

arranged vertically as follows:

nephew

five

lip

nepos

penta

labia (320)

Wrenn does not discuss

approaches to the history of the english language20130709_12392827

Documents