1

Duarte, C.M., Marbá, N. and M. Holmer. 2007. Rapid domestication of marine species. Science 316: 382-383.

Aquaculture Species

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Characteristics of aquaculture versus terraculture

Human/animal Interaction

Domestication is the result of “two processes: human selection of those individual animals more useful to humans than other individuals of the same species, and automatic evolutionary responses of animals to the altered forces of natural selection operating in human environments as compared with wild environments” (Diamond 1997).

terraculture = domesticated aquaculture = cultured

For example, eel culture, a traditional aquaculture industry is totally dependent on “wild-caught” progeny.

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Aquaculture species - classification

Aquaculture deals with a diverse assemblage (> 500) of thermoconforming

ectotherms (cold blooded)

CLASSIFICATION BY TEMPERATURE

Type Example Best growthColdwater salmon 15oCWarmwater catfish 26oCTropical tilapia 30oC

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Daily Maximum Air Temperature, degrees C Monthly Averages

From Pearce and Smith 1990

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10152025303540

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Bangkok, Thailand, Aver. = 32.5 CDallas, Texas, Aver. = 24.2 CBergen, Norway, Aver. = 10.7 C

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Classification by salinity

Type Example SalinityFreshwater carp <0.5 ppt

“Mariculture”

Brackish shrimp 10 – 30 pptSeawater turbot 30 – 35 pptNote: many species are euryhaline

others use different salinities for differing life stages

Classification by production system, intensity, nutrient source

• Open• Ponds• Cages

and pens• Raceways• Closed

re-use systems

Extensive

Intensive

Inputs

Extractive

Input

Technology

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Molluscan Aquaculture“extractive aquaculture”Traditional Techniques

• Relaying• Bed preparation• Predator removal

+Modern Hatcheries

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Bivalves –simple filter

feeders

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Molluscan hatchery technology

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Spat or SeedOyster Life Cycle

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Happiness and the land of Clamelot

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Clark, Andrew E. and Andrew J. Oswald. 2002. A simple statistical

method for measuring how life events affect happiness. International Journal of

Epidemiology 31:1139-1143.

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Macroeconomics of Happiness: Oswald & Clark 2003

Poor rural African = $ 200/yearMiddle-class American = $ 35,000/yr

Marriage Marriage = $ 35,000/yr= $ 35,000/yrSeparation Separation = = -- $ 105,000/yr$ 105,000/yrLoss of spouse Loss of spouse = = -- $ 130,000/yr$ 130,000/yrLoss of job Loss of job = = -- $ 215,000/yr$ 215,000/yrModerate loss of health Moderate loss of health = = -- $ 100,000/yr$ 100,000/yrMajor loss of health Major loss of health = = -- $ 390,000/yr$ 390,000/yrSex (weekly versus monthly) Sex (weekly versus monthly) = $ 50,000/yr= $ 50,000/yr

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Mercenaria mercenaria – name references the use of buttons made from the pigmented inner shell used as "wampum" or money by the native american tribes along the east coast. This use was continued for a time by the early American settlers. Presently, while it accounts of only about 10% of the annual clam catch in the U.S., it is about 40% of the value of the total catch. It is a highly valued east coast clam because of it's excellent shelf life. Common name "quahog" is a corruption of an Indian name "p'quaghaug",or tightly closed shell.

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Cedar Key, Florida• 1980’s – Fishers put out of work

– Contaminated oyster beds– State-imposed closure of gill net fisheries

• 1993 – Training program at Harbor Branch started for hard clam (Mercenariamercanaria) culture– Obtain leases $ 40 lease fee to the state

(present value $ 10,000/acre)– Loans to purchase hatchery seed; ~ 1

million/$ 11,000

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$ 6,000 – 8,000 for mesh bags; $ 2,000 – 3,000 for additional equipment

Plant nursery bags < 3.3. mm mesh; 2 – 3 months

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• Rebag and plant growout bags: 10 mm mesh; 50% survival (rule of thumb)

• Harvest 16 months; clams ~ 1 inch, ~ 11 cents/clam

• ~ $ 55,000 per harvest minus $ 21,000 costs =

$ 34,000 HAPPINESS

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• 1997–300 growout operations on 950

acres of state-leased submerged lands

–Sales (farm gate value) ~ 10 million

• Initial impact on Cedar Key–Installation of a sewage system for

the town–Environmental monitoring

Happy as a clam in Cedar Key, Fl

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Happiness is fleeting

• 2002– 12 private hatcheries– 173 farmers produced 173 million

clams in 2001 (most productive area on the eastern seaboard) price per clam dropped from 10 – 12 to 8 cents/clam

– 430 million seed clams now in the beds

see http://see http://shellfish.ifas.ufl.edu/industry.htmshellfish.ifas.ufl.edu/industry.htm for for more detailsmore details

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Can mollusk aquaculture bring global happiness??

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Carp aquacultureCarps form the largest (> 2,000 sp.) family, Cyprinidae, of all the fish. Carps vary in size from the Mahaseer of India, which grows to over 6 ft., to small minnows less than an inch in length. Many of the smaller cyprinids, i.e. "goldfish" (domestic strains of Carassiusauratus) are important to the tropical fish industry. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is the most popular for culture and is farmed throughout the world where the temperature is appropriate (20 - 33oC).

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Koi • Koi (domestic carp) is the most popular fish in Japan because of its gorgeous, magnificent, and colorful style. In Japanese culture, the Koi represents strength, courage and success in life.

• On Children's Day in May, Carp windsocks are flown from each home. This is the parents wishing success for their children's lives in the future.

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Koi

• Grand Champion Kohaku, 22nd & 24th All Japan Show, presently in service as a breeder at Sakai Fish Farms in Hiroshima

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Animal Aquaculture Production 1997

Silver Carp11%

Grass Carp9%

Common Carp8%

Indian Carps5%

Bighead Carp5%Other Carps

7%

Other Fish19%

Mollusks & Crustaceans36%

15,000,000 mt (almost ¼ of animal aquaculture and over 70% of fish)

Chinese Carp production - 2005

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Common carp = Cyprinus carpio

• Temperature optimum; 20 - 33oC and will survive down to 4oC

• While carp will tolerate low oxygen levels, optimum growth is achieved is > 3 ppmO2. Algal crashes and resulting complete oxygen depuration are a common cause of carp mortalities.

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Carp reproduction• Collection of eggs• Natural spawning• Dubisch method - small (120 - 300 m2)

shallow (30 - 60 cm deep) kept grass-covered and dry when not used. Temperature warms to 18 - 20oC; ponds are flooded 25 - 30 cm deep; spawnersstocked, 2 - 3 females and 4 - 5 males; spawning occurs within 1 - 2 days.

• Dry striping of spawners -

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Pineal glandDaylight/temp

Pituitary gland

Gonadotropinhormones

Ovary

1960’s

or

human chorionic gonadotrophin

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Spawning maturation in carp

• Hormone-treatment – Original method, females sutured; 3.5 - 4.0

mg dry pituitary/per kilogram of fish into the muscle on the back (2 X)

– Presently hormone injections are used• 22 - 24 oC the ripening process is

complete in 11 - 12 hours after the second treatment.

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Fertilization • Fertilization - ~ 1 part sperm:100 parts

eggs

• Urea 0.3% plus sodium chloride 0.4% is used as a saline solution for multiple washes, 1 part solution:10 parts fertilized eggs, over a period of 1.5 hours to remove the "stickiness" from eggs. A final rinse uses tannin to complete the "de-sticking" process.

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Larval rearing• Egg Incubation -

Upwelling jars. 3 - 3.5 days at 24oC.

• Larval rearing -Upwelling tanks (200 l) 3 - 4 days at 20 -24oC; inflation of air bladder and swimming commences.

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Fry rearing = small ponds ~ 0.1 ha

• Predator removal – Quicklime– CaO + H2O Ca (OH) ph > 11– Bleach– Teaseed cake – saponin (hemolytic toxin)

• Ponds fertilized - 2 weeks preparation combination organic and inorganic fert.nitrogen/phosphorus ratio = 3:1 to 6:1

• stocked at 200 - 400 larvae/m2; 30 days to fingerling size.

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Intensification of carp monoculture

• Natural production - 150 - 300 kg/ha/yr

• Fertilization - 500 - 800 kg/ha/yr

• Supplementary feeding - 1 - 4 mt/ha/yr(soaked grains)

• Complete feeds - 5 - 10 mt/ha/yr

• Complete feeds + aerators - 20 - 30 mt/ha/yr

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POLYCULTURE – Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D.)

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Grass carp = grass “juice” carp• Fry feed on plankton

change to vegetation at ~ 6 “

• > 20oC grass carp feed continuously eating several times their body weight in plant material daily.

• Rapid growth; live for as long as 10 yrs.

• Meat quality preferred

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Silver carp = phytoplankton

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Bighead carp feed on

phytoplankton and zooplankton and/or pellets;

fourth most important carp

species

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Black carp feeds on molluscs

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Relative length of the intestine

2.0Omnivorous: Common carp

8.05.0

Plankton filtering: Silver carpBighead carp

2.5Herbivorous: Grass carp

1.2Carnivorous: Black carp

Intestine/body lengthSpecies

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Grass carp model - ~ 9000 kg/ha

400~ 803,000Tilapia

1,000~ 903,700Common carp

700~ 901,800Bighead carp

2,000~ 90*6,700Silver carp

5,000~ 90*7,500Grass carp

Net yield (kg/ha)

Survival%

Stocking #Species

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Integrated fish farming• Integration with agriculture

– Green fodder (ryegrass, sudan grass, elephant grass

– Aquatic plants (water hyacinth)– Fish-grass rotation (pasture grasses grown in

the winter and spring; ponds flooded used primarily for fingerling production

– Rice-fish culture

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Rice-fish aquaculture

• Advantages –– rice production improved– additional source of protein and/or revenue

• Disadvantages –– Not useful with high-yielding, short stem rice varieties

calling for thin water sheets– Not useful with rice multiple cropping; fish growth

limited – Need to provide refuges during rice field drainage– Limits use of common insecticides and herbicides– fish production food limited

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• Azolla is an aquaticfern (duckweed), that floats on thewater surface.

• it can assimilate atmospheric nitrogen gas owing to the nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria (blue green alga) living in the cavities located at the lower side of upper (dorsal) lobes of leaf.

RiceRice--AzollaAzolla--fish aquaculturefish aquaculture

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Rice – Azolla -fish

1,040700Total

125100540400Tilapia

600350350150Common carp

180150150150Grass carp

R-A-Fsize (g)

F-Rsize (g)

R-A-Fkg/ha

F-Rkg/ha

Species

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Integrated fish farmingIntegration with animal husbandry

450 kg1 milk cow

40 kg1 fattening pig (0 – 8 months old)

4 kg1 goose

3 kg1 duck/yr

2 kg1 egg-laying hen/yr

Fish/yrTerraculture species

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Integrated fish farming

• Pig waste vegetables vegetable wastes fish

• Fish-sericulturePond silt mulberry trees silkworm production silkworm pupae fish

• Cow waste mushroom earthworm fish• “You name it”

Multi-level integration