basic training course on · 7. medical aspects & psychosocial impact of cbrn emergency 81 8....

Basic Training Course on

CBRN Emergency Management

forAirport Emergency Handlers

DR OD

Hkkjrh;�foekuiru�izkf/kdj.kAIRPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

Airports Authority of India & Institute of Nuclear Medicine & Allied Sciences

A Joint Initiative ofNational Disaster Management Authority

Basic Training Course on CBRN Emergency Management for Airport Emergency Handlers

January, 18

© Issued in Public Interest

© NDMA, AAI and INMAS

Editors :Dr Himanshu Ojha, Sc 'D', INMASDr Anshoo Gautam, Sc 'D', INMASSh. S. K. Mishra, Senior Consultant, NDMA

While citing this , the following citation should be used:handbook

Basic Training Course on CBRN Emergency Management by Airport Emergency Handlers. A joint publication of National Disaster Management Authority, Airports Authority of India and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences, DRDO, Delhi, India.

DisclaimerThis book on lecture notes for the participants of basic training programme on CBRN Emergency Management has been printed as a reference material only.

Illustrations, Designed & Printed by: India Prints

These lecture notes have been prepared under the targeted basic

training programme for Airport Emergency Handlers being

conducted by NDMA in association with AAI and INMAS.

Messages i-v

Preface vii

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction 01

1. Basic Understanding of CBRN Emergency Management 03

2. Chemical Safety and Emergency Management 07

3. Biological Safety and Emergency Management 25

4. Radiological Safety and Emergency Management 31

5. Decontamination Techniques 67

6. Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air 73

7. Medical aspects & Psychosocial Impact of CBRN Emergency 81

8. Incident reporting System at Airports 93

9. Role of NDMA in Disaster Management 99

10. Role of NDRF in Management of CBRN Emergency 107

11. Annexures 113

Annexure-1 : MRDS Locations 115

Annexure- 2 : DAE-ERC Locations 116

Annexure-3 : NDRF BN and RRC Locations 117

Annexure-4 : Frequently used terms in Radiation Safety 119

` Annexure-5 : Glimpses of CBRN Training Courses at 121 Chennai Airport and NSCBI Airport, Kolkata

12. Significant Contributors 127

13. Emergency Telephone Numbers on back cover

ContentsContents

I am happy to note that the National Disaster Management Authority has initiated a

training programme on Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear emergency

management for airport staff. This initiative of NDMA, jointly, with Institute of Nuclear

Medicine and Allied Science and Airports Authority of India is an important milestone in

improving safety at the airports.

Effective management of CBRN emergencies requires involvement of a number of

agencies for prevention and mitigation. This is also imperative for managing the long term

consequences of exposure to CBRN. NDMA has taken up this initiative with the active

involvement of NDRF and BARC/DAE.

This reference book on CBRN emergency management, for the targeted staff of airports

will, surely, be very useful in this endeavour.

I congratulate NDMA, INMAS and AAI for bringing out this book and convey my best wishes

to all the agencies engaged in this very important mission.

(Rajnath Singh)

Message

Office : Room No. 104, Ministry of Home Affairs, North Block, New Delhi - 110 001Tel. : 23092462, 23094686, Fax : 23094221

E-mail : [email protected]

RAJNATH SINGHH�� M��

I��N�� D��-110001

jktukFk�flagx`g�ea=khHkkjr

ubZ�fnYyh&110001

lR;eso t;rs

The world is evolving as a playfield of terror. An analysis of airport attacks of 2016 revealed

nearly 68 deaths were reported on 05 different international airports. The year 2017

witnessed injury of six people in a reported “tear gas attack” at one of the check-in desks in

Terminal 1 at Frankfurt Airport, Germany. Threats of varied nature are added as a part of

complete spectra of airport incidences both in India and other countries, one cannot

ignore it. A human error or negligence at the handling of hazardous cargo or an intentional

attack at these storage points might lead to havoc. It could be crude bomb to attack

hazardous industrial chemical, dirty bomb attack or unintentional release of biological

agent. It is a gateway of alien viruses and bacterial human carriers. We need to isolate

them, control the chaos and manage its safe quarantine and recovery. The multiple

emergency forces work in sync at the airports, their coordination is a key to mitigate the

disaster. Thus, the adoption of strategy to enhance the skills and competence of Airport

Emergency Handlers is an appreciable effort. The unique combination of user (Airports

Authority of India), advisory/ implementing body (NDMA) and developer of technology &

master trainers (DRDO) led to the successful implementation of training courses. The

manual as a learning and knowledge management aid for AEHs is appreciable. I

congratulate teams of NDMA, INMAS and AAI for their combined effort towards this

national endeavor.

Dr. S. ChristopherChairman, DRDO & Secretary DD (R&D)

Message

MkW-�,l-�fØLVksQjDr. S. Christopher

vè;{k]�MhvkjMhvkso

lfpo]�j{kk�vuqla/kku�rFkk�fodkl�foHkkx

Hkkjr�ljdkj

Chairman, DRDO

&

Secretary, Department of Defence R&D

Government of India

j{kk� ea=kky;]� j{kk� vuqla/kku� rFkk� fodkl� foHkkx]� MhvkjMhvks� Hkou]� jktkth� ekxZ]� ubZ� fnYyh-110011

Ministry of Defence, Department of Defence R&D, DRDO Bhawan, Rajaji Marg, New Delhi-110011

nwjHkk"k@Phone : 011-23011519, 23014350,�QSDl@Fax : 011-23018216, E-mail : [email protected]

lR;eso t;rs

It gives me immense pleasure to know that National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is publishing a book for imparting basic training on Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Emergency Management for Airport Emergency Handlers.

Protection of airport, continuity of operations and continuity of business is vital for the nation Airports Authority of India being the major airport operator in the country is committed to ensure safe transport of passengers and goods by air. Airports being the main acess point require that the airport authorities be prepared to handle and respond in case of CBRN incident. Coordination and cooperation between airports and emergency management agencies is a powerful, cost-effective method of enhancing preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery for multi-hazard disasters and catastrophes.

I firmly believe that the book will be an excellent guidance material providing basic and practical information on the various aspects of CBRN Emergency Management and can be used by various stakeholders at the airports including Airport Fire Services, Cargo Handlers, Security Services and Cargo Agencies to effectively negotiate with the CBRN incidents at the airprot.

CBRN Emergency Management training is being imparted to the Airport Emergency Handlers, jointly by NDMA, Airports Authority of India (AAI) and Institute of Nuclear Medicine & Allied Scienes (INMAS) which will instill confidence in the emergency handlers to effectively deal with such incidents

On occasion of release of this book. I extend my greetings to each and every official from NDMA, INMAS and AAI involved in development of this book and wish great success to future CBRN Trainings.

Dr. Guruprasad Mohapatra

Hkkjrh;�foekuiRru�izkf/kdj.kAIRPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

Rajiv Gandhi Bhawanjktho�xk¡/kh�Hkou

Safdarjung Airport, New Delhi-110003lQnjtax�gokbZ�vM~Mk]�ubZ�fnYyh-110003

MkW-�xq:izlkn�egkik=k]�vkbZ-,-,lDR. GURUPRASAD MOHAPATRA, IAS

Chairmanvè;{k

nwjHkk"k@Phone : 011-24632930

24622796QSDl@Fax : 011-24641088

bZ&esy@E-mail : [email protected]

No. AAI/CHMN/2018 January 10, 2018Message

The Na�onal Disaster Management Authority has undertaken numerous ini�a�ves for

Disaster Risk Reduc�on and Capacity Building for disaster management in conformity with

its mandate under the DM Act, 2005. As the na�on is at the threshold of becoming the

fourth largest economy in the world, the need to safeguard our na�onal assets par�cularly

against CBRN disasters cannot be overstated. In the backdrop of a very vibrant industrial

and service sector, spread across the length and breadth of the na�on, transporta�on of

various types of hazardous material by mul�ple modes is inescapable, which is associated

with inevitable risk of CBRN disaster. The threat of CBRN Terrorism further compounds the

risk of such disasters. Needles to men�on that the Training and Capacity Building of

personnel handling hazardous material is an essen�al and urgent aspect of Management

of CBRN Emergencies.

The NDMA has accordingly designed a programme for Capacity Building of Airport

Emergency Handlers in CBRN Emergency Management in associa�on with the Airports

Authority of India and Ins�tute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences. The book on

lecture notes for the programme has been prepared by the experts of NDMA, AAI and

INMAS with due delibera�ons a�er a series of discussions. The content, which is

essen�ally technical in nature, has been presented in a simplified yet comprehensive

manner to ensure easy understanding and effec�ve learning for Airport Emergency

Handlers.

We take this opportunity to express our sincere thanks and deep apprecia�on to the team

of experts from NDMA, AAI and INMAS for their commitment to the cause and professional

approach in developing the course content.

We are sanguine that this effort will go a long way in enhancing preparedness and Disaster

Risk Reduc�on for CBRN disaster in the country.

PREFACE

Kamal KishoreMember, NDMA

D.N. SharmaMember, NDMA

Lt. Gen N.C. Marwah (Retd)Member, NDMA

R.K. Jain, IAS (Retd)Member, NDMA

Acknowledgements

Na�onal Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has taken the ini�a�ve to prepare this

reference material for basic training on management of Chemical, Biological, Radiological

and Nuclear (CBRN) emergency for Airport Emergency Handlers, jointly, with Ins�tute of

Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS), which specializes in Nuclear Medicine and

CBRN Emergency. Prepara�on of this book is necessary as there is no material available

other than the theore�cal informa�on in the text books.

NDMA has signed an MoU with INMAS and Airports Authority of India (AAI) for conduc�ng

12 Basic Training Courses on CBRN Emergency Management for Airport Emergency

Handlers. This book, prepared by the domain experts, provides basic and prac�cal

informa�on on various aspects of CBRN Emergency Management.

We sincerely acknowledge the support and assistance provided by Dr. Guruprashad

Mohapatra (IAS), Chairman, AAI and Dr. A. K. Singh, Director, INMAS and their teams for

suppor�ng this ini�a�ve. This reference book would not have been possible without the

able guidance of Dr. D. N. Sharma, Member, NDMA, Shri A. K. Sanghi, Joint Secretary, NDMA

and Shri S. K. Mishra, Senior Consultant (N&R), NDMA. The dedicated efforts rendered by

team Mi�ga�on Division is also acknowledged.

(NDMA)

Basic Training Course on CBRN EM for Airport Emergency Handlers 1601Hkkjrh;�foekuiru�izkf/kdj.kAIRPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

IntroductionIntroduction

National Disaster Management Authority, as part of one of its national

programmes, has initiated a series of training on Chemical Biological

Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Emergency Management for Airport

Emergency Handlers (AEH). The training will be run in batches in the major

airports and will include class room lectures, table top exercise, field

exercise, quiz, visit to a nearby facility etc. Representatives from the various

agencies in the airport, including, CISF, fire services, police, DGCA, BCAS,

safety officers, cargo handlers, shippers, airlines, medical fields etc., in

batchs of about 50 participants, will be imparted basic training on the

subject. The trained personnel are expected to handle any emergency,

involving CBRN material, till the time highly trained first responders e.g.

NDRF reach to the incident area. The programme also includes a group

sensitization session on CBRN emergency for 100-150 working level staff.

The programme is being organized, jointly, with Airports Authority of India

and Institute of Nuclear Medicine & Allied Sciences, a research institute of

Defence Research & Development Organization, which specialises in

Nuclear Medicine & CBRN Emergencies.

The book on the lecture notes, prepared by the domain experts, provides

basic and practical information on the various aspects of CBRN Emergency

Management. The book can be referred by the AEH, as guidance document,

for management of CBRN incident at the Airports.

Basic Understanding of

CBRN EmergencyManagement

1

Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear (CBRN) agents might be

released due to some accident or subversive activity by some miscreant.

Airports are primarily major targets in modern India despite best safety and

security aspects available. The first priority is always to prevent the

occurrence of any CBRN incident however one cannot totally rule out the

probability of occurrence. If occurred, the second logical step is to manage

the incident judiciously, effectively and promptly. Terrorism is not a new

phenomenon and requires serious attention by the authorities. It has been

extended from medium of conventional weaponry and explosives to the

plausible threat of utilizing the chemical, biological, radiological and

nuclear (CBRN) agents by terrorist organizations, particularly those which

are well organized and are based on immutable ideological principles, and

have significant financial backing.

The radioactive material need to be transferred from licensed supplier's

facility to the licensed user's institution. The user may for the purpose of the

authorized use, have to transport the radioactive material from one place to

another. When the radiation from the material becomes weak, the material

cannot be used any longer. Thus, air transfer for medically useful

radioisotopes is frequent. The question is if it leaks whether it can cause

significant impact, the answer could be yes if the radioisotope has

appropriate half-life and linear energy transfer. The impact of radiation

might be negligible as compared to panic and chaos at the airports. One will

get exposed to this invisible threat if not equipped technologically. The same

principle applies to chemical and Biological agents with the difference they

can cause internal contamination to produce symptoms rather than

exposure alone.

As someone enters the airport with vehicle, the first entry point should have

long range detection technologies to ensure that any CBRN agents should

not pass this point. The training of airlines staff to ask adequate questions to

the visitors regarding packed material to identify suspicion and detection

1605

Basic Understanding of CBRN Emergency Management

Basic Understanding of CBRN Emergency Management

Basic Training Course on CBRN EM for Airport Emergency HandlersHkkjrh;�foekuiru�izkf/kdj.kAIRPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

16

06

Basic Training Course on CBRN EM for Airport Emergency Handlers

system for the packed material to screen any possible anomaly is essential.

The same is applied to receive cargo in dangerous and non-dangerous

categories. What are points of convergence between cargo received and

normal passenger visiting areas. How the medical unit is equipped to

provide primary care, general and localized skin decontamination, whether

adequate protective clothing are available with the Airport Emergency

Handlers. The primary responders on the airport are CISF personnel,

whether they have right protective clothing, detectors and other impact

assessment and mitigation tools. For example, any Radioactive dispersal

device if located can easily be shielded by Lead based containers. What

happens if Sarin Attack occurs, do AEH have adequate antidotes. The

answer might be NO. Even if it is there in the inventory, do the AEH have set

of skills to use it. Such issues need to be addressed and taken care during

proper training.

India has scientific and technical institutions which are constantly working

to develop techniques in the field of CBRN Defence and can provide

customized solutions in terms of technologies and training to make Indian

Airports CBRN Resilient.

Chemical Safetyand Emergency

2

Management

2.1 Introduction

Industrial chemical/chemical that can be used as a weapon poses

exceptional lethality and danger to humans. Majority of chemicals have

been developed and used for commercial purposes. Others may have been

developed that can be used both by militaries as chemical weapons and for

specific beneficial use.

Different chemical weapons cause different symptoms in and injuries to

their victims. Because of this range of potential symptoms, it can be difficult

to know what treatment will be most effective for a victim until the chemical

or chemical type has been identified. Also, chemical weapons may produce

their effects by different exposure routes, for example, by skin contact or by

inhalation. As a consequence, depending on what chemical is encountered,

different protective equipment must be employed; for example, a gas mask

alone is not sufficient protection against chemicals which can damage

through skin contact.

2.2 Toxic Industrial Chemicals (TICs)/ Toxic Industrial Materials

(TIMs)

A material is considered toxic when it causes death or harm when got

entered in human body. Toxic materials are poisonous by-products as a

produced in industries such as manufacturing, farming, construction,

automotive, laboratories, and hospitals may contain chemicals, and factories

heavy metals, radiation, dangerous pathogens, or other toxins. Common

examples are Hydrogen cyanide, Hydrogen sulphide, Nitrogen dioxide.

Ricin. Organophosphate pesticides. Arsenic etc.

Toxic waste has become more abundant since the industrial revolution,

causing serious global health issues. Disposing of such waste has become

even more critical with the addition of numerous technological advances

containing toxic chemical components. Even households generate

hazardous waste from items such as batteries, used computer equipment,

and leftover paints or pesticides. Toxic material can be either human-made

and others are naturally occurring in the environment. Not all hazardous

substances are considered toxic.

1609

Chemical AgentsChemical Agents


Four categories of common chemical hazards: corrosives, flammables,

oxidizers/ reactive, and toxins.

2.3 Corrosives

Corrosives are materials that can injure body tissue or cause corrosion of

metal by direct chemical action. Major classes of corrosive substances are:

(a) strong acids (e.g., sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids)

(b) strong bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide)

(c) dehydrating agents (e.g., sulphuric acid, sodium hydroxide, phosphorus

pent oxide, and calcium oxide)

(d) oxidizing agents (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, and bromine)

2.4 Flammables

Flammable substances have the potential to catch fire readily and burn in air.

A flammable liquid itself does not catch fire; it is the vapors produced by the

liquid that burn. Important properties of flammable liquids:

(a) Flash point is the minimum temperature of a liquid at which sufficient

vapor is given off to form an ignitable mixture with air.

(b) Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature required to initiate

self-sustained combustion independent of a heat source.

(c) Examples- Gasoline, Petrol, Rubber, Wood, Paper, Methanol etc.

2.5 Oxidizers/ Reactives

Oxidizers/ reactives include chemicals that can explode, violently

polymerize, form explosive peroxides, or react violently with water or

atmospheric oxygen.

(a) Oxidizers: An oxidizing agent is any material that initiates or promotes

combustion in other materials, either by causing fire itself or by

releasing oxygen or other combustible gases.

Examples - Aluminum nitrate, Ammonium persulfate, Barium peroxide

etc.

(b) Reactives: Reactives include materials that are pyrophoric ("flammable

solids"), are water reactive, form explosive peroxides, or may undergo

such reactions as violent polymerization.

Examples - Acrylic acid, Acrylonitrile, Cyclopentadiene , etc.

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2.6 Toxins

A toxic substance is one that, even in small amounts, can injure living tissue.

Examples – Hydrogen cyanide, Hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen fluoride etc.

2.6.1. Methods of Toxins Entering the Body

(a) Ingestion - Absorption through the digestive tract. This process can

occur through eating with contaminated hands or in contaminated

areas.

(b) Absorption - Absorption through the skin often causes dermatitis. Some

toxins that are absorbed through the skin or eyes can damage the liver,

kidney, or other organs.

(c) Inhalation - Absorption through the respiratory tract (lungs) through

breathing. This process is the most important route in terms of severity.

(d) Injection - Percutaneous injection of a toxic substance through the skin.

This process can occur in the handling of sharp-edged pieces of broken

glass apparatus and through misuse of sharp materials such as

hypodermic needles.

2.6.2 Types of Toxins

OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) defines a

hazardous chemical as any chemical that is a physical or a health hazard

(CFR 1910.1200). Many chemicals can cause toxic effects in the body. Below

are some classes of toxic chemicals. Information about these chemicals is

available on the MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)for each chemical, in

chemical catalogues, on container labels, and on several Internet sources.

(a) Irritants are noncorrosive chemicals that cause reversible inflammatory

effects (swelling and redness) on living tissue by chemical action at the

site of contact. Because a wide variety of organic and inorganic

chemicals are irritants, skin and eye contact with all chemicals in the

laboratory should be avoided.

Example – Epoxy resin, Solvents, Adhesives etc

(b) Corrosive substances are solids, liquids, and gases that cause destruction

of living tissue by chemical action at the site of contact.

Examples – Sulphuric Acid, Nitric Acid, Hydrochloric Acid etc.

1611Basic Training Course on CBRN EM for Airport Emergency HandlersHkkjrh;�foekuiru�izkf/kdj.kAIRPORTS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

(c) Allergens are substances which cause an adverse reaction by the

immune system. As these reactions result from previous sensitization

from the substance or similar substance, chemical allergens will be

different for each person. Example – Formaldehyde resins, Cleaners etc

(d) Asphyxiants are substances that interfere with the transport of an

adequate supply of oxygen to the vital organs of the body. They can do

this by either displacing oxygen from the air or by combining with

hemoglobin and thus reducing the blood's ability to transport oxygen.

Examples - nitrogen, argon, helium, methane, propane, carbon dioxide.

(e) Carcinogens are cancer-causing substances listed in the Annual Report

on Carcinogens. Many substances known or suspected to be

carcinogenic are still found to be in high school laboratories. There is

little reason for most of them to be there; they should be disposed of as

quickly as possible. Examples -Arsenic and inorganic arsenic

compounds, Asbestos, Azathioprine etc.

(f) Reproductive & developmental toxins (teratogens and mutagens) either

have an adverse effect on the various aspects of reproduction (fertility,

gestation, lactation and general reproductive performance) or act during

pregnancy to cause adverse effects on the embryo or fetus.

(g) Neurotoxins induce an adverse effect on the structure or function of the

central and/or peripheral nervous system. These effects can be

permanent or reversible. Examples - Drugs of abuse (like

methamphetamine), Endogenous neurotoxins (like quinolinic acid),

Heavy metals (like lead), Solvents (like methanol) etc.

(h) Toxins affecting other organs can also be a hazard. Most of the

chlorinated hydrocarbons and aromatic compounds, some metals,

carbon monoxide, cyanides, and others can produce one or more effects

on target organs in the body.

2.7 Nerve Agents

Chemical warfare agents (CWA) affecting the nervous system are called

nerve agents. Nerve agents do not occur naturally. Rather, they are

manmade compounds that require manufacture and isolation for high

toxicity and purity. Most nerve agents belong to a group of chemicals called

organophosphates. Organophosphates have a wide range of toxicity, and

16

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some are commercially employed as insecticides, though these are

significantly less toxic than those developed as chemical weapons. Nerve

agents are mainly liquids.

2.7.1 Sign/Symptoms

Two common mnemonics to help remember the clinical signs of exposure to

nerve gas are SLUDGEM & DUMBELS

S Salivation D Diarrhea

L Lacrimation U Urination

U Urination M Miosis

D Defecation B Bronchospasm

G Gastric upset E Emesis

E Emesis L Lacrimation

M Miosis S Sweating, Salivation

2.7. 2 Treatment

(a) Antidote ( Atropine & Pralidoxime Chloride)

(b) Airway Management

(c) Suctioning

(d) Intubation

(e) Anticonvulsant

2.8 Blister Agents

Blister agents, also known as vesicants, are chemicals that cause painful

blistering of the skin. While such blistering is not generally lethal, the

excruciating pain caused by blister agents requires full body protection

against these chemicals. Militarily, blister agents produce casualties and

reduce the combat effectiveness of opposing troops by requiring them to

wear bulky protective equipment. The most common blister agent is mustard

agents, which includes nitrogen- and sulfur-based compounds. Mustard

agents are oily liquids which range in color from very pale yellow to dark

brown, depending on the type and purity, and have a faint odor of mustard,

onion or garlic.

2.8.1 Sign and Symptoms

(I) MUSTARD:

(a) Skin & respiratory effects may not be apparent for up to 2 hours or longer

(b) Erythema ( sunburn-like skin) with blisters forming afterwards


(c) Mild eye exposure may cause tearing & a gritty feeling

(II) LEWISITE:

(a) Immediate severe pain upon contact with eyes and skin

(b) Blister formation is 12-14 hours after exposure

(c) Vapor causes immediate irritation of upper respiratory tract

(III) PHOSGENE OXIME :

(a) Exposure causes immediate & severe pain on contact

(b) Skin appear pale & blanched on contact

2.8.2 Treatment

(a) Airway & respiratory support

(b) Analgesia

(c) Decontamination

(d) Fluid replacement

(e) Supportive care

2.9 Pulmonary/Choking Agents

Chemicals that act on the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing and,

potentially, permanent lung damage are known as choking agents. Examples

of choking agents include chlorine, ammonia, and phosgene. Choking

agents are generally gases that have marked odor and may color the

surrounding air.

2.9.1 Signs/Symptoms

(a) Eye irritation with tearing and redness

(b) Respiratory irritation

(c) Difficulty in breathing with choking & severe dyspnea (difficult or

labored breathing )

(d) Non- cardiogenic pulmonary edema

2.9.2 Treatment

(a) Oxygen

(b) Airway management

(c) Bag valve mask

(d) Continuous positive Airway Pressure( CPAP )

(e) Positive End Expiratory Pressure ( PEEP )

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2.10 Blood Agents

Blood agents are chemicals that interfere with oxygen utilization at the

cellular level. Hydrogen cyanide and cyanide salts are agents in this group.

Hydrogen cyanide is a very volatile gas, smelling of almonds, while cyanide

salts are odorless solids.

2.10.1 Sign/Symptoms

(a) Death can occur in 6-8 minutes.

(b) Unconsciousness can occur in 30 sec to 2 mins.

(c) Seizures can occur

(d) Cardiac arrest can occur in 2-4 mins.

(e) Immediate gasping for breath.

(f) Headache

(g) Flushed skin with pink coloration, similar to an overheated appearance.

2.10.2 Treatment

(a) 100 percent Oxygen via non-rebreather mask or bag valve mask.

(b) IV (Intravenous therapy)

(c) Antidote, Cyanokit (Amyl or sodium nirite combined with sodium

thiosulfate)

(d) Anticonvulsant

2.11 Chemical Spills

A chemical spill is the release of chemical agents, liquid petroleum

hydrocarbon, toxins, etc. into the environment, which generally occurs due to

human error or improper storage conditions. Chemical spills may be due to

releases of crude oil from tankers, accidents, leakages & ruptures in storage

tanks, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel)

and their by-products, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

2.11.1 Spill Clean-up

(I) General Notes on Chemical Spills

(a) Spills should be contained, the area should be cleared, and the spill

cleaned up immediately.

(b) Waste from spill clean-up should be disposed of appropriately as per

guidance given in the MSDS of the spilled chemical.


(c) After floor spill has been thoroughly cleaned up in the appropriate

manner, the area should be mopped dry to minimize the risk of slipping

and falling.

(II) Spills that Constitute Fire Hazard

(a) Extinguish all flames immediately.

(b) Shut down all experiments.

(c) Vacate the area until the situation has been corrected.

(III) Other Spills

(a) Use an absorbent material to neutralize the liquids. Materials include:

l for acids, powdered sodium bicarbonate

l for bromine, sodium thiosulfate solution (5-10%) or limewater

l for organic acids, halides, nonmetallic compounds, or inorganic

acids, use slaked lime and soda ash

l for general spills, use commercial absorbents or spill kits, small

particles of clay absorbents (kitty litter), or vermiculite

(b) Wear rubber gloves and use a dustpan and brush. Clean the area

thoroughly with soap and water, then mop dry.

(c) Aromatic amine, carbon disulfide, ether, nitrile, nitro compound, and

organic halide spills should be absorbed with cloths, paper towels, or

vermiculite and disposed of in suitably closed containers.

2.12 Chemical Agents as Weapons of Terror Rather Than as Weapons of

Mass Destruction

Many experts believe that it would be difficult for terrorist groups to use

chemical agents as weapons of mass destruction. Even VX, the most lethal

of nerve agents, would require tons, spread uniformly and efficiently, to kill

50% of the people in a 100 km2 area. On the other hand, chemical agents

might be effectively used as weapons of terror in situations where limited or

enclosed space might decrease the required amounts of chemical. That is,

the use of the weapon itself, even if casualties are few, could cause fear that

would magnify the attack's effect beyond what would be expected based

solely on the number of casualties.

Chemical warfare is different from the use of conventional weapons or

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nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are

not primarily due to any explosive force. The offensive use of living

organisms (such as anthrax) is considered biological warfare rather than

chemical warfare; however, the use of nonliving toxic products produced by

living organisms (e.g. toxins such as botulinum toxin, ricin, and saxitoxin) is

considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical

Weapons Convention (CWC). Under this Convention, any toxic chemical,

regardless of its origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for

purposes that are not prohibited.

There have been few examples of successful chemical terror attacks. In

1995, AumShinrikyo, a Japanese apocalyptic cult, used Sarin on the Tokyo

subway. The attack killed 12 people and sent more than 5,000 to the hospital

with some degree of injury. This same cult reportedly carried out an attack

in Matsumoto as well, where 7 people were killed and over 200 injured. Both

of these attacks used G-series nerve agents, which are more toxic through

inhalation than by contact. V-series agents employed in a similar manner

might have caused greater fatalities.

2.13 Recommendation for the Cargo Handlers:

(a) Do not go near the suspicious liquid / object without protective gears

(b) Always wear complete protective gears while present in the incident area

(c) Do not use protective clothing's more than one time (in case of

confirmed chemical warfare agent exposure conditions)

(d) Do not allow decontamination team to work more than 60 minutes

(e) Do not forget to replace canister in the facemask after every 30 - 60

minutes depending on the concentration of chemical agent.

(f) For detection of liquid agent – use three color detection paper, CAM or

AP2C

(g) For detection of vapors - CAM or AP2C to be used

(h) Escape out routes & Transport / vehicle to be used should be identified

for the rescue team

(i) Set up site for rescue operation / decontamination

(j) Decontaminate area using suitable decontamination solutions

(k) Protectees should be decontaminated with decontamination solution

and after first aid sends them to nearby hospital or leaves them.


(l) Do not crowd near the victim to avoid further contamination

(m) Move in opposite wind direction through safe route

(n) Do not get back in the cordoned off area till final clearance

(o) Those in rescue crew should not remove the protective gear until they

are declared safe.

2.13.1 Size-up And Evaluate The Situation

(a) Cordon off the area in consultation with the safety officer and restrict

entry to the affected area.

(b) Arrange to provide directions and instructions on the public address

system.

(c) To the extent possible, simultaneously identify all hazardous substances

or conditions present.

2.13. 2 Rescue Operations

(a) Evacuate victims and arrange immediate first-aid.

(b) Decontaminate the victims, if required, using the appropriate

dry/wet method.

(c) Isolate casualties, prioritize treatment as per triage level.

(d) A back up team shall standby with equipment ready to provide

assistance of rescue.

(e) Transport casualties to designated hospitals.

(f) Request additional assets if required.

2.14 Safe Handling of Hazardous Materials

2.14.1 Classification of Hazardous Materials

“Dangerous goods are defined as articles or substances transported by air

which is capable of posing a significant risk to health, property or

environment when exposed or if the packing is in an unsafe condition”.

Such goods are classified under the following:

Class 1 : Explosive

Class 2 : Compressed and liquefied gases

Class 3 : Flammable Liquids

Class 4 : Flammable solids

Class 5 : Oxidizing substances

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Class 6 : Poisonous / toxic substances

Class 7 : Radioactive materials

Class 8 : Corrosives

Class 9 : Miscellaneous

2.14.2 Responsibility of Airport Authority Staff for Safe Handling of

Chemicals

When transporting, using and storing dangerous goods and hazardous

chemicals all reasonable and practicable steps need to be taken to prevent

spills and leaks. Particular attention should be paid to the following:

(a) Documenting

(b) Inventory

(c) Hazard Assessment

(d) Risk Analysis

(e) Storage

(f) Labels& Placards

(g) Spill response

(h) Register

(I) Safety Data Sheets (SDS)

2.14.3 Documenting

In chemical management it is important to have a good system for

documentation. It is also important to save the documents on the basis of

which various decisions have been made. The documentation system should

have an appropriate ambition level, but written procedures and instructions

may be needed for various reasons, e.g.:

(a) To ensure that a task is carried out and that it is done in a certain way

(b) To support employees in their tasks

(c) To facilitate tasks being transferred from one person to another

(d) To show to the authorities and environmental auditors that tasks which

may affect the environment have been performed in a controlled

manner.

2.14.4 Inventory

In order to be able to take the correct measures at the right time, it is

important to know which chemicals and how much are being used in the

business or transportation. This can be a matter of which chemical products


are being used/handled, but also which chemical substances are present in

the material or articles that are being manufactured stored or transported.

2.14. 5 Hazard Assessment

One must know about the chemicals and articles that are being dealt with so

that he is aware of the possible risks when it is handled or used. When

assessing a chemical product it is necessary to be aware of the clear

difference between the terms "hazard" and "risk”. The "hazard" posed by a

chemical, is basically due to intrinsic properties of the chemical , like

toxicity, corrosiveness, flammability ,explosive, the ability to bring about

allergies and reluctance to break down in the ground or water are some of the

examples of intrinsic properties that can be hazardous to health or the

environment.

2.14. 6 Risk Analysis

The work environment legislation, operator's control and knowledge

requirements in the Environmental Code, each in its own way makes the

requirement that one should define the risks of chemical substances in

products and processes.

The risks that are present and what exposure is allowed are determined by

the properties of the hazardous substance and the method of handling.

There are a number of different methods of assessing the risks associated

with a chemical substance. Here the company must itself judge which model

has the right level of ambition and meets the external and internal

requirements of the risk analysis. Many companies choose to work with an

acceptable risk value. The risk value depends for example on the constituent

substances' hazard, exposure time, exposure potential, amounts and the

availability of technical protective / counter measures.Risk value = (Hazard

x Amount x Exposure)/Protective Measures

2.14.7 Storage

All hazardous chemicals and dangerous goods such as solvents, fuel,

hydraulic fluid, oil and other potentially hazardous liquids (including

batteries) must be stored in a secure, bunded facility as per the relevant

Australian Standard to prevent spills and leaks escaping into the

environment and to reduce the risk of fire.

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Depending on the volumes stored products should be held in purpose-built

cabinets/buildings, stored on bunded pallets / trays or in a bunded area that

is isolated from storm water runoff.

Products should also be stored under cover to avoid rainwater becoming

contaminated within bund needing disposal as a hazardous waste.

As a rule of thumb, the Environment Protection Act, 1986 recommends the

bunded area should be large enough to hold the contents of the largest

container stored inside the bund plus 20% of its volume (for flammable

liquids, bund capacity should be at least 33% above the volume of the largest

container).The incompatible dangerous goods and hazardous chemicals

need to be stored separately.

2.15 Labels & Placards

All containers holding dangerous goods or hazardous chemicals used in the

workplace need to be appropriately labeled and labels must not be removed,

defaced, modified or altered in any way. Dangerous goods labels must

comply with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) Code. All

the security staff should have basic knowledge to understand placard

symbols and colour codes labeled or printed on transportation packages.


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2.16 Spill Response

When chemicals are stored or handled properly, the inherent risk is

minimized. But if something goes wrong and a chemical is spilled,

appropriate action must be taken immediately to prevent injury to workers

and others, and to minimize the potential damage to other materials and

facilities.

Generally speaking, though, regardless of the level of hazard involved, there

are four basic steps involved to deal with spills.

(a) Communicate the hazard-Immediately to others, evacuate the area if the

situation warrants

(b) Control the spill - If possible shut down any potential sources of heat or

ignition and increase ventilation to the area.

(c) Contain the hazard - By spreading some type of absorbent material or

neutralizer around the perimeter of the spill to prevent it from

expanding.

(d) Clean up the spill i.e. and dispose of the waste in the specified manner.

2.17 Register

A register of all the hazardous chemicals and dangerous goods used/ stored

within the workplace must be maintained. The register along with SDS

should be kept in a place that is readily accessible to all employees.

2.18 Safety Data Sheets (SDS)

A SDS must be obtained for all hazardous chemicals and be readily

accessible to all employees who may store, transport, handle or use the

chemicals listed. The supplier or manufacturer is required to provide a SDS

for the product. AAI staff should regularly check to see they have the most

up-to-date SDS.

(a) Substances and preparations that are hazardous (i.e. inflammable,

oxidising, explosive, harmful to health and those posing a danger to the

environment) in accordance with the Classification, Labelling&

Packaging regulations (CLP) concerning the classification and labelling

of chemical products.

(b) Preparations that are not classified as hazardous but contain at least 1%

(0.2% for gases) of one substance posing health or environmental

hazards.


(c) Preparations that are not classified as hazardous but contain at least 1%

(0.2% for gases) of a substance for which there are community

workplace exposure limits.

2.18.1 Use of Safety Data Sheets at Airports

Many people in an organization may find the information in a safety data

sheet useful. Naturally in the first place they are the ones who come into

"physical contact" with the chemicals and who are concerned, but there are

many others who should be informed of the chemical risks. Environmental

coordinators, buyers and those responsible for transport are some examples

of such people. It can be good to be clear about the following, as safety data

sheets are used, among other things for:

(a) Making assessments of the risk to environment and health that are

associated with the specific chemical product.

(b) Setting up safe work places and working methods.

(c) Ensuring that the chemical is handled in a way so as not to harm the

environment or human health.

(d) Preparing organization-specific safety instructions.

(e) Preparing a basis for the classification of the products (articles).

(f) Preparing a basis for how the product is to be handled as waste.

2.19 Key Points to remember in HAZMAT Safety

(a) Safety data sheets (SDS) – what they are, what information they contain,

how and when to use them, where they are held within the workplace

and how to obtain a new SDS when required

(b) Chemicals – how to store and use chemicals safely and the appropriate

method for their disposal

(c) Emergency response – what personal protection is required when

responding to a chemical emergency, where emergency response

equipment (spill kit) is located, how to use emergency response

equipment and how to dispose spent equipment

(d) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – for respiratory, eye , skin , hand

and foot protection may be needed while handling chemical

consignments depending upon the situation

Biological Safety

3

and Emergency Management

3.1 Introduction

Biological disasters are scenarios involving disease, disability or death on a

large scale among humans, animals and plants due to toxins or disease

caused by live organisms or their products. Such disasters may be natural in

the form of epidemics or pandemics of existing, emerging or re-emerging

diseases and pestilences or man-made by the intentional use of disease

causing agents in Biological Warfare (BW) operations or incidents of

Bioterrorism (BT).

Examples of biological disasters include outbreaks of epidemic diseases,

plant or animal contagion, insect or other animal plagues and infestation.

Biological disasters may be in the form of:-

Epidemic :- Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of

individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time,

examples being Cholera, Plague, Japanese Encephalitis (JE)/Acute

Encephalitis Syndrome (AES);

Pandemic :- Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that

is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging or reemerging

diseases and pestilences, example being Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu).

(a) Infectious agents are constantly evolving, often acquiring enhanced

virulence or epidemic potential. This results in normally mild infections

becoming serious.

(b) The historical association between military action and outbreaks of

infections suggest a strategic role for biological agents. The non-

discriminatory nature of biological agents limited their use till specific,

protective measures could be devised for the 'home' troops. The

advances in bacteriology, virology and immunology in the late 19th

century and early 20th century enabled nations to develop biological

weapons. The relative ease of production, low cost and low level of

delivery technology prompted the efforts of many countries after World

1627

Biological AgentsBiological Agents


War (WW) I, which peaked during the cold war. The collective

conscience of the world, however, resulted in the Biological and Toxin

Weapons Convention which resolved to eliminate these weapons of

mass destruction.

(c) While biological warfare does not appear to be a global threat, the use of

some agents such as anthrax by terrorist groups pose a serious threat.

The ease of production, packaging and delivery using existing non-

military facilities are major factors in threat perception.

(d) With a proper surveillance mechanism and response system in place,

epidemics can be detected at the beginning stage of their outbreak and

controlled.

(e) Whether naturally acquired or artificially introduced, highly virulent

agents have the potential of infecting large numbers of susceptible

individuals and in some cases establishing infectious chains. The

potential of some infectious agents is nearly as great as that of nuclear

weapons and, are therefore, included in the triad of Weapons of Mass

Destruction (WMD): Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC). The

low cost and widespread availability of dual technology (of low

sophistication) makes BW attractive to even less developed countries.

(f) The general perception that the actual threat of BT is minimal was

belied by the anthrax attacks through the postal system in 2001 which

followed the tragic 9/11 events.

(g) Anthrax, smallpox, plague and botulism are considered agents of

choice for use against humans. Similarly, crop and livestock pathogens

have been identified in their respective fields.

The clues for identifying the biological outbreak is as below.

3.1. 1 Epidemiologic Clues

(a) Greater case load than expected, of a specific disease.

(b) Unusual clustering of disease for a geographic area.

(c) Disease occurrence outside the normal transmission season.

(d) Simultaneous outbreaks of different infectious diseases.

(e) Disease outbreak in humans after recognition of the disease in animals.

(f) Unexplained number of dead animals or birds.

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(g) Disease requiring an alien vector.

(h) Rapid emergence of genetically identical pathogens from different

geographic areas.

3.1.2 Medical Clues

(a) Unusual route of infection.

(b) Unusual age distribution or clinical presentation of a common disease.

(c) More severe disease symptoms and higher fatality rate than expected.

(d) Unusual variants of organisms.

(e) Unusual anti-microbial susceptibility patterns.

(f) Single case of an uncommon disease.

3.1.3 Miscellaneous Clues

(a) Intelligence reports.

(b) Claims of the release of an infectious agent by an individual or group.

(c) Discovery of munitions or tampering.

(d) Increased numbers of pharmacy orders for antibiotics and

symptomatic relief drugs.

(e) Increased number of emergency calls.

(f) Increased number of patients with similar symptoms to emergency

departments and ambulatory health care facilities.

3.1.4 Network of PHCs and Sub-centres

The network of PHCs and sub-centres is the backbone of the public health

and IDSP integrated Disease surveillance project is the mechanism India

has adopted to deal with biological threat.

3.1.5 Response

The response to these challenges will be coordinated by the nodal

ministry—Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH&FW) with inputs

from the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) for agents affecting animals and

crops. The support and input of other ministries like Ministry of Home

Affairs (MHA), Ministry of Defence (MoD), who have their own medical

care infrastructure with capability of casualty evacuation and treatment,

have an important role to play.


3.2 Role of Airport Staff at Points of Entry (PoE):

International airports, ports and ground crossings are required to have

health units for undertaking public health measures during routine times

and specific measures during the time of PHEIC (Public Health

Emergencies of international Concern). Consequent upon adoption of new

International Health Regulations (IHR 2005) by 65th World Health

Assembly, many specific functions are mandated for events related to ALL

Hazards approach. IHR requires all WHO member countries to have

specific core capacities (as per IHR) at all international points of entry.

Further, each member country is required to notify to WHO the list of

international ports, airports and ground crossings, where the specific core

capacities have been developed (Designated Points of Entry). India is a

member country of WHO and signatory to International Health

Regulations (2005). In view of this, the country has to be compliant with the

IHR 2005 and develop specific core capacities for routine measures and for

surveillance and response during PHEIC at all designated international

points of entry (POEs).

Basic aim of these organizations is to control and prevent international

spread of public health emergency of international concerns in compliance

to International Health regulations, vis-a- vis, Indian Aircraft (Public

Health) Rules as well as Indian Port Health Rules.

3.2.1 Events under surveillance at PoE

(a) Events including Food/ Water borne illnesses occurring/reported at

POE

(b) Events which constitute potential PHEIC or PHEIC as declared by

WHO Suspected cases of diseases with mandatory notification to

WHO under Annex 2 of IHR: For eg. Small pox, Poliomyelitis due to

wild type poliovirus, human influenza caused by a new subtype and

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Suspected cases of

diseases that may lead to the use of IHR Annex 2: like Cholera,

Pneumonic plague, yellow fever, viral hemorrhagic fever.

(c) Deaths other than caused due to accident

(d) Events that require rapid response, investigation, contact tracing, follow

– up by IDSP.

(e) Any other events as instructed by Ministry/ Dte GHS/State.

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Radiological Safety

4

and Emergency Management

4.1 Basic Atomic and Nuclear Structure

4.1.1 Atoms and nuclei

The simplest unit into which matter can be broken down is the atom. Atoms

may stand in isolation (e.g. noble gases), or may combine, for example, to

form molecules like water or air. Atoms can be regarded as having two main

parts. The first part is the central core, called the nucleus. Orbiting the

nucleus are very small lightweight negatively charged particles called

electrons.

The nucleus of the atom consists of a tightly bound group of particles of two

types, protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged (to compensate

for the negatively charged electrons) and neutrons have no charge (are

neutral). The overall charge of any atom is zero (Figure 4.1).

FIG. 4. 1 Structure of an atom.


Basic Principles ofRadiation Protection, Quantities

and Units For Activity and Dose

Basic Principles ofRadiation Protection, Quantities

and Units For Activity and Dose

Protons

Neutrons

Electrons

Table : Some Examples of Isotopes

Element Number of Number of Mass Number protons neutrons 3H (Hydrogen) 1 2 360Co (Cobalt) 27 33 6099Mo (Molybdenum) 42 57 99131I (Iodine) 53 78 131137Cs (Caesium) 55 82 137238U (Uranium) 92 146 238

4.3 Radioactivity

If a nucleus contains too few or too many neutrons, it is unstable. An

unstable nucleus will try to become more stable by emitting energy in the

form of radiation, and it is said to be radioactive. Radioactivity can be simply

defined as the process by which unstable nuclei attempt to reach a stable

state by emitting radiation. This radiation is harnessed for its many

beneficial applications in medicine, industry, etc., which are discussed in

another section

4.1.2 Protons and neutrons

The hydrogen atom has 1 proton in the nucleus and 1 electron orbiting; the

helium atom has 2 protons and 2 neutrons in the nucleus and 2 electrons

orbiting; the carbon nucleus has 6 protons and 6 neutrons while 6 electrons

are in the orbit.

4.2 Isotopes

The number of neutrons may vary even in a given element. Changing the

number of neutrons does not essentially influence the chemical properties of

the atom. For example, if a neutron is added to the nucleus of the simplest

hydrogen atom (originally consisting of one proton and one orbiting

electron), a different structure is formed, but it is still hydrogen, as it still has

only one proton. This is said to be an isotope of hydrogen. If another

neutron is added to the nucleus, another isotope of hydrogen is formed.

Some examples of isotopes are shown in Table below. Uranium, among

naturally occurring elements, has the highest number of protons.

Isotopes are commonly denoted by indicating the total number of protons 3 12 60 238and neutrons in the nucleus (the mass number), H, C, Co, and U.

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4.3.1 Radioactive decay and half-life

When an unstable, radioactive nucleus emits radiation to become more

stable, it is said to disintegrate or decay. The time in which, on average, half

of a certain (large) number of nuclei of a particular isotope will decay is

characteristic for that particular isotope and is called its half-life. Isotopes 131 99with short half-lives such as I and Tc find application in nuclear medicine

where a small quantity of the isotope is administered to the patient either

orally or intravenously for accurate diagnosis of a variety of diseases. 60Isotopes with large half-lives such as Co are used for treatment of cancer

and sterilization of medical products and food.

4.4 Radiation

An unstable nucleus will eventually become more stable by emitting

particulate and/or electromagnetic radiation. Radiation emitted by

unstable nuclei can be alpha radiation (α particles), beta radiation (β-

particles), gamma radiation (γ) and neutrons.

4.4.1 Ionization

Radiation can cause ionization of another atom. Ionization is the process by

which an electron is removed from a neutral atom thereby leaving a

positively charged ion (Figure 4.3.1). This property of ionization is used for

detection of radiation. It also enables the radiation to be shielded.

path ofalpha, beta, gamma or X-radiation

ejected electron

charge-1

ionized atom

charge+1

FIG. 4.3.1. The ionization process.


4.4.2 Alpha radiation

Alpha particles consist of two neutrons and two protons. An alpha particle

will give up its energy within a very short distance mostly by causing

ionization. Alpha radiation is not very penetrating. It can be easily shielded.

In fact most alpha particles cannot penetrate the dead layer of cells on the

skin surface and therefore do not present any hazard while the alpha

emitting radionuclide is external to the body. However, if the material

becomes ingested or inhaled into the body then the alpha particles can ionize

atoms in living cells. Special instruments are used for detection of alpha

radiation.

4.4.3 Beta radiation

Beta particles are identical to electrons. They are very much smaller and

lighter than alpha particles. They are consequently more penetrating. Their

rate of ionization is much less than that of alpha particles. The penetration

range of beta particles depends on their energy and the density of the

material they are passing through. A beta particle of average energy will not

penetrate a thin sheet of metal, and will travel about 10 mm in tissue. Hence,

beta-emitting radionuclides can be a hazard to skin and eyes and also if they

are incorporated into the body. Ease of detection of beta radiation depends

on the energy. Beta sources are used in nuclear medicine, agriculture

research and industrial manufacturing (e.g. thickness gauging of polyester

films).

4.4.4 Gamma radiation

Gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation similar to radar, radio, TV,

microwave, light, ultra-violet, and infrared radiation but has higher energy. It

also causes ionization indirectly. Other electromagnetic radiations like

radar, radio, TV, microwave, light etc do not cause ionization (except X-rays

which are similar to Gamma) and are thus called 'non-ionizing'. Gamma

radiation is very penetrating, but can be shielded by dense materials such as

lead and steel. It is an external and an internal hazard, and is easily detected

at very low levels. Gamma sources are widely used (e.g. cancer treatment,

industrial radiography for non-destructive testing, sterilization of medical

products and food).

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Penetra�on of Radia�onalpha-particles (Helium atoms, originate

only during decay of heavy atoms):are totally blocked by a sheet of paper,

the outer layer of the skin or in about5cm of air.

beta-particles (electrons, originate duringdecay of light or heavy atoms): are fully

stopped in a few Millimeters of glass,water or tissue, or a few meters of air.

gamma-rays: Invisible, short wave, energy-rich penetrating light; originate during

alpha-and beta-decay: are attenuated andscattered in solid and liquid matter.

4.5 Some units of relevance to radiation protection

Some of the units which would be useful for the present purpose are

explained below.

4.5.1 Activity

The activity of a radioactive material is the number of disintegrations per

unit of time.

The corresponding SI unit is the becquerel (Bq). In the past, the unit of 10activity was Curie (1 Ci=3.7x10 dps).

This term may be still in use in some countries.

4.5.2 Dose

When radiation interacts with matter, it will deposit energy in matter. The

amount of radiation that is absorbed in a material is called the dose. It is

defined as the amount of energy absorbed per unit mass of the matter at the

point of interest. The unit is J/kg or Gray (Gy).


4.4.5 Neutrons

Neutrons are chargeless particles having mass very similar to protons. Being

chargeless, these do not ionize medium directly but indirectly through

nuclear reactions and can penetrate long distances of medium. These can be

shielded by hydrogenous materials like water, Paraffin, Concrete etc and

absorber materials like Boron, Cadmium etc.

The biological effects of radiation not only depend on the amount of energy

absorbed, but also on the type of radiation by which the energy is deposited.

For example, 1 Gy of alpha dose is much harmful than the 1 Gy of gamma

dose. Hence, in radiation protection, to account for the effectiveness of

different types of radiation, a factor called Radiation Weighing Factor (W ) R

is introduced. The physical abdorbed dose multiplied by radiation weighting

factor is called Equivalent Dose (H ). A special unit called Sievert (Sv) is T

given for equivalent dose (1 Sv=1J/Kg). It may also be expressed in sub-units

such as milliSievert (mSv) and microSievert (μSv).

For the same amount of equivalent dose the biological effects depend on the

type of tissue exposed i.e.various tissue have different sensitivity towards

radiation. To account for these differences, a new factor called Tissue

Weighting Factor (W ) is used. Tissue weighting factors W should T T

represent the relative contribution of an organ or tissue to the total detriment

due to the effects resulting from a uniform irradiation of the whole body.

The Effective Dose E is defined as the equivalent dose multiplied by tissue

weighting factor and has same unit as 'Equivalent dose'i.e. Sv.

Normally, when radiation levels are measured using portable radiation

monitors, the measured values are expressed as dose-rates or dose per unit

time, e.g. mSv/h. If a radiation monitor reads the radiation level at a

location as 2 mSv/h, it simply means that if an individual spends one hour at

the spot he/she would receive a total dose of 2 mSv. If the person spends

only 30 minutes at the spot, the dose received would be just 1 mSv. Since the

dose-rates typically encountered in the transport environment are very low,

the commonly used unit of dose rate is μSv/h. Radiation monitors are

calibrated in μSv/h and multiples thereof.

4.6 Background radiation levels

All living organisms are continually exposed to ionizing radiation, which

has always existed naturally. The sources of that exposure are cosmic rays

that come from outer space and from the surface of the sun, terrestrial

radioactive materials that occur in the earth's crust, in building materials

(e.g. ceramic tiles, concrete, marble) and in air (e.g. basements of buildings), 40water and foods (e.g. milk) and in the human body itself ( K). Some of the

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exposures are fairly constant and uniform for all individuals everywhere, for 40example, the dose from ingestion of K in foods. Other exposures vary

widely depending on location. Cosmic rays, for example, are more intense at

higher altitudes, and concentrations of uranium and thorium in soils are

elevated in localized areas. Exposures can also vary as a result of human

activities and practices. In particular, the building materials of houses and

the design and ventilation systems strongly influence indoor levels of the

radioactive gas radon (a delay product of Uranium) and its decay products,

which contribute significantly to doses through inhalation.

4.7 Control of the radiation hazard

The Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material form the

basis of the various national and international model regulations, which are

currently in force. The objective of the regulations is to protect persons,

property and the environment from the effects of radiation during the

transport of radioactive material. The dose received is the product of the

dose rate and the time exposed:

The dose from external radiation can be reduced by one or all of the

following methods:

(a) reducing the time spent near the source

(b) increasing the distance from the source of radiation

(c) interposing shielding between the source of radiation and the exposed

person(s).

4.7.1 Time

The dose received is the product of the dose rate and the exposure duration:

Dose = Dose Rate x Time

Reducing the time spent near the source of radiation will reduce the total

dose that a person receives. This principle is applied in many situations in the

transport of radioactive material.

4.7.2 Shielding

Placing shielding material between a source and the person will also reduce

the dose rate. For gamma radiation, dense materials such as lead and steel

are the most effective, and therefore, these materials are frequently used in

package designs. The a-particles are least penetrating and can be shielded


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4.8 Control of the contamination hazard

It is important to have a clear concept of the distinction between radiation

and contamination. Radiation is the particle or energy emitted from

radioactive material (or generating devices such as X-ray machines).

Contamination means presence of radioactive material in excess

of prescribed limits. Radioactive material is placed in the containment

with a place of paper, while Beta with thin sheets of materials like

Aluminium, Tin etc. To shield neutrons one needs materials like Water,

Paraffin, Concrete and absorber materials like Boron, Cadmium etc.

4.7.3 Radiological Safety Officer

Operation of facilities for handling, storage and transport of radioactive

materials is authorised by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board.

Based on the safety significance, some of the facilities are mandate to

appoint dedicated radiological safety officer.

Protection from Radiation

Three rules for protection from radiation:

1. Minimize Time

2. Maximize Distance

3. Maximize Shielding


system within a package. Regulations for transport of radioactive material

prescribe the limits of the removable contamination levels on the external

surfaces of packages and also dose at 1m from the surface of the package

(called Transport Index) when they are forwarded for transport.

4.8.1 Containment

Normally, radioactive material is placed or kept in some sort

of container. This may be a glass vial, cladding on a fuel pin, a special

stainless-steel capsule etc. Contamination generally occurs when for some

reason the container is damaged or broken. Once contamination is outside

of a controlled or contained environment it can spread quickly and easily.

Therefore, the basic method of contamination control is by taking care to

keep the radioactive material in a designated place.

4.8.2 External and internal personal contamination

Once contamination is in an uncontrolled environment, it may

inadvertently come in contact with people. Once it is external to the body, it

is generally more of a nuisance than a hazard, but it still requires to be

located and cleaning up. However, when contamination gets inside the body

the hazard is much greater and is termed as internal contamination.

Once inside the body, the principle of time, distance and shielding cannot be

applied to reduce the dose. Generally, the body is committed to a certain

dose until it diminishes through radioactive decay or excreted out by

biological process. Therefore, it becomes very important to prevent

radioactive material becoming incorporated into the body. The ways it could

get inside include inhalation of dusts, gases or smoke, ingestion via the

mouth from smoking, eating or drinking with contaminated hands, or

incorporation through wounds, grazes or cuts.

4.8.3 Protective clothing

The general purpose of protective clothing is to prevent a person from

becoming contaminated either externally or internally. The level of

protection required will vary according to the level of the contamination

hazard. Protective clothing can vary from a laboratory coat and gloves, to

several layers of coveralls, with a complete positive pressure body suit and

self-contained breathing apparatus.

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4.8.4 Fixed and loose (removable) contamination

A distinction is often made between fixed and removable contamination

without taking care to carefully define the terms. In radioactive material

transport, removable, or non-fixed contamination as it is called in the

Regulations, is contamination that can be removed from a surface during

normal handling. Once contamination gets on a surface, all or part of it can

become impossible to remove. It is then called fixed contamination. Fixed

contamination no longer presents a contamination hazard, but a radiation

hazard.

4.9 Controlled areas

Restricting access to a particular area provides a basic method of

implementing control over both radiation and contamination. This method

is particularly useful in accident situations. For radiation, a controlled area

keeps people remote from the source and hence controls the hazard by

distance and time. For contamination, it keeps people remote from the loose

radioactive material. If there is only one point where personnel are surveyed

on entry and exit, then the radioactive material can be prevented from

spreading outside of the area and hence is contained. Personnel can also be

controlled to ensure that they have the necessary protective clothing on entry

to the restricted area.

4.10 Radiation protection programmes

A radiation protection programme is a system of measures that primarily

ensures the health and safety of workers and the public from radiation and

radioactive material. The Regulations require that a radiation protection

programme be established for all aspects of the transport of radioactive

material. The radiation protection programme should include a training

programme for the concerned personnel. Record keeping is an important

element of any radiation protection programme.

4.10.1 Dose limits

As per the Basic Safety Standards states that, “The normal exposure of

individuals shall be restricted so that neither the total effective dose nor the

total equivalent dose to relevant organs or tissues, caused by the possible

combination of exposures from authorized practices, exceeds any relevant

dose limit specified, except in special circumstances. Dose limits shall not

apply to medical exposures from authorized practices.”


4.10.2 Individual dose limits

They are set so that any continued exposure just above the dose limits would

result in additional risks that could be reasonably described as

“unacceptable” in normal circumstances.

There are basically two requirements in setting the dose limits. The first is to

keep doses below the threshold level for deterministic effects and the second

is to keep the risk of stochastic effects at a tolerable level. The stochastic

effects occur at considerably lower doses and are the basis for dose

limitations. The dose limits recommended by AERB are summarized below

Dose Limits (AERB, India)

Occupational Public

Effective dose

Effective dose in any single year

Annual equivalent dose : Eye lens

Skin

Hand & feet

20 mSv/y averaged over five consecutive years

30 mSv

150 mSv

500 mSv

500 mSv

-

15 mSv

50 mSv

-

1 mSv in a year

4.11 Biological effects

4.11.1 Short term biological effects

Biological effects of radiation vary greatly depending on such factors as the

amount of exposure, rate of exposure, area of body irradiated, type of

radiation and individual biological variability.

Relatively large doses of radiation are required to produce short-term

biological effects. At high dose rates, the appropriate dose quantity is

absorbed dose (Gy). The radiation weighting factors, W and the tissue R

weighting factors, W are appropriate only for low doses.T

If enough individual cells are damaged by radiation, then specific clinical

symptoms will be evident. These symptoms and effect are termed as

'deterministic effects'.

The deterministic effects have a threshold level of dose, above which the

severity of the effects is greater for a higher dose. Examples of deterministic

effects are: Nausea, Vomiting, Diarrhea, Erythema, Epilation, acute

radiation syndrome such as Haematopoietic syndromes, Gastro Intestinal

syndromes, central nervous syndroms, and damage to individual organs.

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Radiation sickness is characterized by a group of symptoms that includes

diarrhea and vomiting, nausea, lassitude, haemorrhaging, emaciation,

infection and ultimately, death. The onset and severity of these symptoms is

mainly a function of dose.

Table (given below) provides a broad indication of the dose levels for certain

short-term effects following whole body irradiation over a short period of

time. If only part of the body is irradiated it would require much larger doses

to produce the same effect.

Table : Doses for Acute Biological Effects

Effect Dose (Gy)

No discernible effect

Blood changes, no illness

Radiation sickness, no deaths

Death to 50% of irradiated people

Death to100% of irradiated people

0.25

1.0

2.0

4.5

10.0

4.11.2 Long term biological effects

The major long term biological effects from smaller doses received over a

longer period of time are the increased risks of cancer in individual and

hereditary effects in progency. These are termed as 'Stochastic Effects'

Stochastic Effects have no threshold level of dose as their probability of

occurrence is proportional to dose and severity is independent of dose.

(a) Cancer

Cancer induction is a stochastic effect, in that the probability of the effect

is a function of dose, perhaps with no threshold. Some organs are more

sensitive to cancer induction than others. The sensitivities for different

organs are given by the tissue weighting factors. All radiation-induced

cancers have latent period before they appear.

The cancer risk is reasonably well known from observations of the

survivors of the atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

International bodies such as ICRP and UNSCEAR quantify this risk at

about = 5% per Sv for workers and 7% per Sv for general public.

The cancer risk from low doses (i.e. ≤ 100 mSv) is extremely low and may

in fact be zero.

(b) Genetic effects

The hereditary effects (ie, genetic effect) of radiation in humans has not

been detected with a statistically significant degree of confidence.

4.12 Principle of Radiation Detection

Detection and measurements of nuclear radiation must be accomplished by

suitable instruments, since these radiations are invisible and their presence

generally cannot be sensed by human perception. All radiation monitoring

devices consist of a radiosensitive detector and a means of recording the

effects of radiation on the detector (i.e the response of the detector).

Detectors respond to radiation by producing various physical effects which

can be measured. Ionisation is one of these effects. The ion pairs can be

collected to give an electrical signal which is related to the intensity of the

radiation. Some detectors will emit light pulses in response to radiation and

by counting the pulses the intensity of radiation can be found. Others will

store the effects of radiation over a long period and can then yield the

information at a later time. All these devices, in one way or other, respond to

energy deposited in them by the radiation. Instruments can be designed to

indicate either the rate at which the radiation is being received or the

integrated amount over a certain time. The following are the media generally

used for radiation detection:

(a) Gases ( Ionisation chamber, Propotional counter, GM counter)

(b) Scintelators ( NaI (Tl), Anthracene )

Radiation Detection

• Can not be seen

• Can not be smelled

• Can not be tasted

• Can not be felt

• Can not be heard

• Can be rapidly detected byinstruments!


(c) Solid state detectors (semiconductors, thermoluminiscent, TLD

dosimeters )

(d) Photographic emulsions (Films)

4.13 Radiation Monitoring Instruments

Radiation monitoring instruments can be broadly classified into three

categories based on their applications as

(a) Area monitoring instruments

(b) Portable survey instruments

(c) Personnel monitoring instruments.

Since there is wide variation in type, energy and level of radiation to be

monitored, it often becomes necessary to use multiple of instruments to

monitor the radiological parameters. Monitoring devices based on above

detection principle are used in radiation monitoring. The Geiger Muller

(GM) counter and scintillation based instruments are mainly used for

general radiation survey, personnel monitoring and contamination

monitoring. Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) are being used for

regular personnel monitoring and accidental radiation monitoring.

It is important to check radiation instruments periodically to ensure that

they are calibrated correctly, and before each use a pre-operational check

should be made which consists of the following:

(a) Check that the due date on the calibration sticker is not exceeded.

(b) Battery check- make sure that battery is not dead.

(c) Source check – ensure the instrument indicates actual radiation fields

correctly.

FIG. : Radiation Monitoring Instruments

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4.14 Introduction

Radioactive materials need to be transported from one place to another as

these materials are used in medicine, industry, research and production of

electricity. The materials have to be transported from the licensed supplier's

facility to the licensed user's institution. The user may, for the purpose of the

authorized use, have to transport the radioactive material from one place to

another. When the radiation from the material becomes weak, the material

cannot be used any longer. Then the materials are transported to the

authorized radioactive waste disposal facilities for safe disposal. Some of the

peaceful applications of radioactive material are briefly described below.

4.14.1 Uses of radioactive material

Radioactive materials are used in medicine, industry, research and

production of electricity around the world each day. These materials must be

properly and safely shipped from the point of manufacture (supplier's

licensed facility) to the point of use (customer's licensed facility).

At this point, it is worth providing a brief overview of some of the everyday

uses of radioactive material for those who are a little less familiar with the

subject. Radioactive material is used in many more ways than most people

realize to improve our quality of life. Whenever or wherever it is used, it is

incumbent on qualified individuals and responsible organizations to ensure

that the radioactive material is prepared, used, handled, transported and

disposed of in a safe manner. The following text and figures provide a brief

overview of some examples of those activities that require shipment of

radioactive material or waste.

4.14.2 Health care product and consumer product irradiation60Gamma rays from cobalt-60, ( Co) are commonly used to irradiate health

care and consumer products. This includes surgeon's gloves, gowns, sutures,

syringes, catheters, etc. About 45% of all medical disposables are sterilized 60using gamma radiation from Co

Radiological Safety for Cargo Handlers at Airport

Radiological Safety for Cargo Handlers at Airport


Consumer products such as bandages, cosmetics, hygiene products and 60solutions are also sterilized by Co. The prevention of infection through this

sterilization technique complements the basic healing goal of medicine.

About 200 facilities located in more than 50 countries worldwide provide

sterile medical devices using gamma irradiation techniques. Radioactive 137materials (typically Cs) are also used for blood irradiation (for patients

with deficient immune systems so as to preclude rejection of graft).

4.14.3 Nuclear applications in medicine

There are many applications of nuclear technology in the medical field,

ranging from diagnostics, to treatment, to disease management. Many of

these use radionuclides which are produced in either nuclear reactors or

cyclotrons. Examples include use of specific radioactive material for 123 111 67diagnostic studies in specific organs / tissues I (thyroid), In (brain); Ga

99m(Hodgkin's disease, hepatoma, bronchogenic carcinoma, etc); Tc (heart); 201 11 81m 13 18Tl (myocardial tissue); C (brain); Kr (lung); N (heart); and F for

epilepsy. The safe transport of the radionuclides from the production sites to

the hospitals, eventually followed by the safe transport of their residues and

related wastes to disposal facilities, is vital to the success of nuclear

medicine.

Some Uses of Radioactive Material

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Several tens of thousands of nuclear medicine procedures are conducted

every day all over the world. Of these, 40-50% are cardiac exams and 35-40%

are cancer related. Nuclear medicine, being a powerful tool deployed by the

medical profession the world over, is increasingly being used in several

countries because of the benefits that accrue to patients.

Radiation is widely used for the treatment of diseases such as 60hypothyroidism and cancer. Co is the primary isotope used in cancer

therapy. In addition to teletherapy, where the radiation source has no

physical contact with the tumour, the radiation source may be placed in

immediate contact with the tumour, as in brachytherapy.

4.14.4 Food irradiation

The use of gamma rays and electron beams in irradiating foods to control

disease-causing micro-organisms and to extend shelf life of food products is

growing throughout the world . Food sterilization has been approved by 40

countries and is encouraged by the World Health Organization . The 60radiation source that is commonly used for this purpose is Co, which is

produced at one facility and transported to another facility for irradiation of

the product.

4.14.5 Insect control

Radioisotopes are assisting in enhancing animal and food production. One

method is the control of insects, including the control of screwworms, fruit

flies, and the Tsetse fly . The Tsetse fly causes the transmission of a parasitic

disease, trypanosomiasis, which slowly destroys livestock herds. It also

causes the spread of the human form of the disease, known as sleeping

sickness. By irradiating male Tsetse flies in a controlled gamma ray

environment, the male flies are made sterile, and the Tsetse fly population

can be reduced to insignificant levels. The low-level exposures to gamma 60 137rays are provided by Co and Cs sources.

4.15 Nuclear applications in industry

Radioisotopes are used in a wide range of industrial applications. Examples

include gamma radiography of structures, castings, or welds where the use

of X-rays is not feasible, using radioisotope thickness gauges in the

manufacture of products such as steel and paper; in tracer experiments to


provide exact information on the condition of expensive processing

equipment; in defining the exact position of tubes in manufacturing

facilities. Radioisotopes are also used as level indicators for feedstock supply

hoppers. Moisture and density gauges use radioactive sources for analysis of

soil water content and compaction. Radioisotopes are used in smoke

detectors, and as lasting, fail-safe light sources for emergency signs in aircraft

and public buildings. Clearly, the variety of applications is enormous and

growing annually.

4.16 Nuclear reactors

One of the major uses of radioactive material is in the generation of

electricity in nuclear power reactors. The nuclear power industry now

generates electricity in 32 countries contributing 17% of the world's supply

of electricity, while 63% comes from the burning of fossil fuels. In India =

4% the total electricity produced is generated by nuclear reactor. Some

countries have over 75% of their electricity generated from nuclear power

plants. The nuclear fuel cycle, which supports this generation requires the

transport of radioactive material in many forms, including ores, uranium

hexafluoride, fresh nuclear fuel, irradiated (or spent) nuclear fuel, and

wastes. India has adopted a closed fuel cycle i.e. from mining to waste

management 60 Power as well as research reactors produce Co. Research reactors are used

for production of radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine. Nuclear reactors

have been used to power a variety of ocean-going vessels including merchant

vessels, ice breakers, and naval ships. Nuclear power will continue to play a

significant role in meeting the world's increasing need for safe, clean,

affordable and secure electricity.

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Regulation of Transport of Radioative Material

Regulation of Transport of Radioactive Material

4.17 Importance of transport

Radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine having very short half-lives need to 60be rushed to the waiting patients. Co being an important source used for

teletherapy and sterilization of medical products and food has to be

transported from the supplier to the user. The radioactive materials used in

nuclear power industry have to be carried from one facility to another for

efficient production of reliable and clean energy. All the concerned

organizations, viz., the manufacturer, the carrier, the handler and the

customer play key roles in facilitating the transport of radioactive material

for the various safe applications. Radioactive material has been transported

for more than 40 years without any serious accident. The regulatory

requirements for the manufacture, transportation and handling ensure

safety and security.

Note: The radiation protection standards on which the current Transport

Regulations and international practice are founded are prescribed in the

IAEA Basic Safety Standards (BSS) and in various documents of AERB

(Atomic Energy Regulatory Board of India)..

4.18 National Regulations

Transport of radioactive material is governed by national regulatory body

i.e Atomic Energy Regulatory Board of India (AERB). These national

regulations specify the requirements relating to the type of the package,

labeling and marking and documentation to be provided by the consignor

and the responsibilities of the consignor and the carrier. The consignors,

carriers and the public authorities concerned with transport of cargo ensure

that the shipments are made in compliance with the applicable national

regulations.

4.19 Safe transport of radioactive material

The basic requirements of the regulations for the safe transport of radioactive

material focus on design safety and administrative measures. Selecting the

package of appropriate design achieves the desired design safety.


Prior to shipping the package, the consignor measures the radiation and

contamination levels and the temperature on the external surface of the

package to assure that the regulatory limits are not exceeded. The package is

marked and labeled. The UN number appropriate to the radioactive content

should be inscribed on the package and included in the transport documents.

For example, the UN number of a radiopharmaceutical used in nuclear

medicine is 2915. Typically the UN number of a Type B(U) package 60containing a Co source used for teletherapy or sterilization of medical

products is 2916. The transport documents include a declaration signed by

the consignor certifying that the package meets all the applicable regulatory

requirements and specific instructions to the carrier regarding routine

operations and emergency instructions.

(a) Packages are generally brought under three categories, viz.,

Category I-WHITE, Category II-YELLOW and Category III-YELLOW, on the basis of the radiation level on the exterior of the package.

(b) The transport index (TI) is a number that is a measure of maximum

< 5 microμSv/hat surface

> 5 - 500 μSv/h atsurface < 10 μSv/h at 1metreTI between 0-1.0

> 500 - 2000μSv/h at surface < 10 - 100 μSv/h at1 metreTI between 1 -10

Transport Index (TI) =Dose rate (μSv/hour) at 1 metre from the surface divided by 10

...................RADIOACTIVE I

7

................... ...................RADIOACTIVE II

7

................... ...................RADIOACTIVE III

7

...................

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dose-rate at 1 meter from the surface of a package or freight container. TI

is used for controlling accumulation of packages for the purposes of

minimizing exposure to radiation. The number of packages stacked in a

storage area or transported in a vehicle or in an aircraft or in a defined

deck of a vessel area is so restricted that the sum of the transport indexes

of the packages does not exceed the specified limits. The limits are

stipulated in the regulations.

4.20 Measurement of radiation level

The radiation levels on the exterior of packages determine the category of

the packages. Consignors are required to label the packages according to the

category on the basis of measured radiation levels. Further, the presence of

removable radioactive contamination on the exterior of packages is

restricted to the prescribed limits. Radiation level is measured in units of

μSv/h, as mentioned earlier. Contamination levels are measured in

Bq/cm2. In large package storage areas carriers may provide the cargo

handlers with portable radiation monitors. Where it is suspected that a

package may have been damaged with a potential increase in the radiation

levels or contamination levels, a radiation / contamination monitor should

be used by the cargo handler to determine the actual condition of the

package.

4.21 Emergency situations

The cargo personnel should be able to handle emergency situations

involving packages containing radioactive material. Packages may be

received at a cargo complex in a damaged condition. While handling

packages, they may be dropped or run over by vehicles like fork lifts causing

damage to the packages. During storage, fire may break out and a package

containing radioactive material may get damaged. In an emergency

situation, the cargo handler should observe the following basic precautions:

(a) Do not panic

(b) Rescue the injured

(c) If there is fire, fight fire

(d) Try to remove packages containing radioactive material from the fire zone


(e) After fire is put out, allow the packages to cool before approaching them

(f) Measure the radiation level around the packages approaching them from a safe distance

(g) If the package is visibly damaged, cordon around it (the cordoning distances are given in the table), determining the safe distance on the basis of the measured radiation levels

(h) Place a placard warning the possibility of radiation hazard if the cordon is breached

(i) Note down the available particulars about the package

(j) Inform the managers about the particulars of the package including the names and addresses of the consignor and the consignee and the details of the consignment as read from labels affixed on the exterior of the package

(k) Act as directed by a radiation protection expert.

Radioactive contents, packaging and package

l The packaging with itsPackage -radioactive contents as presented for transport

l The assembly of components necessary to Packaging -enclose the radioactive contents completely

RADIOACTIVECONTENTS PACKAGEPACKAGING

Understanding Package Components & Identification of Radioactive Consignment

Understanding Package Components & Identification of Radioactive Consignment: Typical forms of Type A packages

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4.22 Conclusion

It is clear that radioactive material is like any of the other dangerous goods

and hence has to be treated as such. Because of the multitude of beneficial

applications of radioactive materials, they have to be transported. The

packages are designed and constructed to meet stringent standards of safety.

Therefore, they are generally safe to handle. As a matter of regulatory

requirement, packages have to be packed, marked, labeled and declared in

the transport documents appropriately. It is the responsibility of the

consignor to ensure that relevant regulatory requirements are met.

Familiarity, on the part of the cargo personnel, with the regulatory

requirements and the simple safety precautions outlined in this training

course manual will contribute to the safe and unhindered movement of

radioactive materials. With response infrastructure and organization as per

NDMA's IRS in place along with clear responsibilities of every functional

group, it goes a long way to effectively and quickly respond to an untoward

incident/emergency involving radiation.

A commonly used Type A package

Typical forms ofType B package


4.23 Introduction

Radiation Emergency can be caused in the public domain either by

accidental release from nearby nuclear facility, if transport carrying

radioactive material meet an accident and the package containing material

gets damaged or use of radiation in malevolent activities (like RED and

RDD) by unlawful elements. Preparations are needed to respond to such

radiation emergencies in the public domain. DAE is geared up to respond to

any such emergency in its own facilities.

4.23.1 Radiation Exposure Device (RED)

Radiation Exposure Device (RED) is a device intended to cause radiation

injury or fatality by exposing people to radiation without spreading

radioactive material. An example of a RED is unshielded or partially

shielded radioactive material or source capsule placed in any type of

container and in a location capable of causing a radiation exposure to one or

more individuals.

4.23.2 Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD)

RDD is any device that spreads radioactive material across an area with the

intent to cause harm, without a nuclear explosion occurring. An RDD that

uses explosives for spreading or dispersing radioactive material is commonly

referred to as a “dirty bomb” or “explosive RDD.” Non-explosive RDDs

could spread radioactive material using common items such as pressurized

containers, fans, building air-handling systems, sprayers, crop dusters, or

even spreading by hand.

The harm caused by an RDD is the contamination of a large area that

remains inaccessible till it is decontaminated. Few casualties/injuries may

occur due to the explosion but once radioactive material spreads out,

exposure may not be of much concern, if the source is not of very high

activity.

The only way to avoid RED or RDD in the public domain is to have very

strict regulatory control and monitoring so that such sources do not fall into

the hands of unlawful elements or are not subjected to illicit trafficking.

Radiological Devices and Emergency Management

Radiological Devices and Emergency Management

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4.23.3 Radiation Emergency Preparedness

A radiation emergency could also take place in the public domain, due to

various reasons. It could be due to an accident involving radioactive material

transport, loss / theft of source, etc. In the event of any radiation emergency

in the public domain – be it arising due to incident at a DAE facility or at any

other location - DAE follows identified as the nodal agency for technical

expertise / resources. DAE follows a document titled 'Crisis Management

System for Radiological/Nuclear emergencies' which shows the DAE

preparedness and response for mitigating any radiation emergency in public

domain. Emergency Response Centres (ERCs) spread in 22 locations over

the country with their trained Emergency response teams (ERTs) with the

nodal center at BARC, Mumbai are kept in readiness to respond to any

nuclear/radiological emergency in public domain. DAE's crisis

Management Group (CMG-DAE) will coordinate with District, State and

National Authorities, in case the response to an event goes beyond the

capacity of the DAE.

DAE has also Strengthened National Response capability by training a large

no of trainers and First Responders from National Disaster Response Force

(NDRF), Central Para Military Forces (CISF, ITBP, BSF and CRPF),

Police, Fire services and from medical fraternity.

4.24 Duties and Responsibilities of First Responder

All the radiation emergency management plans will have criteria specified

for taking the prompt actions. The mission of the First responder team is to

assess and control the radiological impact in case of any radiological

emergency. As the Radiological Emergencies are vary rare, generally the

responders may not have adequate experience even if they might have

carried out exercises many times. The activities of the team may include

radiation monitoring, contamination monitoring, air sampling, radioactive

waste management and activities related with decontamination.

Nuclear/Radiological emergency situations are to be treated as potentially

dangerous unless confirmed by radiation monitoring. The situation can

become more complicated in the presence of other hazardous material. First

responders could be exposed directly from radioactive source (external),

contaminated surfaces (external and internal) and air borne radioactive

particulates (external and internal) and therefore, need personal protective


equipment for their safety. A clear allocation of tasks and responsibilities,

along with the good communication which involves keeping the public

informed is essential during the emergency period.

4.24.1 Radiation Monitors and Equipments required by First Responder

The first responder has to be equipped with radiation monitoring

instruments and personal protective equipments (PPE). The instruments

should be capable of detecting all kinds of radiation and contamination. The

instruments like personal dosimeter, portable radiation survey meters for

alpha, beta and gamma measurement and air sampling devices form an

important part of emergency kit and required for assessment of the

radiological hazard.

The personal protective equipment (PPE), full body covering suit, respirators

will protect the first responder from any internal radiological hazard. The

water tankers, hose and decontamination agents can be used to

decontaminate the personnel and confine the contaminants on the ground.

Public Address system, Cordon tape and radiation symbols will help in

controlling access to the site. Tongs and lead flask can be used for retrieval

and containing the sources/radioactive materials.

4.24.2 Response Action of the First Responders

The following are sequence of actions to be followed at the earliest possible

by the First responders arriving at the scene of the radiological

incidents/accidents. The sequence of steps is given below:

(a) Inform Unified Commander/DAE - Emergency Control Room

immediately.

(b) Radiation detection instruments should be turned on before the team

reaches the scene.

(c) Cordon the area of the incident as per guidance given in the Table.

(d) Keep the public away from the incident scene. Prohibit eating, drinking

or smoking in the incident area.

(e) Fire personnel should be cautioned about the presence of radioactive

material and be provided with suitable PPE while involved in dousing

fire.

(f) In case of a transport accident identify the hazard and if possible obtain

relevant shipping papers, TREMCARD and other documents.

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(g) Items such as jewelry, wrist watch, mobiles, wallet etc. is to be collected

separately at the site of incident, checked for possible radioactive

contamination and tagged.

(h) All individuals will be monitored, decontaminated if necessary, and

cleared after medical treatment, if needed.

(i) The name, address, destinations and telephone numbers of individuals

who could not be persuaded to stay at the incident scene should be

recorded.

4.24.3 Responsibilities of Incident Commander

The incident commander shall make an initial assessment of radiation

hazard and give appropriate safety instructions to the response personnel

arriving at the scene. In addition to assuring the safety of his team members,

he should also act to protect the public from receiving any radiation

exposure. Table gives guidance dose value for emergency team as

recommended by AERB. If the initial assessment indicates potential

exposure to the public, the incident commander shall evaluate the need to

evacuate the area. In case of a transport accident the incident commander

may rely upon the recommendation provided by the person accompanying

the shipment of radioactive consignment. The initial assessment for

cordoning of the area should include a complete visual inspection made

from a safe distance to determine the possibility of container breach. He has

to inform unified Commander immediately, provide information to DAE-

Emergency Control Room, coordinate on-scene actions, provide traffic

control and establish entry and exit control procedures. He will maintain

appropriate records of the incident.

4.25 Conclusion

In the event of a Nuclear /Radiological emergency, the effectiveness of

measures taken to protect members of public or workers or the environment

will depend upon the adequacy of emergency plans prepared in advance.

The first responder may be from Defence, Civil Defence, Para military and

Law enforcement personnel. They should have basic knowledge of radiation

protection in addition to monitoring techniques. Time is an essence in the

early hours following an accident. Therefore initial monitoring should

involve gross hazard evaluation and isolation of the affected area. The major

challenge involves medical management of casualties, decontamination of


affected area and personnel, psychosocial effects of radiological terrorist

incidents, public communication and training and qualification for

personnel.

Table : Guidance Values for the Emergency Workers

Tasks Guidance value

Life saving actions Effective Dose <500 mSv

This value may be exceeded under circumstancesin which

(a) the expected benefits to others clearly outweighthe emergency worker's own health risks, and

(b) the emergency worker volunteers to take theaction and understands and accepts this health Risk

Actions to prevent severe deterministic effects and actions to prevent the development of catastrophic conditions that could significantly affect people and the environment

Effective Dose ≤500 mSvActions to avert a largecollective dose

Effective Dose ≤100 mSv

Note: Pregnant female should be excluded from emergency team

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In a radiological emergency, the inner cordoned area is where protective

action is implemented to protect responders and the public and initially

selected as per the table above. After measurement of radiation field it can be

adjusted so that the radiation field at the boundary of the area is ≤ 0.1

mSv/h.

Major spill from a potentially dangerous source

Fire, explosion or fumes involving a dangerous source

Suspected bomb (possible radiological dispersal device), exploded or unexploded.

Conventional (non-nuclear) explosion or a fire involving a nuclear weapon (no nuclear yield)

Initial determination - Inside a building

Damage, loss of shielding or spill involving a potentially dangerous source

Fire or other event involving a potentially dangerous source that can spread radioactive material throughout the building (e.g. through the ventilation system)

Expansion based on radiological monitoring

100 m radius around the source

300 m radius

400 m radius or more to protectagainst an explosion

1000 m radius

Affected and adjacent areas(including floors above and below)

Entire building and appropriate outside distance as indicated above.

Table : Suggested Radius of the Inner cordoned area (Safety perimeter)in a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency

Situation Initial inner cordoned area(safety perimeter)

Initial determination- outside

Unshielded or damaged potentially dangerous source

30m radius around the source


4.26 Introduction

Radioactive contamination is the presence of radioactive substances in or on

the materials, human body or other places where it is undesirable and may be

harmful. Contamination may result in external as well as internal exposure

of the radiation workers. Contaminations in public domain occur due to a

severe accident in a nuclear installation, spillage during transport of

radioactive material or during accidents involving industrial and medical

sources and terrorists activities using radioactive sources. Implementation

of adequate protective measures will reduce contamination and exposure of

public and responders. Decontamination is the mode for removal of

radioactive contamination in or on the material or persons.

4.27 Personnel Decontamination (External)

Simplest method for decontamination of external body surface is by

washing with water and soap. If contamination still persists, specific

chemicals to like ETDA, DTPA, KMnO4 etc can used. However, chemicals

are not used near the eyes on the hair. For scalp hair use only shampoo, for

eyes rinse only with clean water, and for localized contamination on orifices,

use swab. If contamination still persists, medical intervention is

commended.

4.28 Decontamination of Wounds

Decontamination of open wound should be carried out under the

supervision of a medical practitioner and the RSO.

If all the methods to wash out the contamination fail and contamination

level remain high, it will have to be removed surgically. Further decision on

removal of contamination is taken by medical team after careful risk-benefit

analysis of a specific case.

Urine and fecal samples are also collected to determine the possible uptake

of the contaminant.

Decontamination and Waste Management

Decontamination and Waste Management

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Flow chart of procedure for personal decontamination

ENTER

NOCHECKCONTAMINATION

NO

NO

EXITNO

NO

YES

YES

YES

WATERWASH

CHECKCONTAMINATION

WATER + TEEPOLWASH

CHECKCONTAMINATION

SATURATED KMnO4 IN 0.1 N H2SORREMOVE STAINS BY Na82

CHECKCONTAMINATION

50% SOLUTION OF AMONIUMCITRATE OR CITRIC ACID

EDTA, DTPA

NO

NO

CHECKCONTAMINATION

CHECKCONTAMINATION

CHECKCONTAMINATION

SLOWLY BRUSH THESURFACE + WATER

YES


Portable Personnel Decontamination Unit (PPDU)

4.29 Internal Decontamination

This procedure should be carried out under the supervision of qualified

medical practitioner. The objective of internal decontamination is to reduce

the radiation dose and risk of subsequent biological effects. This can be

achieved by:

• Reducing the uptake in the blood and deposition in organs using

blocking and diluting agents

• Enhancing excretion of absorbed radionuclide's using mobilizing and

chelating agents, such as Ca-DTPA etc.

4.30 Portable Personnel Decontamination Unit (PPDU)

The PPDU is developed by BARC to carry out decontamination following

radiological emergency in the public domain. The PPDU can be installed at

the site of the incidence in 30 minutes. It is having provisions for

contamination monitoring, stripping and bathing, post monitoring,

provision of fresh clothing and waste collection facility etc. The water source

of PPDU is fire hydrant from the first responders (Fire fighters). The PPDU

has water pumping capacity of 25 lpm for delivery and discharge. It is having

capability of decontamination of 15 persons per hour.

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4.31 Area and Equipment Decontamination

The decontamination procedure for area and equipment depends upon the

extent of contamination, the type of radionuclides, type of contaminated

surface, etc. The procedure should be selected judiciously in consultation

with professional health physicist / radiological safety officer.

4.32 Categorization of Radioactive Waste

Radioactive wastes are categorized into 'Low Level' ' Medium level' and

High level wastes depending upon the level of activities and half-lives of the

radionuclide present in the waste. These can be in the form of solid, liquid or

gas.

4.32.1 Waste Management

Radioactive wastes are the wastes that contain radioactive material.

Radioactive waste is hazardous to most forms of life and the environment,

and is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health

and the environment.

The waste management follows three basic principles.

(i) Delay and Decay

(ii) Dilute and Disperse

(iii) Concentrate and immobilize.

In the public domain radioactive waste generated either in the incident or in

decontamination activity need to be collected and handed over to the nodal

agency, DAE, for proper management.


Decontamination Techniques

5

Decontamination protects workers from hazardous substances that may

contaminate and eventually permeate the protective clothing, respiratory

equipment, tools, vehicles, and other equipment used on site; it protects all

site personnel by minimizing the transfer of harmful materials into clean

areas and it helps prevent mixing of incompatible chemicals.

5.2 Decontamination Plan

A decontamination plan should be developed (as part of the Site Safety Plan)

and set up before any personnel or equipment may enter areas where the

potential for exposure to hazardous substances exists. The decontamination

plan should:

(a) Determine the number and layout of decontamination stations.

(b) Determine the decontamination equipment needed.

(c) Determine appropriate decontamination methods.

(d) Establish procedures to prevent contamination of clean areas.

(e) Establish methods and procedures to minimize worker contact with

contaminants during removal of personal protective clothing and

equipment (PPE).

(f) Establish methods for disposing of clothing and equipment that are not

completely decontaminated.

The plan should be revised whenever the type of personal protective clothing

or equipment changes, the site conditions change, or the site hazards are

reassessed based on new information.

5.3 Common Decontamination Methods

All personnel, clothing, equipment, and samples leaving the contaminated

area of a site (generally referred to as the Exclusion Zone) must be

decontaminated to remove any harmful chemicals or infectious organisms

that may have adhered to them. Decontamination methods either (1)

physically remove contaminants, (2) inactivate contaminants by chemical

detoxification or disinfection/sterilization, or (3) remove contaminants by a

combination of both physical and chemical means

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Decontamination TechniquesDecontamination Techniques


5.1 Intoduction

5.4 Physical Removal of Contamination

In many cases, gross contamination can be removed by physical means

involving dislodging/displacement, rinsing, wiping off, and evaporation.

Physical methods involving high pressure and/or heat should be used only

as necessary and with caution since they can spread contamination and

cause burns. Contaminants that can be removed by physical means can be

categorized as follows:

(a) Loose contaminants

(b) Adhering contaminants

(c) Volatile Liquids

5.5 Inactivation

(a) Chemical Detoxification-Halogen stripping, Neutralization,

Oxidation/reduction, Thermal degradation.

(b) Disinfection/Sterilization-Chemical disinfection, Dry heat

sterilization, Gas/vapor sterilization, Irradiation. Steam sterilization.

5.6 Chemical Removal

Physical removal of gross contamination should be followed by a

wash/rinse process using cleaning solutions. These cleaning solutions

normally utilize one or more of the following methods:

(a) Dissolving contaminants

(b) Surfactants

(c) Solidification

5.6.1 Warning: Some organic solvents can permeate and/or degrade the

protective clothing.

(a) Be incompatible with the hazardous substances being removed (i.e. a

decontamination method may react with contaminants to produce an

explosion, heat, or toxic products). Be incompatible with the clothing or

equipment being decontaminated (e.g., some organic solvents can

permeate and/or degrade protective clothing).

(b) Pose a direct health hazard to workers (e.g., vapors from chemical

decontamination solutions may be hazardous if inhaled, or they may be

flammable).

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5.7 Setting Up The Site For Rescue / Decontamination Operation

(a) Hot Zone

o It is the contaminated area identified the detection team

o Minimum medical care will be given

o Only rescue personnel allowed in this zone

o Vehicles/equipments entered into this area are contaminated and

should be decontaminated.

Dilute Bases

For example:-detergent-soap

Acid compounds

PhenolsThiolsSome nitro and sulfonic compounds.

Organic Solvents*

For example-alcohols-ethers-ketones-aromatics-straight-chain alkanes (e.g., hexane)-common petroleum products(e.g., fuel oil, kerosene)

Nonpolar compounds (e.g., someorganic compounds).


Solvent Soluble Contaminants

Water Low chain hydrocarbonsInorganic compoundsSaltsSome organic acids and otherpolar compounds

Dilute Acids Basic (caustic) compounds.AminesHydrazines

Table : General Guide to Solubility of Contaminants

(b) Warm Zone

o Rescue, decontamination and medical personnel will be present to

treat the casualties.

o All must be in full protective gear

(c) Cold Zone

o It is the safe area

o Here transfer of patients will be done after examining every

individuals

pfd : The above zones are made considering the upward wind direction.

5.8 Responsibilities:

(a) The senior most officers among the team is responsible for the safety of

the team members.

(b) He will ensure safe procedures in handling of source of contamination

(equipment)

(c) He will ensure minimum duration of time of personnel in the hot zone

(d) If required, he will replace the team members with back up teams

(e) He will teach and adopt signs using hands and arms for communication

assist in evidence collection and preservation

5.8.1 Specific procedures may require

(a) The team should recognize pools or puddles of liquids or droplets o n

water surfaces, dead animals of birds, munitions or their debris: and

locate the source of contamination

(b) On site detection methods using detection devices detailed in the above

list of equipment should be restored

(c) Off-site laboratory analysis using instrumental methods can be

requested in case of ambiguities in detection

(d) The samples (soil, water, air, contaminated belongings etc) should be

preserved handed over for higher competent authorities for further

investigation, if required in the later stage.

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Safe Transport of

Dangerous Goods by Air

6

6.1 To The Pilot-in-Command

The operator of an aircraft in which dangerous goods are to be carried must

provide the pilot-in-command, as early as practicable before departure of

the aircraft, with accurate and legible written or printed information

concerning dangerous goods that are to be carried as cargo.

Note - This includes information about dangerous goods loaded at a

previous departure point and which are to be carried on the

subsequent flight.

Except as otherwise provided, this information must include the following:

(a) The air waybill number (when issued);

(b) The proper shipping name (supplemented with the technical name(s) if

appropriate; and UN Number or ID number as listed in these

Instructions.

(c) The class or division, and subsidiary risk(s) corresponding to the

subsidiary risk label(s) applied, by numerals, and in the case of Class 1,

the compatibility group;

(d) The packing group shown on the dangerous goods transport document;

(e) The number of packages and their exact loading location.

(f) The net quantity, or gross mass if applicable, of each package, except that

this does not apply to radioactive material or other dangerous goods

where the net quantity or gross mass is not required on the dangerous

goods transport document. For a consignment consisting of multiple

packages containing dangerous goods bearing the same proper shipping

name and UN number or ID number, only the total quantity and an

indication of the quantity of the largest and smallest package at each

loading location need to be provided. For unit load devices or other types

of pallets containing consumer commodities accepted from a single

shipper, the number of packages and the average gross mass need to be

provided;

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Safe Transport ofDangerous Goods by Air

Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air


(g) For radioactive material the number of packages, over packs or freight

containers, their category, their transport index (if applicable) and their

exact loading location;

(h) Whether the package must be carried on cargo aircraft only;

(i) The aerodrome at which the package(s) is to be unloaded;

(j) Where applicable, an indication that the dangerous goods are being

carried under a State exemption; and

(k) The telephone number where a copy of the information provided to the

pilot-in-command can be obtained during the flight if the operator

allows the pilot-in-command to provide a telephone number instead of

the details about the dangerous goods on board the aircraft.

(l) The information provided to the pilot-in-command must also include a

signed confirmation, or some other indication, from the person

responsible for loading the aircraft that there was no evidence of any

damage to or leakage from the packages loaded on the aircraft.

(m) The information provided to the pilot-in-command must be readily

available to the pilot-in-command during flight.

(n) This information provided to the pilot-in-command should be presented

on a dedicated form and should not be by means of air waybills,

dangerous goods transport documents, invoices, etc.

(o) The pilot-in-command must indicate on a copy of the information

provided to the pilot-in-command, or in some other way, that the

information has been received.

(p) A legible copy of the information provided to the pilot-in-command

must be retained on the ground. This copy must have an indication on it,

or with it, that the pilot-in-command has received the information. This

copy, or the information contained in it, must be readily accessible to the

aerodromes of last departure and next scheduled arrival point, until after

the flight to which the information refers.

(q) In addition to the languages which may be required by the State of the

Operator, English should be used for the information provided to the

pilot-in-command.

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(r) In the event that the volume of information provided to the pilot-in-

command is such that in-flight radiotelephony transmission would be

impracticable in an emergency situation, a summary of the information

should also be provided by the operator, containing at least the quantities

and class or division of the dangerous goods in each cargo compartment.

6.2 Information To Be Provided To Employees

An operator must provide such information in the operations manual

and/or other appropriate manuals as will enable flight crews and other

employees to carry out their responsibilities with regard to the transport of

dangerous goods. This information must include instructions as to the

action to be taken in the event of emergencies involving dangerous goods,

and details of the location and numbering system of cargo compartments

together with:

a) the maximum quantity of dry ice permitted in each compartment; and

b) if radioactive material is to be carried, instructions on the loading of

such dangerous goods.

Where applicable, this information must also be provided to ground

handling agents.

6.3 Information To Be Provided By The Pilot-in-commandin Case of In-

flight Emergency

(a) If an in-flight emergency occurs, the pilot-in-command must, as soon as

the situation permits, inform the appropriate air traffic services unit, for

the information of aerodrome authorities, of any dangerous goods

carried as cargo on board an aircraft.

(b) Wherever possible this informaion should include the proper shipping

name and/or UN number, the class/division and, for Class 1, the

compatibility group, any identified subsidiary risk(s), the quantity and

the location on board the aircraft, or a telephone number where a copy

of the information provided to the pilot-in-command can be obtained.

(c) When it is not considered possible to include all the information, those

parts thought most relevant in the circumstances or a summary of the

quantities and class or division of dangerous goods in each cargo

compartment should be given.


6.4 Reporting of Dangerous Goods Accidents And Incidents

An operator must report dangerous goods accidents and incidents to the

appropriate authorities of the State of the Operator and the State in which

the accident or incident occurred in accordance with the reporting

requirements of those appropriate authorities.

Note.— This includes incidents involving dangerous goods that are not

subject to all or part of the Technical Instructions through the application of

an exception or of a special provision.

6.5 Reporting of Undeclared or Misdeclared Dangerous Goods

An operator must report any occasion when undeclared or mis declared

dangerous goods are discovered in cargo. Such airport must be made to the

appropriate authorities of the State of the Operator and the State in which

this occurred.

An operator must also report any occasion when dangerous goods not

permitted are discovered in passengers 'baggage. Such a report must be made

to the appropriate authority of the State in which this occurred.

6.6 Information By The Operator In Caseof An Aircraft Accident or

Incident

In the event of:

a) an aircraft accident; or

b) a serious incident where dangerous goods carried as cargo may be

involved, the operator of the aircraft carrying dangerous goods as cargo

must, without delay, provide to emergency services responding to the

accident or serious incident, information about the dangerous goods on

board, as shown on the copy of the information provided to the pilot-in-

command. As soon as possible, the operator must also provide this

information to the appropriate authorities of the State of the Operator

and the State in which the accident or serious incident occurred.

In the event of an aircraft incident, if requested to do so, the operator of an

aircraft carrying dangerous goods as cargo must, without delay, provide to

emergency services responding to the incident and to the appropriate

authority of the State in which the incident occurred, information about the

dangerous goods on board, as shown on the copy of the information

provided to the pilot-in-command.

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6.7 Cargo Acceptance Areas — Provision of Information

An operator or the operator's handling agent must ensure that notices giving

information about the transport of dangerous goods, sufficient in number

and prominently displayed, are provided at acceptance points for cargo.

6.8 Emergency Response Information

The operator must ensure that for consignments for which a dangerous

goods transport document is required by these Instructions, appropriate

information is immediately available at all times for use in emergency

response to accidents and incidents involving dangerous goods in air

transport. The information must be available to the pilot-in-command and

can be provided by:

a) the ICAO document Emergency Response Guidance for Aircraft

Incidents Involving Dangerous Goods (Doc 9481); or

b) any other document which provides similar information concerning the

dangerous goods on board.

6.9 Training

An operator must ensure training is provided to all relevant employees,

including those of agencies employed to act on the operator's behalf, to

enable them to carry out their responsibilities with regard to the transport of

dangerous goods, passengers and their baggage, cargo, mail and stores.

6.10 Retention of Documents

The operator must ensure that at least one copy of the documents

appropriate to the transport by air of a consignment of dangerous goods is

retained for a minimum period of three months, or such other period as

specified by the States concerned, after the flight on which the dangerous

goods were transported. As a minimum, the documents which must be

retained are the dangerous goods transport documents, the acceptance

checklist (when this is in a form which requires physical completion) and the

written information to the pilot-in-command.

Note. — Where the documents are kept electronically or in a computer

system, they should be capable of being reproduced in a printed manner.


Medical aspects &

CBRN EmergencyPsychosocial Impact of

7

CBRN accidents often require specialized protective measures and highly

sophisticated responses because of the nature of the materials involved.

These responses are not well understood even by emergency agency

personnel in the local communities, and certainly not by the general public.

Off-site emergency response is relatively more complex and complicated as

it involves unorganized, multi- stakeholder and multi-agency coordination.

First response from police, fire, medical aid and lifesaving and handling

transport emergencies involving hazardous chemicals are important aspects

for off-site emergency preparedness and response.

7.2 Chemical Disasters

Chemical disasters are occurrence of emission, fire or explosion involving

one or more hazardous chemicals in the course of industrial activity

(handling), storage or transportation or due to natural events leading to

chemical emergency inside or outside the installation or due to malicious use

of chemical warfare agents (CWA) likely to cause loss of life and property

including adverse effects on the environment.

7.3 Biological Disasters

Biological disasters are scenarios involving disease, disability or death on a

large scale among humans, animals and plants due to toxins or disease

caused by live organisms or their products. Such disasters may be natural in

the form of epidemics or pandemics of existing, emerging or re-emerging

diseases and pestilences or man-made by the intentional use of disease

causing agents in Biological Warfare (BW) operations or incidents of

Bioterrorism (BT).

7.4 Nuclear or Radiological Disaster

When the impact of a nuclear or radiological emergency, caused by a nuclear

attack (as happened at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan) or large-scale

release of radioactivity from nuclear/ radiological facilities (as happened at

Chernobyl in Ukraine or recently at Fukushima, Japan ((2011)) or due to

Medical aspects & Psychosocial Impact of CBRN Emergency

Medical aspects & Psychosocial Impact of CBRN Emergecny


7.1 Intoduction

malicious usage of radioactive materials, it assumes the dimension of a

nuclear emergency / disaster leading to mass casualties and destruction of

large areas and property or turning these into inhospitable. Unlike a nuclear

emergency, the impact of a nuclear disaster is beyond the coping capability

of local authorities and such a scenario calls for handling at the national

level, with assistance from international agencies, if required. A Nuclear

and/or Radiological Emergency (NR) is an incident resulting in, or having a

potential to result in, exposure to and/or contamination of the workers or

the public, in excess of the respective permissible limits.

7.5 Medical Response During CBRN Emergencies

CBRN incidents call for the decontamination, which entails immediate

removal of the unabsorbed contaminant from the body of victim, followed

by treatment of a significant numbers of casualties while ensuring the safety

of the responder. The training through mock exercise needs to be conducted

to hone skills and develop reflexes of the responders, so that they can

promptly remove victim from the 'agent' source and also remove 'agent from'

contaminated personnel. The key of success is swiftness and correctness.

Other important commandments are as follows:

(a) Triage – prioritization patients based on clinical condition.

(b) Resuscitate and treat patients as per triage.

(c) Decontaminate the victims so as to prevent spread of contamination.

(d) Transport victims to hospitals on priority as per triage classification.

(e) Re-triage constantly (a dynamic process) throughout all the phases of

management.

(f) Only move the dead when it is affecting the response.

(g) Training, both the oretical and practical, with periodic refresher training

The NDMA is actively working towards institutionalizing an approach

towards CBRN Disaster Management and has formulated valuable

guidelines. These guidelines are available at following websites:

http://ndma.gov.in/en/ndma-guidelines.html

Both civilian and military researchers have well-studied the psychological

effects of natural disasters on civilians and the effects of combat on soldiers.

Yet, little attention has been given to the psychological effects of the

deployment of chemical or biological weapons on the general public or first

responders.

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While first responders and search and rescue personnel would likely be

overwhelmed with treating the actual physical casualties of biological

and/or chemical weapons, past experience has shown that the presence of

those who would experience adverse psychological reactions is extreme and

could seriously disrupt the treatment of those actually suffering life-

threatening injuries.

7.5.1 Emergency Planning For CBRN Facilities

(a) Health units should maintain an inventory of available equipment that

might be needed and have up to date information on how to obtain

additional support.

(b) Ensure that decontamination equipment and facilities are available (if

not on site then by mobile units)

(c) Have access to specialized information and to specialists for appropriate

treatment of exposed victims.

(d) Have plans/ procedures for sending patients to other health facilities

when necessary, protecting other people from contamination,

registering all individuals who arrive at the health unit for treatment as a

result of exposure to HAZMAT (Hazardous Materials).

(e) Have a designated (separate) telephone line, in service 24 hours a day for

use by emergency services in event of an accident, with a backup

communication system.

7.5.2 First Aid for CBRN

(a) The person should be stabilized physiologically before decontamination

is attempted.

(b) Place: Decontamination should be carried out at the site of the accident

preferably in separate place earmarked for this purpose. It should be

easily accessible to the exterior of the building to ensure minimum

spread of contamination when the patient arrives. The floor of the room

should be easily washable or should be covered with polythene sheets.

The room should have water supply, low- level tank for collection of

contaminated water, and a place for monitoring instruments.

(c) Elimination of 90% of contamination is achieved by removal of

clothing alone. Over- aggressive and over- zealous treatment should be

avoided in order to prevent injury to the natural barriers of the skin

resulting in enhanced absorption.


(d) Measures like removal of contaminated clothing at the site of accident,

shower bath, administration of first aid for internal contamination

should be done at the first aid before sending patient to site hospital.

(e) Measures to reduce absorption:

1. Stomach wash– To remove the contaminant before getting absorbed.

2. Inducing vomiting.

3. Laxative– To hasten the movement through the intestines to reduce

the time of contact of the contaminant in the gut.

(f) Generally, trained Health Physics Staff does the monitoring. The doctor

is required in case of persistent contamination with associated injury or

contamination of sensitive parts of the body; e.g. eyes, nose, mouth etc.

7.6 Internal Contamination (incorporation)

Usually this follows dispersal of powdered, liquid, or gaseous radioactive

material. Effective treatment requires knowledge of both the radionuclide

and its chemical form. Effectiveness of treatment is dependent on an early

treatment.

It can occur due to accidental intake of a radioisotope by Inhalation,

Ingestion, Injection (or absorption through broken/ intact skin).

7.6.1 Decorporation

Early effective decontamination of internal contamination can considerably

reduce late effects of inhaled or ingested radionuclides. Decorporation has

to be carried out using specific antidotes

Treatment protocols for chemical, biological, Radiological & nuclear

weapons vary by agent, ranging from weapons with effective treatment and

prophylaxis to weapons which have neither known cure nor protection.

Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear weapons can produce mass

casualties if not effectively disseminated, but have varying and different

effects. Chemical weapons, predominantly man-made chemicals, require

the largest amount of material to be effective and cause their effects in

minutes to hours. Biological weapons made of naturally occurring

pathogens require the least material to be effective, but generally have an

incubation period of several days before symptoms show themselves.

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Radiological materials that can create a hazard with the potential to injure

and kill personnel can come from any radioactive source. While nuclear

detonations produce large amounts of radioactivity and a significant

hazard, radiological attacks do not create a nuclear blast and thus do not

cause mass casualties but only contamination of large area that may need

costly decontamination. Radiological weapons could contain virtually any

type of radioactive material and disperse only the amount of material

originally contained within the device. Sources of radiological material

include medical and industrial equipment and waste and may originate in

countries having insufficient control of these materials.

CBRN weapons pose additional concerns beyond mass casualties. These

weapons may contaminate the area in which they are used, emergency

vehicles, and first responders. The wide array of potential symptoms from

CBRN weapons makes identification of the causal agent difficult and

complicates treatment. Additionally, public fears relating to disease and

poisoning could increase the impact of CBRN attack, as worried,

unexposed people request treatment from medical facilities

Biological agents Chemical agents Radiological agents

Agent ormaterial

Radioactive substances that cause radiation exposure among humans and other organisms and affect the environment

Toxic chemicals, in gas, liquid or solid form that can cause death, temporary incapacity or permanent harm to humans or other organisms

Living organisms (such as bacteria, viruses, Rickettsia or fungi) or toxins of biological origin that can infect or poison humans or other organisms


contd.

Characteristics Symptoms of generalor local radiation overexposure in alocalized area of radioactivity, spreadby wind, water and explosion Symptoms are linked to radiation exposure and delayedfor hours and days. Long - term mutagenic and transgenerational effects are possible.

Chemical contamination localized and not contagiousSubstances moved by wind, water, explosion or cross-contaminationRapid onset of symptoms linked to dosage, exposure and toxicityPotential long-term health effects, such as carcinogenic, mutagenic and trans generational effects

Disease symptoms among people exposed to pathogen or toxinMay spread from person to person or by vectorsIncubation period may delay symptoms and diagnosis for days or weeksInhalation, contact and ingestion


Characterizingfunctions for managing risk ( Note: riskcommunication,mass casualtymanagement,mental health are managementfunctions which apply to all)

Healthsurveillance, early warning, quarantine, sampling and analysis, vaccination and prophylaxis, epidemiological investigation, infection control, and biosafety in laboratories and health facilities

First response, environmental detection,decontamination, incident site management, environmental health, long-term issues andchemical safety

First response, environmentaldetection, facility design,decontamination, environmentalhealth and long-term issues

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Detection and analysis

Can be directly and immediatelydetected (such as Geiger countersor dosimeters)

Can be rapidly detectedand analyzed (such asspectrometry orchromatography)

Rapid diagnostic tests exist for specific agents. Laboratoryconfirmation may take days(such asmolecularmethods orimmunoassays)

Historically CBRN is a mnemonic for Chemical Biological Radiological and

Nuclear. hazards or injuries. It replaces and expands the term used during

the cold war NBC. Some of these agents were used or developed by the

military like classic agents Nerve Agents, Sulphur Mustard, Lewisite. Others

have dual use in industry as well like Chlorine and Phosgene as well as by the

military. Some are single use like Nerve Agents that have no other industrial

use. TIC and TIM (Toxic Industrial Chemicals and Toxic Industrial

Materials) examples include industrial chemicals that are available in our

cities and towns like ammonia or hydrofluoric acid or flammable chemicals

like propane or gasoline. The term 'CBRN Defence' is used in reference to

CBRN passive protection, contamination avoidance, and CBRN mitigation.

Hence, looking historically at all the perspectives of CBRN medical

management planning, Triage, First aid and Psychosocial care are the prime

key for successful intervention of saving the people.

7.7 Psychosocial Impact of CBRN Terrorism & its Management

Usage of CBRN agents would not only create fear and panic among the

general population, it could disrupt and overwhelm the medical community.

Surprising to most, history has shown that CBRN agents can be very

effective weapons of terror against civilians, “by inducing fear, confusion

and uncertainty in everyday life”.


7.7.1 Mathewson (2014) categorizes terrorist attacks into three phases:

(a) the Pre-attack Phase - The Pre-attack Phase is the period prior to an

actual attack. It is during this phase that organizations (military,

communities, schools, etc.) should conduct on-going assessments and

judge their vulnerabilities. While the military and law enforcement most

often do well to prepare during this phase, many local community

leaders and even individual citizens do not.

(b) the Acute Event Phase - The Acute Event Phase consists of immediate

response to an actual terrorist event and strategies learned in the Pre-

attack Phase are implemented. These strategies will include fire

suppression, search and rescue and emergency medical efforts.

Obviously, planning during the Pre-attack Phase helps mitigate damage

during the Acute Event Phase.

(c) the Consequence Management and Reconstruction Phase.- The final

Consequence Management Phase is the actual time for reconstruction.

It is during this phase that communities, health care providers and

individual families will confront those suffering from frustration,

anxiety, grief and mourning, as well as sleep disorders, memory

problems and varying degrees of depression.

Even anxiety experienced in the Pre-attack Phase can result in some

psychological response, but it is the trauma experienced during the Acute

Event Phase of a chemical and/or biological event that can lead to an array

of psychological responses during the Consequence Management Phase.

It is estimated that between nine and 35 present of persons directly exposed

to all traumatic events develop significant post-traumatic psychological

distress and perhaps even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Studies show that human-made disasters can be even more psychologically

impairing than natural disasters. Terrorism may be the most pathogenic due

to its unpredictable and unrestrained nature.

While panic may be the immediate result of a terrorist attack, prolonged

anxiety among individuals and society as a whole can be crippling.

7.7.2 Psychological Effects, First Responders

While first responders are certainly susceptible to the same psychological

responses to chemical and biological weapons as the general population,

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there is some evidence that their training can serve as a buffer (of sorts)

leaving them better prepared to cope.

Fear of chemical and biological weapons (or other tragic, fearful events and

weapons) may itself be associated with several epidemics of medically

unexplained illnesses. First responders can be very reluctant to ask for help,

increasing their risk of later exacerbating any psychological injury. This is

why first responder personnel should be on the lookout for stress indicators

among their co-workers. All of these factors increase our anxiety, fear and

uncertainty over chemical and biological weapons.

7.7.3 Steps of Psychological First Aid

Providing PFA at the earliest not only helps the person to regain strength, but

also reduces the stress reactions which someone is experiencing.

(a) Meeting the immediate needs

(b) Listen, listen, listen

(c) Accepting any feelings expressed by the survivor

(d) Assist with next steps

(e) Refer and follow-up

Interventions for CBRN psychosocial management.

(a) Reassurance

(b) Rest, respite, shelter

(c) Basic needs

(d) Allowing to talk

(e) Psychological Support

(f) Specialist need if needed

Being morally, ideally, spiritually and technically strong is they to combat the

mental issues related to CBRN disasters, very few basic information and

technical knowledge has avoided several panic situations and unnecessary

spreading of rumors post CBRN incidents.

For further information on psychosocial care.

http://www.ndma.gov.in/en/ndma-guidelines.html Guidelines for

Psycho-Social Support

http://www.nidm.gov.in/PDF/modules/psychosocial.pdf


Incident Reporting System at

AIRPORTS

8

8.1 Categorization of Emergencies

(a) Local Standby: This situation arises when in coming aircraft is known or

is suspected to have developed minor defect but the trouble is not likely

to affect safe landing of aircraft.

(b) Weather / Visibility: When weather has deteriorated to such an extent as

to render the landing of aircraft more difficult. Bad weather will

indicate high speed wind, thunder storm, heavy rain etc., and while poor

visibility will be considered when visibility falls below 2000 meters.

(c) Full Emergency: An aircraft in flight known or suspected to be in

difficulty which may result in a forced landing or accident on or in the

vicinity of the airport. This emergency is declared due to fire, mal-

functioning of surface controls, Hydraulic trouble, pressurization

failure, communication failure, flight crew sickness, bomb threat, and

hijacker threat.

(d) Aircraft crash On the Airport: Initiated if an aircraft crash has occurred

at the actual airfield (within the airport perimeter wall).

(e) Aircraft crash Off the Airport: Initiated when an aircraft accident has

occurred outside the perimeter wall and area is defined as the area

covering outside the airport perimeter wall and in the vicinity of the

airport up to 5 KM on approach path and 2.5 KM / or in an area within 8

KM radius from the center of the airport.

(f) Fires on Ground (Aircraft Related Fires): Fires on the ground can be

aircraft related and non aircraft related. Fire involving aircraft can be

any location on the runway, taxiway and apron area.

(g) Dangerous Goods Accident / Incidents: Dangerous goods incident /

accidents can occur in the aircraft or in the warehouse such as cargo

terminal. Such incidents / accidents are potentially capable of posing a

significant risk to health, property and environment when exposed or

the packing is in the unsafe conditions.(Refer ICAO 9284-AN/905).

1695

Incident Reporting System at Airports

Incident Reporting System at Airports


(h) Natural Disaster: An occurrence arising with little or no warning which

causes or threatens serious disruption of life and perhaps cause death or

injury to large number of people and require therefore a mobilization of

effort in excess of that normally provided by the statutory emergency

service. (Refer Draft AAI Disaster Plan).

(i) Structural Fire: When fires involve the Airport Terminal/ Technical

/Cargo / Hanger buildings and installation. (Refer Fire order No-5).

(j) Bomb Threat Contingency Plan: As per BCAS circular.

(k) Contingency Plan for Handling Hijack Situation at Airport: As per

BCAS circular.

(l) Disabled Aircraft Removal Plan: As per DGCA Guideline and Fire

Order No. 10 for Disabled Aircraft Removal Plan.

(m) In- Flight Mass Causalities: Part 1 of ICAO Annex 6 stipulates that the

pilot-in-command shall be responsible for notifying the nearest

appropriate authority by the quickest available means of any accident

involving his aircraft which results in serious injury or death to any

person or substantial damage to the aircraft or property. Mass casualties

onboard will usually result from incidents such as an encounter with

severe air turbulence during flight or mass food poisoning.

(n) Search and Rescue: As Per DGCA Circular and Directorate of ATM

CIRCULAR.

8.2 Emergency Operations and Coordination Centres Established For

Mitigation Of Airport Emergencies

(a) During a major airport disaster such as an aircraft crash or a severe fire

outbreak at terminal building, various emergency operations and

coordination centers will be established immediately to mitigate the

disaster.

(b) The emergency operations and coordination centers at Airport

comprise the Crisis Management Centre (CMC), the Rendezvous Point

(RVP), the Mobile Command Post (MCP), the Casualty Clearance

Centre (CCC), the Survivors Reception Centre (SRC), the Friends and

Relatives Reception Centre (FRRC) and the Reunion Area (RA). Each

of them has its own functions and roles to perform during the crisis.

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8.3 Dangerous Goods Emergencies

Dangerous goods accident / incidents may occur:

(a) During an Aircraft crash in which the aircraft concerned is carrying

dangerous goods.

(b) During the Full emergency in which the aircraft concerned is carrying

dangerous goods.

(c) During the Fires on the ground in which the aircraft is carrying or in the

process of loading/ unloading dangerous goods.

(d) When consignments of dangerous goods are damaged during loading or

unloading from the aircraft or during delivery or collection from cargo

terminals / warehouses/ within the airport.

When a dangerous goods accident/incident occurs on the ground, the

organizations / units involved and their roles and responsibilities:

8.4 Role of Airport Rescue and Fire Fighting Services;

(a) Fire watch tower concerned shall upon receiving the information,

immediately relay the message to the duty officer / officer in charge

concerned and notify.

(b) Upon arrival the airport fire service personnel shall quickly control and

contain the accident / incident until the arrival of local fire brigade.

(c) Rescue and firefighting personnel should familiarize themselves with

the various distinctive diamond shaped dangerous goods labels.

8.5 Role of Local Fire Service

Local fire service shall respond with the necessary resources needed for

mitigating the dangerous goods accident / incident.

8.6 Handling Of Radioactive Materials

In the event radioactive materials are suspected the following general

procedures should be followed:

(a) The nearest nuclear energy facility, hospital with a radiological unit,

military base or civil defense organization should be required to

dispatch immediately a radiological team to the accident site.

(b) If the dangerous goods accident / incident involving radioactive

material occur in the airport, Head DRP, BARC, Mumbai (+91-22-


25505300) & nearest agency proficient in handling radioactive material

emergency shall be informed. His advice in regard to proper handling of

the accident / incident shall be sought and acted accordingly.

8.7 Precautionary measures for Rescue and firefighting during emergency

involving radioactive material.

(a) Only properly attired rescue and firefighting personnel should remain on

the scene. All other persons should be kept as far from the scene as

possible.

(b) The Airport fire service or Local fire service will set up a HOT zone (a

recommended radial distance of 100 m) around the accident / incident

site. Where applicable, a WARM zone about 100m (measured from the

boundary of the HOT zone) will be cordoned. A transfer point between

the HOT and WARM zones is to be clearly demarcated.

(c) All rescuers should assemble at the transfer point before proceeding

towards the aircraft or the damaged radioactive consignment. The

rescuers assigned to work in the HOT zone will be kept to a minimum

and they shall be equipped with standard protective clothing and

respiratory protection. However, there should not be any reduction in

the effectiveness of rescue and firefighting operations.

Rescuers and firefighting personnel should stay upwind and avoid the

smoke, fumes and dust blowing from the accident / incident site.

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Role of NDMA in Disaster Management

9

9.1Institutional framework for disaster management

The Salient features of the Institutional framework for disaster management

in the country, which has been mandated by the Disaster Management Act,

2005, are briefly described in succeeding paragraphs.

9.2 Disaster Management Act, 2005

The Act lays down institutional, legal, financial and coordination

mechanisms at the National, State, District and Local levels. These

institutions are not parallel structures and will work in close harmony.

(a) This Act provides for the effective management of disasters and for

matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

(b) It provides institutional mechanisms for drawing up and monitoring the

implementation of the disaster management plans.

(c) The Act also ensures measures by the various wings of the Government

for prevention and mitigation of disasters and prompt response to any

disaster situation.

The Act provides for setting up of a National Disaster Management

Authority (NDMA) under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister, State

Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) under the Chairmanship of the

Chief Ministers and District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs)

under the Chairmanship of Collectors/District Magistrates/Deputy

Commissioners. The Act further provides for the constitution of different

Executive Committees at national and state levels. Under its aegis, the

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) for capacity building

and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for response purpose have

been set up. It also mandates the concerned Ministries and Departments to

draw up their own plans in accordance with the National Plan. The Act

further contains the provisions for financial mechanisms such as creation of

funds for response, National Disaster Mitigation Fund and similar funds at

the state and district levels for the purpose of disaster management. The Act

also provides specific roles to local bodies in disaster management.

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9.3 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was initially

constituted on May 30, 2005 under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister

vide an executive order. Following enactment of the Disaster Management

Act, 2005, the NDMA was formally constituted in accordance with Section-

3(1) of the Act on 27th September, 2006 with Prime Minister as its

Chairperson and nine other members, and one such member to be

designated as Vice-Chairperson.

9.4 Mandate of NDMA

The NDMA has been mandated with laying down policies on disaster

management and guidelines which would be followed by different

Ministries, Departments of the Government of India and State

Governments in taking measures for disaster risk reduction. It has also to lay

down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the

State Plans and to take such measures for the management of disasters.

Details of these responsibilities are given as under :-

(a) Lay down policies on disaster management.

(b) Approve the National Plan.

(c) Approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the

Government of India in accordance with the National Plan.

(d) Lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing

up the State Plan.

(e) Lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or

Departments of the Government of India for the purpose of integrating

the measures for prevention of disasters or the mitigation of its effects in

their development plans and projects.

(f) Coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and

plans for disaster management.

(g) Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation.

(h) Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as

may be determined by the Central Government.

(i) Take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the

mitigation, or preparedness and capacity building for dealing with the

threatening disaster situations or disasters as it may consider necessary.

(j) Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the

National Institute of Disaster Management.

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9.5 Institutional Mechanism for Disaster Management at the National

Level is given at the figure below:

9.6 The Institutional Mechanism for Disaster Management at the State Level is given at the figure below:

State Level Disaster Management Institutional Mechanism

16103

National Disaster Management Institutional Mechanism

OverallCoordinationMinistry of

Home Affairs

NationalCrisis

ManagementCommittee(NCMC)

Top Level Decision Making

DesignatedNodal Minister

(Disaster-Specific)

StateGovernments/

UnionTerritories

NationalDisasterResponse

Force(NDRF)

National ExecutiveCommitte (NEC)

NationalInstitute of

DisasterManagement

(NIDM)

Armed Forces& Central

ArmedPoliceForces

(CAPF)

CabinetCommitteeon Security

(CCS)

Central GovernmentMinistries/Departments

State Government

National DisasterManagement

Authority (NDMA)

State DisasterResponse Force (SDRF)

Relief Commissioner/Nodal Department

State Department/Line Agencies

Agencies with DisasterManagement Responsibilities

State ExecutiveCommittee (SEC)

State Disaster ManagementAuthority (SDMA)

District DisasterManagement

Authority (DDMA)

State Emergency Operation Centre

(SEOC)

National DisasterManagement

Authority(NDMA)


9.7 The nodal ministries and departments responsible for co-ordination of response to various disasters at national level are given at the Table below:

Disaster Nodal Ministry/Dept./Agency

Biological Disasters Min. of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW)

Chemical Disasters and Min. of Environment, Industrial Accidents Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)

Civil Aviation Accidents Min. of Civil Aviation (MoCA)

Cyclone, Tornado & Min. of Home Affairs (MHA)Tsunami

Disasters in Mines Min.of Coal; Min.of Mines (MoC, MoM)

Drought, Hailstorm, Min. of Agriculture and Cold Wave and Frost, Farmers Welfare (MoAFW)Pest Attack

Earthquake Min. of Home Affairs (MHA)

Flood Min. of Home Affairs (MHA)

Forest Fire Min. of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)

Landslide & Avalanches Min. of Home Affairs (MHA)

Nuclear and Radiological Dept. of Atomic Energy, Emergencies Min. of Home Affairs (DAE, MHA)

Oil Spills Min. of Defence/ Indian Coast Guard (MoD/ICG)

Rail Accidents Min. of Railways (MoR)

Road Accidents Min. of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH)

Urban Floods Min.of Urban Development (MoUD)

The NDMA is mandated to deal with all types of disasters; natural or man-

made. Whereas, such other emergencies including those requiring close

involvement of the security forces and/or intelligence agencies such as

terrorism (counter-insurgency), law and order situations, serial bomb blasts,

hijacking, air accidents, CBRN weapon systems, mine disasters, port and

harbor emergencies, forest fires, oilfield fires and oil spills will continue to be

handled by the extant mechanism i.e.

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9.8 Mobile Radiation Detection System

Initiatives on CBRN Emergency Management : As a part of its programme

on national level preparedness to cope up with Radiological emergencies,

NDMA has initiated a pilot project entitled “ Mobile Radiation Detection

System (MRDS)” to train and equip police personal in select cities with

radiation monitoring instruments and Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE) (Annexure-1). The police patrol vehicles will be equipped with Go-

NoGo radiation detection system with audio visible alarm with detection

levels set at pre-determined values. Upon getting an alarm, radiation survey

of the suspected object/location would be carried out by the trained police

personnel utilizing the radiation survey instruments provided in the area

police station.

9.9 Data on CBRN Trained Personnel

NDMA is also maintaining a list of staff and the police personal trained

under the MRDS training of trainers programme on CBRN safety. The

details can be accessed from NDMA website www.ndma.gov.in

9.10 Surveillance Mechanism for CBRN Emergencies:

(a) Radiological and Nuclear Emergencies

Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is the nodal agency for providing

the necessary technical inputs to the National and local authorities for

responding to any nuclear or radiological emergency. A Crisis

Management Group (CMG) has been functioning since 1987 at DAE

for this purpose.

The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the nodal ministry to

coordinate with the various response agencies in the event of any

nuclear or radiological disaster in the public domain.

(b) Preparedness and Response

Based on the radiological conditions and their consequences,

emergencies at nuclear facilities are categorized as emergency standby,

personnel emergency, plant emergency, on-site emergency and off-site

emergency. As a basic regulatory requirement, emergency preparedness

exists at all nuclear and radiation facilities to respond to any on-site

emergency in their areas. In order to handle 'radiological emergencies a


network of 23 units of Emergency Response Centers (ERCs) have been

established by DAE (Annexure-2). These ERCs are equipped with

radiation monitoring instruments, protective gear and other supporting

infrastructure. Environmental radiation monitoring is carried out by

deploying a network of radiation monitors at various locations under a

system titled, Indian Environmental Radiation Monitoring Network

(IERMON).

(c) Biological Disasters

Bio threats, outbreaks, epidemics as well as usual monitoring of disease

outbreak, is being monitored by MoHFW on regular basis.

The NCDC (National Center for Disease Control) has a dedicated unit

for Disease and outbreak surveillance called IDSP (Integrated Disease

Surveillance Project). The IDSP mechanism is also present at states and

almost in more than 600 districts in the county .

The IDSP team at district level is called RRT. It consists of

microbiologist, epidemiologist, public health and laboratory experts. In

some of the units veterinary and agricultural experts are also consulted.

NCDC is nodal center for response to Biological Disasters.

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Role of NDRF in Management of

CBRN Emergency

10

There was a paradigm shift from primarily relief based approach to a holistic

Disaster Management. It was in this backdrop that Disaster Management

Act-2005 that lays down the statutory provisions for the constitution of the

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for the purpose of specialized

response in the country. The ministry of the Home Affairs is the nodal

agency at the National level for coordination of response and relief in the

wake of the natural and manmade disasters. response.

NDRF is a specialised Force, consists of 12 battalions with 108 CBRN teams

located at 12 battalion and 23 Regional Response Centre locations spread

across the country (Annexure-3). NDRF teams are always remain alert and

prepared to deal with any CBRN emergency in any part of the country.

Regular and intensive training and re-training, familiarisation exercises

within the area of responsibility of respective NDRF Bns, carrying out mock

drills and joint exercises with the various stakeholders has been its forte to

enhance its capabilities and expertise in the field of disaster

10.2 Capabilities of NDRF

NDRF Battalions are trained and equipped to respond natural as well as

man-made disasters. Battalions are also trained and equipped for response

during chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) emergencies.

These NDRF battalions are located at 12 different locations in the country

based on the vulnerability profile of country and to cut down the response

time for their deployment at disaster site. All units have been given a specific

area of responsibility (AOR) within which it is primarily expected to carry

out area familiarisation, carry out mock drills and joint exercises with the

various stakeholders and community capacity development programmes.

10.3 Role of NDRF in CBRN emergency

The CBRN response planning is based on the following pillars:

a) Detection, Assessment and Protection

b) Rescue and Evacuation of victims

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Role of NDMA in Management of CBRN Emergency

Role of NDRF in Management of CBRN Emergency


10.1 Capabilities of NDRF

c) Decontamination

d) Triage and Prehospital management of injured victims

10.4 Detection, Assessment and Protection

Detection mechanisms are a fundamental aspect of any successful CBRN

civil protection policy. Detection aims at establishing the release or presence

of a CBRN agent in a given area/location. Detection is usually associated

with prevention. In reality, detection mechanisms are needed at the three

stages of a CBRN incident, i.e. before, during and after. During the incident,

detectors are required on the spot in order to allow the first responders to

identify the precise nature and extent of the release and to organise the

response accordingly. Once the incident has occurred, detectors are

indispensable to confirm the results of early identification, collection of

samples and for confirmation that the area has been decontaminated.

Monitoring, warning, identifying and consequence assessment are thus all

core functions of detection. In other words, detection contributes to at least

four of the main objectives undertaken by NDRF teams, i.e. prevention,

protection, response and recovery.

Detection of the harmful agents/ sources is carried out by the Detection

squad of the team to mark the contaminated areas into Hot, Warm and Cold

Zones and cordon off the area so as to preclude the possibility of any harm to

any member of the public or to the rescuers himself. After the presence of

harmful chemical agents/ radiation area is detected, marked and onsite

threat assessment is completed the Rescuers can move into the area for

rescue and evacuation of the victims from the area and the members of the

detection squad help them in their task.

10.5 Rescue and Evacuation of victims

Evacuating of the people from the affected area is to be done by local

administration. Being a specialised job, NDRF may assist the state

administration.

There are two squads of rescue and evacuation in a team who are primarily

responsible for the rescue and subsequent evacuation of the injured victims

from the contaminated zones. After the victims are rescued, they need to be

decontaminated as per the primary triage Page 3 of 4 priority and handed

over to the medical aid post established by the medical squad of the team for

final triage and prehospital management.

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10.6 Triage and pre-hospital management of injured victims

Each state should have a trained and sensitised teams of MOs and

paramedics to deal with any CBRN emergencies.

Triage in simple language is prioritisation of the patients depending upon

the seriousness of condition i.e., threat to life of the victim. Initial triage is

conducted by the rescuers inside the contaminated zones itself while lifting

victims however, a final triage is conducted by Medical officers after detail

examination of the patient once he is brought out of the hot and warm zones.

Victims are then stabilised by administration of the first aid and handed over

to the ambulances for transportation to designated hospitals for further

management. Seriously injured victims with life threatening condition are

placed in casualty bags and taken directly to the hospital without the

mandatory decontamination which is then followed at the hospital after the

necessary medication to stabilize him has been administered.

10.7 Decontamination

Decontamination is essentially required to remove the contaminants from

the body of the victims, rescuers, vehicles and equipment so that they do not

contaminate other non-contaminated persons or places. Changes in cellular

function can occur at lower radiation doses and exposure to chemicals. At

high dose, cell death may take place. Therefore, decontamination of humans

at the time of emergency while generating bare minimum waste is an

enormous task requiring dedication of large number of personnel and large

amount of time.

The objective of the decontamination is to reduce any further exposure to

the harmful chemicals agents/ radioactive sources which the contaminants

pose to them if present on their body. All discharges carrying the

contaminants are then disposed-off in protective storage or through

chemical neutralisation. Decontamination may be carried out using Water,

chemical, electrochemical, and mechanical means. Like materials, humans

may also be contaminated with CBRN contamination.

10.8 CBRN Operations By the NDRF

The NDRF responders trained in various aspects of CBRN response with

proper Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs) and detection equipment

and guidance from professional experts, including emergency responders,


planners, nuclear physics, microbiological, chemical and other

countermeasure experts from the respective Nodal Ministries/Department

are perfectly capable of dealing with the CBRN emergencies. With each

successive CBRN operation the exposure to such incidents infuses another

vital element, “experience”, in the NDRF rank and file and all these

ingredients together with the grit and determination of the force to serve the

humanity shall definitely make the NDRF the real saviours of people in

distress, whatever be the condition, true to its motto “Aapda Seva Sadaiv”.

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Annexures

11

16115

MRDS LOCATIONS(Proposed)

Go-No Go - 930Total - 56 Cities

Annexure-1

l New Delhil Noidal Faridabadl Rohtakl Gurgaonl Agral Haridwar

l Varanashil Patnal Ranchil Kanpurl Allahabadl Lucknowl Indorel Bhopall Raipur

l Srinagarl Jammul Shimlal Ludhianal Chandigarhl Dehradunl Jaipurl Jodhpurl Rajkot

l Chennail Madurail Hyderabadl Mysorel Bengalurul Puducherry

l Kolkatal Guwahatil Bhubaneswarl Vishakhapatnaml Port Blair

60

40

20

10

5

4

3

13

22

14

No ofGo-NoGo

No ofCities

l Gangtokl Shillongl Agarthalal Aizwall Imphall Kohimal Itanagar

l Ahmedabadl Gandhinagarl Suratl Badodaral Silvasal Daman

l Mumbail Panajiml Nasikl Nagpurl Punel Kavarattil Thiruvananthapuram


Annexure- 2

Emergency Response Centres

22 DAE-ERCs

12 Proposed NDRF ERCs

6 Proposed New DAE ERCs

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116

Vishakapatnam

Mundali

Gandhinagar

Pune

Indore

Kalga

Mysore

Jaduguda

Srinagar

Gandhinagar

TarapurMumbai

Hyderabad

Mangalore

AlwayeArakonam

NagpurKakrapara

Kota

Jaipur

RanchiKolkata

Gulbarga

Bangaluru

Kalpakkam

KudankulamManavalakurichi

Bhatinda

DelhiNarora

GorakhpurShillong

Ghaziabad

Guwahati

OSCOM, Chatrapur


Jodhpur

Annexure- 3

NDRF BNs with area of Responsibility

NDRF - BNS PERMANENT TEAMS/COYLOCATIONS

th12 Bn Doimukh1. Itanagar

16117

Lakshadweep

A & N Islands

NDRF Bns

st1 Bn Guwahati1. Aizawl2.Agartala

nd2 Bn Haringhata1. Kolkata3.Siliguri3.Gangtok

rd3 Bn Mundali1. Balasore

th10 Bn Guntur1. Hyderabad2. Vishakhapatanam3.Banglore

th9 Bn Patna1. Supeul2. Ranchi*

th11 Bn Varanasi1. Varanasi/Gorakhpur*2. Lucknow3. Bhopal*

th7 Bn Bhatinda1. Kangra2. Srinagar3. Punchkula

th8 Bn Ghaziabad1. Delhi2. Dehradun3. R K Puram*

th4 Bn Arakkonam1. Chennai2. Portblair3.Kozhikode/ Ernakulum/ Thrissur

th5 Bn Pune1. Mumbai

th6 Bn Vadodara1. Gandhinagar2. Noreli (Raj.)


NDRF Regional Response Centres

States MHA approved locations Locationsawaiting approval

Mizoram Aizawl

Tripura Agartala

Sikkim Gangtok

West Bengal Siliguri

Kolkata

Odisha Balasore

Andaman & Nicobar Portblair

Tamil Nadu Chennai

Kerala Kozhikode /Thrissur/

Ernakulum

Maharashtra Mumbai

Gujarat Gandhinagar

Rajasthan Nareli

J&K Srinagar

Himachal Pradesh Kangra

Haryana

Panchkula

Delhi Delhi R K Puram

Uttarakhand Dehradun

Bihar Supaul

Telangana Hyderabad

Karnataka Bangalore

Andhra Pradesh Vishakhapatnam

Uttar Pradesh

Lucknow

/Varanasi Gorakhpur

Arunanchal Pradesh Itanagar

Jharkhand Ranchi

Madhya Pradesh Bhopal

Total 23 04

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Frequently used terms in Radiation Safety

l Activity (A): Rate of emission of radiation from a radioactive

material.

l Exposure: The act or condition of being subject to irradiation.

Exposure can be either external (irradiation by source outside the

body) or internal (irradiation by source inside the body).

l Absorbed dose: Energy absorbed per unit mass of a substance to which

it is exposed.

l Equivalent dose (H): It is the quantity resulting from weighting the

absorbed dose with the effectiveness of the radiation to cause biological

effect.

l Effective dose (E): It is the quantity resulting from the sum total of the

equivalent doses weighted by the radiosensitivity of organs and tissues

for all exposed organs and tissues in an individual.

l Committed equivalent/effective dose(Sv).: It is the total dose

expected by the intake of a radionuclide. It is calculated over a period

of 50 years.

l Sievert (Sv): The unit of radiation dose received by body

(1Sv=1Joule/kg)

l Orphan Source: A radiation source that has gone out of regulatory

control e.g. lost or abandoned radiation source.

l Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD): RDD is a conventional

explosive device in which radioactive material is added to contaminate

a reasonably large area, besides its main potential of causing panic and

disruption.Radiation Units

Annexure- 4

Unit

Activity

Becquerel

(B )q

= 1 dps

Absorbed dose Gray

(G ) = 1 J/kgy 1 G = 100 rady

Dose equivalent and Effective dose

Sievert (S ) =1 J/kg.v

1 S = 100 remv


Dose limits

Occupational Public

Effective Dose

Effective Dose limit (ICRP)

-

Effective Dose Limit (AERB)

-

Annual Dose limit (temp. workers)

-

Life Time Dose -

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120

50 mSv/y

30 mSv/y

15 mSv

1 Sv

1 m Sv/y

20 m S averaged over v/y

defined periods of five years


Annexure- 5

Glimpses of CBRN Training Courses at Chennai Airport and NSCBI

Airport, Kolkata

Inauguration of First batch Training programme at Chennai byDr. S. Christopher, Chairman DRDO

Inauguration of Training programme at NSCBI Airport KolkataLighting of lamp by Shri A.K. Sanghi, Joint Secretary (Mit.), NDMA


Participants during lecture session in Chennai

Inauguration of Training programme at NSCBI Airport Kolkata- Invitees and participants

Inauguration of Training programme at NSCBI Airport Kolkata

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122


Briefing by ERC -DAE expert before the field exrcise

Field exercise on CBRN Mock exercise- portable personaldecontamination unit

Field exercise - near the hot zone


Checking of the participants for contamination during the field exercise

Checking of the participants for contamination during the field exercise

Felicitation of NDRF by the Airport Director, Chennai

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124


Group photo of the participants, a few faculty members and organizers-Kolkata

Participants receiving certificates after successful completionof training


Authors & Organisers

12

Contributions Signicant


Under the guidance of …….

National Disaster Management Authority

Sh R K Jain, IAS (Retd), Member

Dr D N Sharma, Member

Lt Gen N C Marwah, PVSM, AVSM (Retd), Member

Sh Kamal Kishore, Member

Sh A K Sanghi, Joint Secretary (Mitigation)

Airports Authority of India (AAI)

Dr Guruprashad Mohapatra, IAS, Chairman

Sh I N Murthy, Member (Operations)

DRDO

Dr Shashi Bala Singh, Distinguished Scientist &

Director General (Life Sciences) (DRDO)

Dr A K Singh, Outstanding Scientist /Scientist 'H'

Director, INMAS (DRDO)

130


Organizers

Technical Team, INMAS

Dr Raman Chawla, Sc 'D'

Dr Rajeev Goel, Sc ‘D’

Sh Pradeep Goswani, Sc ‘D'

Sh Sukhvir Singh, Sc ‘D’

Organizing Supporting, INMAS

Dr Pradeep Chugh

Sc ‘G’ & Head, BF&A

Col Ajit Singh

Tech Coord Support

Dr Kailash Manda

Sc ‘E’ & Head, MMG

Sh Ashish Gaur

Chief Administrative Officer

Dr BG Roy

Sc ‘D’ & SO to Director

Sh Sachin Prakash

Sc ‘D’ & Site Coordinator

Sh Navin Soni

Sc ‘D’ & OIC TIRC

Programme coordinators Dr Mitra Basu, Sc 'F' & Head, CBRN Defence, INMAS

Sh Subhash Kumar, GM (Fire Services), AAI

Sh Pushkar Sahay, Joint Advisor, NDMA

Technical Team, NDMA

Maj Gen Dr V K NaikKC, AVSM (Retd), Sr. Consultant

Sh Kunal SharmaConsultant

Dr Saurabh Dalal Consultant

Organizing Team, NDMA

Sh M A Prabakaran, AFA

Sh Amal Sarkar, US (MP)

Sh Shireesh Kumar GautamASO (M-II)

Organizing Committee, AAI and NDRF

Sh Mangesh Sawant, AAI

Sh Rajesh Negi, NDRF

Participating Institutes

NDMA

BARC

DRDO

AAI

NDRF

ERC, DAE

NIMHANS

Emergency Telephone Numbers

S.No. Department Contact #

1 Ministry of Home Affairs (011) 23438252/53/

Control Room-DM 07065536397 (NERC)

Control Room, North Block 23093564/ 63/23093763 (MHA)

2 Department of Atomic (022) 22023978/22021719

Enerty- CMG, Mumbai 25556512/25991070

09969201364

Control Room 22023978/22830441

3 NDRF Control Room (011) 24363260/24363261 (Fax)

New Delhi

4 NDMA Control Room (011) 26701728 /26701140

New Delhi 09868101885/09868891801

Helpline number 011-1078