behind the lens: ethical photojournali sm a photo essay by amy carroll, 4279372, assessment 3, bcm...

Behind the Lens: Ethical Photojournali sm A Photo Essay By Amy Carroll, 4279372, Assessment 3, BCM 310

The photojournalist has a very unique job within the wider news-gathering industry. They have to work as an objective observer to visually capture the worst tragedies that befall the human condition. Most of the time this will involve shooting the suffering of others. And therein lies a number of ethical considerations that photojournalists need to consider when on assignment: is it ethical to take the photo? Is it ethical to portray suffering in the photo? And what effect will this photo have on the mass media? Webster 2008

The photojournalist often has to take a photograph spontaneously, without any consult, which means their decision relies solely on their own ethical beliefs and the ethical codes set by their own organisation and the National Press Photographers Association (NPPA). This is known as the actor-centred approach to ethical decisions in the field where the photojournalists first has a responsibility to themselves, then to the standards of their profession and employing institutions. (Mitchell 2000, p. 3) Thirdly they have a responsibility to their subjects and lastly to the audience. (Mitchell 2000, p. 4) Cogiati 2013

Therefore what is ethical to one person, the photojournalist, may not be ethical to another, the wider public, so it becomes obvious why ethics is such an ambiguous concept in this profession. Especially when looking at an image like that above. The Pulitzer Prize winning photograph by Greg Marinovich shows African National Congress supporters setting a young boy of Zulu decent on fire. (Cliff 2010) Some audience members may see this photograph as unethical, thinking why didnt Marinovich help? And so if ethics are so ambiguous why are photojournalists still getting jobs? With access to some of the worst situations in the world, photojournalists can evoke strong audience reactions; compassion, anger, prayer and action which, according to Kim and Kelly (2014, p. 208), means they have the chance to elicit social change in a wide audience. (Mitchell 2000, p. 13-15) Cliff, 2010

Photojournalism is theorised to have emerged as a profession in the nineteenth century. (Alper 2014, p. 1236) There came a time when using words, illustrations and cartoons, such as Los desastres de le Guerra by Francisco Goya, were simply not enough to keep the public informed. (Alper 2014, p. 1236) So as soon as the technology became available, journalists were using eyewitness photography to capture realistic portrayals of what was happening. (Alper 2014, p. 1236) Not long after in 1946, the NPPA established themselves as a voice for the stepchildren of the fourth estate and with that responsibility produced a nine-point code of ethics that photojournalists should adhere to for best practice. (NPPA 2012) Goya 2008

1. Be accurate and comprehensive in the representation of subjects (NPPA 2012) As an objective observer, the photojournalist is asked to go out and capture a realistic portrayal of an event without getting involved. Debbie Briscoe (1992) of Editor & Publisher, recounts her experience at the scene of an industrial accident: shaking I lifted my camera and moved closer, hoping to get a better shot. I thought only of my job as I walked around the small area trying to get the best angle, as are the photographers present at the above search and rescue scene in Haiti 2010. As an objective observer, they all got their shot in the most accurate and comprehensive way possible. However this shot is often not the one that makes it to the mass media. As Kim and Kelly (2014, p. 207) suggest the advent of digital technology has allowed much easier manipulations of photographs [so] accuracy has become one of the toughest ethical issues in photography. Therefore it is becoming more imperative that photojournalists become involved in the post- production process so their original photo is not manipulated in a way they didnt intend. USAID U.S. Agency for International Development 2010

2. Resist being manipulated by staged photo opportunities (NPPA 2012) This is an ethical consideration that mostly affects embedded journalists. Embedded journalists in war zones are granted access to and physical protection by, combat units in exchange for signing a contract specifying what journalists can and cannot document. (Alper 2014, p. 1234) They are then not objective observers but rather participant observers which means they are inadvertently manipulated by both the contract they sign and the gratitude they feel towards the soldiers keeping them alive so they are therefore more susceptible to staging photos. (Alper 2014, p. 1242) Bauer 2004

3. Be complete and provide context when photographing or recording subjects. Avoid stereotyping individuals and groups. Recognise and work to avoid presenting ones own biases in the work (NPPA 2012) Kevin Carters Sudan Famine photo is arguably one of the most controversial feature photo Pulitzer Prize winners. The photograph caused great outrage when it was published in the New York Times in 1993 because of its depiction of an emaciated girl being watched by a vulture. (Cinders 2014) The outrage stemmed from people wanting to know what happened to the girl after the photo and the condemnation of Carter for not helping her. (Cinders 2014) As a result, Carter committed suicide in 1994. However the public were not aware that the photojournalists in Sudan had promised aid workers that they would not touch anyone outside the proper facilities to stop the spread of transmittable diseases. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 217) In order to raise social awareness of the famine issue in Sudan and to protect himself, Carter could have made a greater effort to include the context surrounding the photograph which would have also eased the concerns of the wider public. Cliff 2010

4. Treat all subjects with respect and dignity. Give special consideration to vulnerable subjects and compassion to victims of crime or tragedy. Intrude on private moments of grief only when the public has an overriding and justifiable need to see. (NPPA 2012) Given that the photojournalist is an observer that often works alone, they have to make the decision between what is professional and what is intrusive or insensitive. (Briscoe 1992, p. 28) But they are also charged with showing the public, consequences of tragedies such as earthquakes, hurricanes and war to raise social awareness within the public. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 206) Taslima Akhter did so when she was on the scene of a terrible building collapse in Bangladesh and captured this scene between two people stuck in the rubble. (Akhter 2013) She took the photo, intruding on their private moment of grief as she believed it was the best representation of the situation and portrays to the audience that they were not just a number but human beings. (Akhter 2013) It does, however, raise the question of whether their dignity was compromised by the taking of the photograph. This then opens up the debate of how photojournalists can decide what is in the publics rights to see when they have no way to consult with anyone else. Times ASI 2013

5. While photographing subjects do not intentionally contribute to, alter, seek to alter or influence events. (NPPA 2012) Keeping with the Carter example (who is pictured on the right), it is important to note that he took twenty minutes to take the Sudan Famine photograph. (Cinders 2014) While he took the time to take the best photo possible, the one that would perform best as a catalyst for social change, he may have altered the sequence of events for that young girl. In a 2014 study by Kim and Kelly (2014, p. 210) respondents were asked if this was too long to wait to take the photograph. The overall feeling was that 20 minutes was too long to let the vulture sit there but they did agree that the Carter did the right thing in documenting the situation. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 212) Again it becomes clear that the photojournalist is often working alone and is therefore relying on their own morals while hoping their decision is ethically sound by the standards of others. Ilagardien 2011

6. Editing should maintain the integrity of the photographic images content and context. Do not manipulate images or add or alter sound in any way that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects. (NPPA 2012) This consideration is receiving renewed vigour in the academic field due to the new technologies available to photojournalists and editors. One of the biggest issues is pointed out by Meryl Alper (2014, p. 1233) who talks about photojournalists use of social media photo taking aps, such as Instagram and Hipstamatic, in war zones. There are a multitude of advantages to using these aps, particularly that they belong on a mobile phone which is smaller, lighter and has better battery than traditional equipment, but the use of filters has caused some contention within the field. (Alper 2014, p. 1241) Alper (2014, p. 1238-39) suggests that the use of such aps can lead to the aestheticizing of war through the use of vintage filters. This is particularly true of the above image where the filter creates a certain haziness to the quality of the photograph, making it seem dreamlike and therefore takes the full impact of violence from the photo. Combined with the fact that these images can be uploaded immediately and therefore published and edited instantaneously, the use of this technology can distort the content and context of a subject. By aestheticizing war, photojournalists can be seen as anesthetising the public to the impact of war which is not helpful in encouraging change within the wider community. (Alper 2014, p. 1239) Manhhai 2015

7. Do not pay sources or subjects or reward them materially for information or participation (NPPA 2012) Photojournalists are charged with recording what is happening around them without getting involved. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 209) In order to pay or reward subjects the photojournalists needs to break this code and get involved which risks damaging the reputation of the profession further. Photojournalists are already facing widespread criticism for their indifference to the suffering in their view-finds. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 206) Many audience members believe that if indifference or objectivity was lost from the profession, photos like that above, of a child next to an open sewer in Uganda, wouldnt occur. If they stepped from their position as objective observer the profession as a whole is called to question. SuSanA Secretariat 2008

8. Do not accept gifts, favours or compensation from those who seek to influence coverage (NPPA 2012) The influence of American interests becomes very apparent when looking at embedded journalists. As suggested earlier, embedded journalists are so indebted to the soldiers for their protection and for their unlimited access that it is often hard to escape an American-centred vision of the conflict. (Alper 2014, p. 1234) This can be dangerous when the photojournalist strives to be objective but cannot be because of their compensation; the soldiers provide protection for the photojournalists real time and transparent imagery of life on the front lines. (Alper 2014, p. 1234) Skeeze 2015

9. Do not intentionally sabotage the efforts of other journalists (NPPA 2012) Photojournalists are becoming more and more isolated from every other profession and the wider public because they are now almost synonymous with the paparazzi. (Mitchell 2000, p. 8) Mitchell describes this phenomenon as beginning at a Paris underpass when Princess Diana was chased by paparazzi before her death. (Mitchell 2000, p. 9) Briscoe (1992, p. 26-27) also laments that the job is getting tougher: Its a hard job to do anymore because youre shooting where people dont necessarily want you to be... Even the way emergency crews respond to her presence has changed. It used to be when you showed up at a scene with a camera they would respect your right to be there. Now they shield the victim. If photojournalists are receiving such condemnation from everyone else, they shouldnt be trying to isolate themselves further from their own people by sabotaging their work. Gratwicke 2011

However these only provide an objective ethical guideline. The photojournalist also has to work under the guise of their own subjective moral beliefs. As hard as they try to remain a dispassionate observer, they are witnessing tragedy which may prompt them to act as a good Samaritan and help those in need. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 207) Kim & Kelly (2014, p. 209) have found, however, that many photojournalists have the concrete understanding that their job is to record what is happening and not take part. To take part would be a violation of their role as news- gatherer. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 209) But many audience members within the same study expressed concerns that such a role affects the photojournalists mental health and self-esteem. (Kim & Kelly 2014, p. 208) It would seem this happened to Kevin Carter and many others within the field. It becomes clear then, that the photojournalist has a lot to consider ethically when taking the photograph and has to work out how to balance their own morals with that of an objective observer. Reinbold 2007

So far the photojournalists ethical decisions discussed have been highly individualised and privatised acts which makes sense because the photojournalist is making the decision alone. (Mitchell 2000, p. 4) But the resulting photo has to elicit social change in the audience which is why Mitchell (2000, p. 5) suggests there is another way of looking at ethics in photojournalism; through an audience-centred approach. To do so she suggests that the audience needs to be more media literate, looking beyond the artistic merits of the photo and discerning how the images are created, gathered and selected, to see beyond publicity and consumerist lies. (Mitchell 2000, p. 6) Takver 2011

Once the audience can fully discern the meaning, the intended meaning of the photojournalist, the photograph becomes a powerful tool. The photograph can become a recurring painful memory of a past wrong... the frozen moment remains [and] it can haunt. It can hurt again and again. (Mitchell 2000, p. 12) Which is exactly the case for the photo of Phan Thi Kim Phuc running from a Napalm attack in South Vietnam. This causes great anger in the audience, often misguided at the photojournalist or the editor, because the suffering depicted shocks them out of their complacency. (Mitchell 2000, p. 14) Audience members are astute enough to realise the terrible things happening around the world and know that people are suffering as a result, but they can push it to the back of their minds, essentially forgetting about it. As long as the photograph is not offensive or ethically immoral by audience standards images like these can move the audience past armchair voyeurism to crying for social change which is the intended outcome of the photojournalist. (Mitchell 2000, p. 16) Cliff 2010

When on assignment the photojournalist is working alone to paint a realistic portrayal of the suffering of others to prompt social change in a discerning audience. The ethics surrounding the taking of a photo is essentially driven by the photojournalist themselves but there are a number of ethical principles they can draw on to guide their practice. Their main focus has to be on creating a balance between the objectivity their profession needs and the subjective nature of their own beliefs. An angry or outraged response from audience members, such as with the Kevin Carter Sudan Famine photograph or the 2009 Pulitzer winning photograph by Patrick Farrell of a young boy in disaster-stuck Haiti, means it has resonated with them which increases the chance of issue awareness and social change: the photojournalists main goal. After all, the old adage is on their side; a picture speaks a thousand words. Cliff 2010

Bibliography (text) Akhter, T 2013, A Final Embrace: The Most Haunting Photograph from Bangladesh, Time, 8 May, viewed 6 June 2015, http://time.com/3387526/ Alper, M 2014, War on Instagram: Framing conflict photojournalism with mobile photography apps, New Media and Society, vol. 16, no. 8, pp. 1233- 1248 Briscoe, D 1992, Photojournalism: The Inside View, Editor & Publisher, 14 March, pp. 26-28 Cinders 2014, Kevin Carter: The Consequences of Photojournalism,FanPop, viewed 6 June 2015, http://www.fanpop.com/clubs/photography/articles/2845/title/kevin- carter-consequences-photojournalism Kim, YS & Kelly, JD 2013, Photojournalist on the Edge: Reactions to Kevin Carter's Sudan Famine Photo, Visual Communication Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 205-219 Mitchell, J 2000, The Ethics of Photojournalism, Studies in Christian Ethics, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-16 NPPA Code of Ethics 2012, The National Press Photographers Association, viewed 7 June 2015, https://nppa.org/code_of_ethics NPPA Legacy 2012, The National Press Photographers Association, viewed 6 June 2015, https://nppa.org/about

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