bio eoc cram chapters 12-20. ch 12 - dna scientists - griffith - transformation = process in which...
DESCRIPTION
Avery - added enzymes to destroy organic compounds, but not DNA trans. - added DNA-destroying enzymes no trans. Therefore, DNA is the transforming factorTRANSCRIPT
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Bio EOC Cram
Chapters 12-20
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Ch 12 - DNA
Scientists - Griffith - transformation = process in which one bacteria takes the
characteristics of another (takes in genes)
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Avery - added enzymes to destroy organic
compounds, but not DNA trans. - added DNA-destroying enzymes no
trans. Therefore, DNA is the transforming factor
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Hershey and Chase - bacteria, viruses, radioactive P & S - observed which material was injected (DNA) - Genetic material = DNA
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Structure
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid Made of repeating nucleotides (subunit) Nucleotide = sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate,
base 4 bases – adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine A & G = larger purines C & T = smaller pyrimidines
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Chargaff (1949) – studies A always same % as T C always same % as G - so, _______________ = Chargaff’s Rules
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Franklin – (1952) – X-ray diffraction - showed DNA as a tightly coiled spring =
helix Watson & Crick (1953) – used Franklin’s and
Chargaff’s info to determine structure Double helix held together by weak Hydrogen
bonds
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DNA Replication
DNA separates into 2 strands – each serving as template for new strands
Point at which DNA splits = Replication Fork Enzyme (helicase) breaks H bonds and
untwists DNA Enzyme (DNA Polymerase) moves
complementary nucleotides in place to bond properly
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Chapter 13 - RNA
RNA = ribonucleic acid 3 structural differences b/t DNA & RNA
DNA RNASugar = deoxyribose Sugar = riboseBase = thymine Base = uracilDouble helix Single stranded
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Gene Expression
Step 1 = Transcription = DNA acts as template to make RNA Enzyme - RNA polymerase - reads DNA, binds at promoter - separates DNA strands - reads one side of DNA (template strand) - adds complementary RNA nucleotides
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Transcription
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So, transcription from DNA to RNA: template of DNA: A C G T A T G A T RNA:
Where? Because?
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Genetic Code
= relationship b/t nucleotides in DNA & amino acids
Every 3 base letters of mRNA stands for an amino acid = codon
START codon = AUG STOP codons = UAA, UAG, UGA
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Codon Table #2
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Translation
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Molecular Biology Dogma
DNA RNA Protein
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Mutations
= heritable changes in a gene; lead to evolution
Can be : - neutral - harmful – ex. Cancer, sickle cell - helpful – resistance to poisons, HIV
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Gene Mutations
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Chromosomal Mutations
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Chapter 14
Pairs 1-22 = autosomal chromosomes (autosomes)
23rd pair = sex chromosomes (determine gender)
- Male (XY); Female (XX)
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Pedigree
Chart that shows inheritance of a trait over several generations
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INHERITANCE PATTERNS
Complete Dominance Codominance Incomplete dominance Multiple Alleles Polygenic Environmental Conditions X-linked traits Sex influenced traits
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MULTIPLE ALLELES TRAIT
= trait controlled by genes that have more than 2 alleles
- Any combo of 2 alleles produces different phenotypes
- Ex. Blood types
Genotype Phenotype
IAIA or IAIi Type A
IBIB or IBIi Type B
IAIB Type AB
IiIi Type O
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Darwin - Evolution = genetic change in a species
over time Natural Selection = the process by which
organisms with variations most suited to their local environment survive and leave more offspring.
Ch 16 - Evolution
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1 The Struggle for Existence Organisms produce moreoffspring than can survive. Grasshoppers can lay over200 eggs at a time. Only a small fraction of these offspring survive to reproduce.
2 Variation and Adaptation There is variation in nature,and certain heritable variations—called adaptations—increase an individual’s chance of surviving andreproducing. In this population of grasshoppers, heritable variation includes yellow and green body color. Green coloration is an adaptation: Green grasshoppers blendinto their environment and so are less visible to predators.
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3 Survival of the Fittest Because their green colorserves to camouflage them from predators, green grasshoppers have a higher fitness than yellow grasshoppers. This means that green grasshoppers survive and reproduce more often than do yellow grasshoppers in this environment.
4 Natural Selection Green grasshoppers become morecommon than yellow grasshoppers in this population over time because: (1) more grasshoppers are born than can survive, (2) individuals vary in color and color is a heritable trait, and (3) green individuals have a higher fitness in their current environment.
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Lamarck – - similar species descended from a common
ancestor - to explain changes, said acquired traits
were passed on to offspring Acquired traits = traits that arose during
lifetime, not determined by genes
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Artificial selection = process in which nature provides the
variations, and humans select those they find useful.
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Fossils Homologous structures = Structures shared by related species and
that come from a common ancestor
Evidence for Evolution
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Analogous structures = Body parts that share common function, but
not structure ex. Bird wing and bee wing Vestigial structures = inherited from ancestors but has none or little
function Embryological development - similar in vertebrates
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Genetics - DNA sequences shows organism’s history - closely related organisms will have similar
DNA sequences & similar amino acid sequences
All living things follow same genetic code
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Ch 18 Classification
Systematics = science of naming and grouping organisms
Aristotle – B.C. – 1st to group living things - 2 kingdoms – Plant or Animal
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Carolus Linnaeus – 1730s – Swedish botanist Binomial nomenclature – 2 part scientific
name Scientific name = Genus species or Genus
species Ex. Homo sapien or H. sapien
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Ex. Carnegiea gigantia giant Segauro cactus Ex. Permyscus californicus common California mouse Ex. Nymphea odorata fragrant water lily Name – location, characteristics, scientist
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Developed hierarchy : - Kingdom – broadest - Phylum - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species – most specific
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Cladogram – diagram that links organisms by showing how evolutionary lines branched off from common ancestors
Based on a derived character = trait that arose in the most recent common ancestor and was passed on
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Six Kingdoms
Animalia Plantae Fungi Protista Archaebacteria Eubacteria
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Three Domains
Domain – based on rRNA sequences 3 Domains - Archae (K. Archaebacteria) - Bacteria (K. Eubacteria) - Eukarya (K. A, P, F, P)
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Ch 20 – Prokaryotes & VirusesBacteria Domain Archae - Kingdom Archaebacteria - walls lack peptidoglycan - DNA more similar to eukaryotes - live in extreme environments
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Domain Bacteria - Kingdom Eubacteria - walls with peptidoglycan - larger domain - found everywhere
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Eubacteria - grouped by 2 things 1. shape: - bacillus – rod - coccus – spherical - spirallus – spiral, corkscrew
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2. Response to Gram Stain: - Gram positive – purple, retains stain; thicker
layer of peptidoglycan - Gram negative – pink, doesn’t retain stain;
thinner layer of peptidoglycan; unaffected by many antibiotics
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Viruses
Size - ~20nm – 250nm Some char. of life, not all: - no nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles, or
membrane - no cellular functions - need a host cell to reproduce
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Structure
Made of : 1. Nucleic Acid (DNA or RNA) 2. Protein coat around it (capsid) Some also have: - lipid envelope outside capsid *helps it infect cell - glycoprotein – used to attach to host cell
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Viral Replication