by the same author -...
TRANSCRIPT
FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin1968byClarksonN.Potter,Inc.Reprintedin2003byPen&SwordMilitaryClassics
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BarnsleySouthYorkshireS702ASCopyright©DonaldF.Featherstone1967,2003,20119781844685998
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TableofContentsAlsobyTitlePageCopyrightPageIllustrationsAuthor’sIntroductionProloguePartI-TheBirthoftheBow
Chapter1-TheEarliestDaysChapter2-TheWelshWars–LateThirteenthCenturyChapter3-TheArmiesoftheEnglishandtheFrenchChapter4-TheirWayofFightingChapter5-TheEnglishArcherChapter6-HisLongbow
PartII-TheTacticsareForgedChapter7-FalkirksetsthePattern–1298Chapter8-Bannockburn–1314Chapter9-HalidonHill–1333Chapter10-TheArcheratSea:Sluys–1340Chapter11-Morlaix–1342
PartIII-TheYearsofVictory
Chapter12-Crécy–1346Chapter13-Neville’sCross–1346Chapter14-Mauron–1352Chapter15-Poitiers–1356Chapter16-HomildonHill–1402Chapter7-Agincourt–1415Chapter18-Verneuil–1424;andRouvray–
1428PartIV-TheTideBeginstoTurnChapter19-Patay–1429;andFormigny–1450
PartV-TheLastVictoriesChapter20-TheWarsoftheRoses–1461Chapter21-FloddenField–1513Chapter22-TheEndoftheRoad
IllustrationsSiegeofMortagne.FromChroniqued’AngleterrebyJeanWavrin
EdwardIII.Electrotypefromthegiltcoppertombeffigy
EffigyoftheBlackPrince,ChapelofSt.ThomasBecket,Canterbury
Cathedral
RichardBeauchamp,EarlofWarwick.FromhismonumentinSt.Mary’sChurch,Warwick
JohnLordMontacute.FromhismonumentinSalisburyCathedral
RalphNeville,EarlofWestmorland.FromhismonumentinStaindrop
Church,Durham
HenryV.Artistunknown
TiltinghelmetbytraditionwornbyHenryVatAgincourt,flankedbyhissaddleandshield.FromtheChantryChapel,WestminsterAbbey
Abascinetshownwithandwithoutitsvisor
ThisGothicarmourshowsa‘barded’horse
YewbowfoundduringtheexcavationsatBerkhamsted
CaptainJackChurchillshootsforGreatBritainintheWorldArcheryChampionships,August1939
SirLaurenceOlivier’s
Author’sIntroductionAtsometimeintheirhistorynearlyeveryraceonearthhasusedthebowandarrow,butnowheredidtheyreachthepitchofskillandperfectionasinEnglandduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Inthatperiodthe
EnglishbowmandominatedthewarsofEuropeasnocomparableforcehaseverdonesince.
ItwasatimewhenEnglandwasayoungnation,feelingherfeetandstillalittleunsteady.ThetriplevictoriesofCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourtstokedupthefiresofnationalconsciousnesstoforgeapridethathasneverleftthese
shores.Directedbybrilliant,braveandfar-seeingcaptains,theEnglisharmydidnotloseamajorbattlebetweenMorlaixin1342andPatayin1429.Thebestprofessionalfightingmanofhisday,theEnglishyeoman,andhislongbowwerethemostsignificantsinglefactorthatchangedalltheoldtraditionsandconceptsofmediaevalfightingandwarfare.
TheEnglisharcherwasnotapeasanttobelordedoverbythehigherbornandarrogantoftheland;hewasafreeman,arespectedyeomanpossessingaproudanddignifiedstatus.Heexchangedhisexceptionalskillandtalentswiththesix-footyewstaveforspecifiedpayandtermsofmilitaryservice.Thathewasapowerful,muscularmanisobvious–onlythebiggest
andthestrongestofmencouldpullahundredpoundsanddrawafullclothyardshafttotheirear.Hisbackgroundencouragedhimtoshowinitiativeandresource,sothat,whentheoccasiondemanded,hewoulddrophisbowandnimblylaytowithsword,axeandthemurderousfive-footmauleormallet.
Thesuccessorsofthe
EnglisharcherfoughtwithMarlboroughatBlenheim,WolfeatQuebec,CliveatPlasseyandwithWellingtoninthePeninsula.TheirbonesalsosaltedtheSudanesesandsandwhitenedontheruggedhillsofIndia’snorth-westfrontier;theyamazedtheGermansatMonswiththeirrapidrifle-fireandbuiltupareputationfordoggedtenacityamidstadversityintwoworldwars.Inthe
beginningthelongbowbroughtthefirstimmortalfametothecommonsoldierwhomightotherwisehavehardlyratedamentioninthehistorybooks.
Whetherthelongbowreallyalteredthecourseofhistoryisdebatable,norcanitbeclaimedthattheEnglisharchercontributedtowardsthefoundationoftheBritishEmpire.Butitcannotbe
deniedthathisskillandcouragemaywellhavediscouragedother,morepowerful,nationsfromattemptingtoaddEnglandtotheirempires.
InwritingofCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourtoneiswritingoftheHundredYearsWar,ofEdward,theBlackPrince,andHenryV,but,morethanthat,onemustwritethehistoryofthe
Englisharcher,becausewithouthim,andthetacticsbuiltaroundhim,noneofthevictoriesinFranceduringthatmediaevalperiodwouldhavebeenpossible.
Itmightwellbeclaimedthathistorianshaveengagedinnumerousandfiercecontroversiesoverbattlesites,numbersengagedandcasualties,andthatthesepointsofdisagreementare
notreflectedinthepagesofthisbook.Tothispointitispossibletogiveanumberofvalidreasons.Inthefirstplaceitisintendedthatthisshouldbethestoryofamanandhisweapon–everythingelseisabackgroundtothatpersonalisedaccount.Secondly,aconsiderablenumberofsourcesandauthoritieswereconsultedandstudiedduringthepreparationofthis
manuscript;manydifferedbutnoneappearedtotheauthortoimproveuponorsupplanttheexcellentreasoningofthelateLieutenant-ColonelA.H.BurneinhisbooksontheCrécyandAgincourtwars.Therefore,muchthatiswrittenandstatedasfactinthisbookissorecordedbecausetheauthorisconvincedthatithappenedinthatway–inthemanner
describedbyColonelBurneandwhichrequiresnoargumentordiscussion.
FurtherinspirationwasgainedfromA.ConanDoyle’sbookTheWhiteCompany–thismostfascinatingandenjoyablereadingprovidedtheinitialimpetustoputwordsonpaperinpraiseofthattrulyEnglishcharacterandhisweapon–thebowman.Iam
gratefultoJohnMurray(Publishers)Ltd.ofLondonfortheirunhesitatingpermissiontoquotefromthiswonderfulbook.
ThisisperhapsthesixthbookthatIhavewrittenwiththeinvaluableaidofSouthamptonPublicLibrary.VolumeslongsinceoutofprinthavebeensoughtandborrowedfromotherlibrariesbyBobCorlettandBill
PrologueItwasagoodpositiontohold.Fromthetopofthesmallhillthearchersgazedaroundthem,notingwithprofessionaleyesitsdefensivemerits–theylikedthelongandgradualslopethatdroppedawayintheirfront,remarkedthatits
tangledundergrowthandstonysurfacewouldhandicapthehorses.Thepatchesofsoggymarshlandoneitherflankformedacomfortingguardandtherewasaniceconvenientwoodrightbehindthemtoholdthebaggage-train.Yes,ithadbeenwellchosen.
Amidthebustleandpreparationthatensuedonallsides,thebowmenappeared
calmandconfidentastheymethodicallynew-strungtheirbowsandmadesurethattheywerefirmatthenocks.Fromhissteelskull-capeacharcherremovedacarefullycoiledbowstring,unrollingitgentlysoasnottotwistitmoreorlessthanthenaturaltwistalreadyinit.Thebowendwasplacedagainsttheinsideoftheleftfoottopreventitdiggingintotheground,thehandlegraspedwiththeleft
handsothatthebowslopedawaytotheright,withthebackuppermost.Thenthetoploopofthestringwasslippedovertheupperendofthebowandallowedtodropafewinchesdownthestave;thelowerloopputsafelyhomeinthebottomnockonthebow.Againstthebackofthebow,afewinchesfromthetop,eachbowmanplacedthepalmofahornyhand,withthefirstfingerandthumbon
eithersideofthestringabouthalfwaydowntheloop,takingcarethatnofingergotroundtheundersideoftheboworbetweenthestringandbow.Next,hepulledonthehandlewithhislefthandandpushedatthetopwiththeright,slidingtherighthandandtheloopofthestringupwardsuntiltheloopslippedintothenock.Withastudiedandpractisednonchalanceherelaxed
gradually,justincasethebottomloophadslippedoutofplace.
Bowsreadyforaction,thepeeledsix-footpoles,roughlysharpenedateachend,werepickedfromthegroundwheretheyhadbeendroppedbyeachmanwhentheyhalted.Usingdaggers,holeswereduginfrontofthem,andoneendofthepoledroppedintothesmallpit.
Mauleswerethenusedtohammerhomethestakes,thepointedendsbeingre-sharpenedwhenthepoleswerefirm.Inashorttimetherewasabarrierofthreateningstakespointingobliquelyupwards,inasolidfencethatundulatedwiththeriseandfallofgroundacrossthefrontoftheposition.
Whilstthearchersworked,theirofficersandfile-leaders
movedamongthem,givinganinstructionhere,awordofadvicethere.Theseniorofthemasterbowmenraisedhisvoicesothatthosearoundhimcouldhear:
‘Nowlisten,melads!Makesureyou’vegotallyouneed…abraceronyourlefthand,ashootinggloveonyourright…haveyourwaxhandytoo.Remember,bendyourbowwell…nockyour
staveproperlyandlockyourstringwell!’
‘MyolddadtoldmethemthingsaforeIwasknee-hightohim!’
Aroaroflaughtergreetedthesally,growledoutbyatannedandgrizzledveteran,lookingupfromcheckingstring-heightbyhisown‘fist-mele’.Themasterbowmangloweredathim;turning
awayhemuttered:
‘I’llrememberyou…ifwegetoutofthisalive!’Oneoftheolderbowmencalledafterhim:‘Don’tpayhimnoheed,MasterRobin!He’sagoodladatheart!Rememberhiman’hismatesatCrécy?LittleHalWatridge,andPerkinofWinchester…an’WatPurkisswhobroughtdownthebigplumedlord?Godinheaven…theywere
menwewon’tseethelikeofnomore!Idaresaytheycouldbeatanywegothereatlongbuttsorshort,hoyles,roundsorrovers!’
Atrumpetshrilledloudandclearabovetheclamour.Stillbucklingarmourandtestingweapons,thesoldiersflowedintofamiliarformations,tostandatease.Thearchersfellintofourlineswithunder-officersandfile-leadersin
frontandontheflanks;inarippleofmovementthatrandowntheirrankstheyremovedtheskull-capsandbowedtheirheads.Allmenstoodsilent,alonewiththeirthoughts,astheirleadersharshlymutteredaprayer;theninarustlingmonotoneallrepeatedthePater,theAveandtheCredo.Themen-at-arms,intheirdull,leaden-huedarmour,theruddyvisages,craggyfeaturesand
hardbeardedfacesjoinedtogetherinasuddenhush;someofthemendrewamuletsandrelicsfromtheirtunics,tobekissedandcarefullyreplaced.Thelast‘Amen’,deepandresonant,hadbarelyrolledthroughthestillairwhenthereverentsilencewasbrokenbythedistantsquealoftrumpets,thedeeprollingofdrums,backedbythedullmonotoneoffootstepsandmanythousands
ofvoices.
Alleyesturnedtowardsthecrestoftheridge,three-quartersofamiledistantacrossthevalley,thatlayatthefootoftheirownhill;itwasnowtoppedwithcountlesslancepennons,glitteringsteelpoints,colourfulsurcoatsandwavingplumes.
‘It’sthem…’eretheyare,
lads!’
‘Jistgot‘ereintime,din’we?’
Theystoodinsilence,watchingtheenemymassintheirthousands,sawtheirformationsrippleandshudderastheimpatientknightstriedtofighttheirwaytothefront,jealousofanyotherswhomighttakefromthemthehonourofopeningthebattle.
Inspiteoftheconfidencethattheyfelt,manyoftheEnglisharchersandmen-at-armswereunabletopreventtheireyesfromtravellingquicklyovertheirownsmallforceandcomparingitwiththatoftheenemy–atleastfourtimesasnumerous.Bynowtheywerecloseenoughtobeindividuallydistinguished,butstilljustoutofbowshot.Inresponsetomurmuredorders,shortarrowswere
nockedtoperhapsathousandbowstrings,tobeloosedtofallfarshortoftheopposingarmyinanefforttoencourageittocomecloser.Thechallengewasacceptedandnowthebattlewasabouttobegininearnest.
‘Thinkthey’rewithinrange?’
‘Dunno…it’sneartwentyscorepaces.Still,weoughter
beabletonotchamarkatthatdistance.Comeon,Perkin,WatkinofFarehamandBigJohn…let’sshow‘emthey’vegotEnglishbowmentodealwith!’
‘I’lltakethelordwiththewhite-and-redplume.’
‘An’Ihimwiththegoldheadpiece!’
Fromhisstockoftwo
dozenbodkin-pointedarrowsplantedinthegroundbeforehim,eacharcherdrewone,nockedit,benthisbow,and,ontheorder:‘Loose!’,letitflywiththousandsofothersup,upintotheairabovetheapproachingenemy.Itclimbedswiftlywithasoul-shrivellinghowlandwhip,likeagaleinthetopsoftalltrees.Astheenemyfearfullygazedupwardstowatchthem,theshaftsturned,to
becomeaswarmofblackspecksagainstthesky,plummetingdowntowardsthem.Then,togetherwithahundredothers,theknightswearingthered-and-whiteplumeandthegoldheadpiececrashedtothegroundinaclanking,tumblingheapofhorsesandmen.
‘Higher,Wat,higher!’
Tutthybodyintoit,Will!’
‘Forgetnotthewind,Arnold!’
Onallsidesroseamutteredchorusofadvice:shrewdprofessionalcommentsontheircraftofskilfullyusingastaveofwoodandastringsuchastheyhadneverbeenusedbefore.Aboveallcouldbeheardthesharptwangingofthestrings,thehissandhowloftheshafts,mingledwith
ordersandadvicefromtheofficersandthemasterbowman:
‘Drawyourarrow!’
‘Nickyourarrow!’
‘Shootwhollytogether!’
Noneoftheenemycavalrygotclosertothemthanfiftyyards;mostremainedintheircrumpledheapsonthe
muddy,bloodstainedandscuffledslopeofthehill.Thearchersceasedfiringandrestedontheirbows,exultantlytalkingamongthemselves.
‘I’vegotthirteenarrowsleft...an’I’llsinkeveryoneof’eminFrenchfleshormynameain’twhatitis!’
‘Dickon,didyeseetheblack-armouredlord?Itook
bothhimandhishorsewithbutoneshaft!’
Theenemygrouped,massedintoanevenlargerformationthanthefirst;thetrumpetssounded,thehorseswerespurredintoatrotandthencumbrouslytheylurchedupwardstowardstheEnglishpositiononceagain.Thebowmenwereready,feetfirmlyplanted,sleevesrolledbacktogivefreeplaytotheir
arms,longyellowbow-stavesheldoutinfrontofthem,theywaitedinthefour-deepharrowformationwhichgavestrengthtotheirarrayandpermittedeverymantodrawhisarrowfreelywithoutharmtothemeninfrontofhim.Someofthebowmenthrewlighttuftsofgrassintotheairtogaugethewindforce;hoarsewhispersrandowntheranksfromthefile-leaders:
‘Holdyourarrows!Don’tlooseoutsidefifteenscorepaces!We’llneedallourshaftsbeforewe’vebeatenthislot!’
‘Don’tundershoot,lads!Bettertohitamanintheirrearthanhaveyourshaftfeatherintheearth!’
‘Loosequickandsharpwhentheygetnear.’
Themasterbowman,passingbehind,heardthislastremark;hequicklyanswered:
‘Keepyoureyetothestringandthestringtotheshaftanditwillfinditsmark!’
Theglitteringenemysquadronstossedandheaved,theysurgedforward,trotting,nowcantering,thengalloping–thewholevastarraywas
hurtlingforward,lineafterline,theairfullofthethunderoftheirhoovesandthegroundshaking.Thevalleywaschokedwiththerushingtorrentofsteel,toppedbywavingplumes,slantinglancesandflutteringpennons.Ontheysweptoverthelevelandthenuptheslope,tobemetwithablindingdriftofEnglisharrowsthatbroughtdownwholeranksinawhirlofmadconfusion;horses
plungingandkicking,bewilderedandstunnedmenrisingorwallowinglikeupturnedturtlesintheirheavyarmour.Butnewlinesforcedtheirwaythroughthefallen,crushingandridingdownwoundedmenandhorses;spurringthroughthegapsinthemoundsofdead,newlinesofhorsemenurgedthemselvesuptheslope.
Onallsidescouldbeheard
theshrill,stern,shortordersofthemasterbowmenandfile-leaders;theairwasfilledwiththekeentwangingoftheirbowstringsandtheswish,howlandpatteroftheirshafts.
‘Rightbetweentheeyes,byheavens!ButImeantitforhisthroat!’
‘Now…who’snext?Ah,thelordwiththeleopardon
hissurcoat!’
‘That’sit!Totheinch!’
‘Goodshotforyou,Arnold!’
‘Thank’ee.WhenmyeyeisinI’mbetteratroversthanatlongbuttsorhoyles!’
‘Loosegently!Loosegently,lads!Don’tpluckwiththedrawinghand!’Tisatrick
thathasmarredmanyagoodbowman!’
Acrossthefootoftheirhillawallofstrugglingmenandhorseshadbuiltup,whichgrewhigherasfreshmenandhorsesaddedtoit.Ledbyabigknightonagreydestrier,abodyoftheenemypushedresolutelyonwarduntiltheyreachedtheEnglishline.Astheyforcedtheirwaythroughthepointedstakes,their
leaderfellwithinaspear-lengthoftheEnglishposition,thefeathersofarrowsthrustingoutfromeverycreviceandjointofhisarmour.
Thebattlewasnowafierce,tumblinghand-to-handconflictthatsurgedandflowedinandaroundthenowbeaten-downstakesinfrontoftheEnglishposition.Theirarrowsgone,thearchersdrew
swords,clutchedaxesorfearsomefive-footmaulesandnimblyrantotheoutskirtsoftheclanging,roaring,desperatemêlée.Lightlycreepingunderhorses’bellies,dancingaroundponderous,heavilyarmouredmen-at-arms,theyslashed,stabbed,clubbedandheweduntiltheywereasbloodyasthered-mottledheapamidstwhichtheyfought.Slowly,
remorselessly,theenemywereforcedbackdownthehill;theyfoughtfiercely,buthereandtherewoundedandfaint-heartedmenlurchedfromthetangledmobandmadetheirstrugglingwaydownthehill,tobechasedandfallenuponbythefast-movingarcherslikedogsonarabbit.Oncedown,theheavilyarmouredmenwerehelplessandeasypreytothejudiciouslyinsertedlong
knifethroughacreviceorjointintheirarmour.Theenemywavered,trembled,andthenturnedandfledonallsides.
‘Theyrun!’
’Tisatrick!’
‘Nay,youfool!They’rebeaten…we’vewon!’
‘ThankGod.’
Chapter1
TheEarliestDaysTheshootingofarrowswithabowisundoubtedlyoneoftheoldestoftheartsstillpractisedtoday.Forthousandsofyearsthesimple
bowhelditsownasalong-distanceweapon;itwasthemostwidelyusedandgenerallydispersedofallweapons,spreadingfromnationswhosehistoryisstillboundinthepastallovertheworld.Man’sconstantcompanionfromtheearliestdaysuntilthesixteenthcentury,itwasprobablyhisfirstinventionofadeviceinwhichenergycanbeaccumulatedslowly,stored
temporarilyandreleasedsuddenlywithcontrolanddirection,leadingtogreataccuracyofprojectionovertwoorthreehundredyards.Claimedtorankinimportanceasaculturaladvancewiththedevelopmentofspeechandthediscoveryoftheartofmakingfire,thebowandarrowgoesbackatleast30,000years.
Itisnothardtoimaginetheemancipationbroughtaboutbythebowandarrow.Manhadlivedforthousandsofyearsinperilofhislifeandlivelihood,havingtokillhisfoodandhisenemieswithhisbarehands,or,atbest,withcrudeextensionstohishandssuchasstonehammersandaxes.Tolivehehadtobeafastmover,getincloseandstrikequicklywithlittletimetoensurethathisblowfellin
alethalplaceonhisquickandactivequarry.Withthecomingofthebowhehadleisuretoaimcarefullyatasafedistancefromhistarget;hispowertokilldependednolongeronhisphysicalstrengthalone;hewastheequalofhisfellows,nomatterhowbigandstrongtheymightbe.
Althoughnearlyeveryraceonearthusedthebowat
sometime,nowheredidtheartandskillofarcheryreachsuchapitchofdevelopmentasintheEnglishlongbowmanofthethirteenth,fourteenthandearlyfifteenthcenturies.DuringthoseyearspackedranksofEnglisharchersdominatedthewarsofEuropeasnocomparableforcehaseverdonesince.ThemeresightofthemwasenoughtostrikethefearofGodintoan
enemywho,ifhedidnotretreatorkeephisdistance,wasalmostcertainlyslaughtered.Somehowtheenemyneverlearnedthis.French,IrishandScots–eachofthemlostthousandsoftheiryouthandnobilitytothelaconicEnglishbowman.ButtheEnglishlongbow,whenitplayedhavocwiththeScots,wasnonewweapon,norwasitsoriginEnglish.Bowshadbeenknownfromprehistoric
timesandwereusedattheBattleofHastingsandintheCrusades,butthesewerenottruelongbowsunlesstheyweredrawntotheearandnotmerelytothebreast.InEngland,asallovertheContinent,the‘short’bowwasheldinlittleesteem,notevenbeingmentionedinHenryIIsAssizeofArmsin1181.
Itisimpossibletotracethe
actualoriginofthelongbow,butthereisgoodevidencethatitwasinuseinSouthWalesduringthesecondhalfofthetwelfthcentury.GiraldusCambrensisspeaksrepeatedlyofthemenofGwentandMorganwgasexcellingallothersinthepracticeofarchery;hegivesevidencetoooftheeffectsoftheirshooting.AtthesiegeofAbergavennyin1182theWelsharrowspenetratedan
oakdoorsaidtobeatleastfourinchesthick.TheywereallowedtoremainthereasacuriosityandGeraldhimselfsawthemsixyearslater,in1188,whenhepassedthecastle,theirironpointsjustshowingontheinnersideofthedoor.DuringthesameperiodaknightofWilliamdeBraosewashitbyonewhichwentthroughtheskirtofhishauberk,hismailhose,histhighandthroughtheleather
andwoodofhissaddleandintohishorse;whenheswervedroundanotherarrowpinnedhiminthesamewaybytheotherleg!
‘Whatmorecouldaboltfromabalistahavedone?’askedGerald.DescribingthebowsofGwent,hesays:‘Theyaremadeneitherofhorn,ashnoryewbutofelm;ugly,unfinished-lookingweapons,butastonishingly
stiff,largeandstrong,andequallycapableofuseforlongorshortshooting.’
Thesewerethebows,inthehandsoftheSouthWelshbowmen,whichwereusedintheNormaninvasionofIrelandin1171.TheNormanshadlearnedofthepoweroftheWelshshaftsanddreadedthem;WilliamdeBrensa,havingconvenedameetingoftheprincipalchiefsofSouth
WalesatAbergavennyCastlesomeyearspreviously,madethempurchasetheirlibertybyswearingtheywouldnotinfutureallowanyoftheirfollowerstotravelarmedwiththebow.‘Nequisgladiumferretvistorvelarcum.’In1120HenryIIundertookanexpeditionintoWales,beingopposedbyMeredithapBlethyn.NeartheconfinesofPowyssomeyoungWelsharchers
enfiladedtheEnglishinawoodypass,onearrowglancingofftheKing’sbreastplate,greatlyalarminghim.Onanotheroccasion,whilsttheEnglishwereattemptingtoforceabridge,theKingwasrecognised,andaWelsharcheraimedathim.Seeingthis,aNormanbaron,HubertdeSt.Clare,ConstableofColchester,threwhimselfforwardandwaskilledwhenthearrow
piercedhisbreast.TheWelshhadfounditnecessarytohuntandfightatgreaterdistancesthanusualintheirmountainouscountryandsohadincreasedthesizeandthicknessoftheirbowstoobtainmorepower.Theythenfound,theironlytimberbeingwych-elm,thattobereliabletheyhadtobeatleasttheheightofthearcherifhewasfullytodrawanarrowsuitedtohisstature.
WritingoftheNormans’Irishinvasion,Geraldtellshowthefirstcontingent,underRobertFitzstephen,sailedforIrelandwithninetymailedmen-at-armsand300footarchers‘ofthefloweroftheyoungmenofWales’.Thiscombinationofmountedmen-at-armsandarcherswasfoundtobeirresistible.Geraldnoteditseffectiveness;so,too,acenturylater,didEdwardIin
hisWelshwars.TwicethespearmenofSnowdoniawentdownbeforethearchersfromGwentlacedwithhorsemen,onceatOrewinBridgeandthennearConway.
Thelongbowisaboutthesimplestpieceofmechanismimaginable,consistingofonlyabowstaveandstring;itpossessedthreedistinctadvantagesinthatitwascheaptoproduce,hadafairly
extensiverangeandprovidedrapidityofdischarge.Suchanelementaryweaponwaseminentlysuitableforusebypeasantmilitia,forithadnocomplicationsofmechanismandnoprofessionalskillwasneeded.TheEnglisharcherofthefourteenthcenturyhadaboutaslittledrill–apartfrompracticeatthebutts–astheBoerfarmerdidin1899,buthetookaskindlytohisweaponastheBoerdidtohis
rifle.
AlandmarkinthehistoryofarcherywasreachedinHenryIII’sAssizeofArmsin1251;thatdocumentcommandsthat:‘…allwhoownmorethan40orlessthan100schillingsinlawcomebearingaswordandbowwitharrowsandadagger’.Similarly,citizenswithchattelsworthmorethanninemarksandlessthantwenty
aretobearmedwithbow,arrowsandsword;thereisaspecialclauseprovidingthatevenpoormenwithlessthanthisshouldbringbowsandarrows,iftheyhadthem.Initiallybeingthenaturalweaponoftheyeomanforhunting(alsooftheoutlawandpoacher)andofthecommonsoldier,thebowwastheidealweaponforthepurpose.Itwasbeneaththedignityofnoblemen,who
huntedwithsword,spearandhounds,tostalkandkillgameinsilencewithanarrow,fromadistance.Thus,whenafeudallordsummonedhisknightsandbaronstogotowar,theirlowestranks,impressedpeasants,boretheonlyweapontheypossessed–thebow,althoughashorteroneatfirst.
Butwhenthelongbowcameintoitsown,shooting
withitwasnotthesamepleasantpastimeasusingtheshorterhuntingbow;thelongbowhadadraw-weightofperhapsseventy-fivepounds.WithplansinmindfortheWelshlongbow,EdwardIconfirmedHenry’sAssizeofArmsbytheStatuteofWinchester,makingpracticecompulsoryonSundaysandHoly-days.Onmanyasandstonevillagechurchgroovescanstillbe
seenwherearcherssharpenedtheirarrowsafterMass,preparatorytodoingbuttpractice.Othergames,suchasfootball,handballandcockfighting,weremadeillegal;directionoflabourwasintroducedsothatbowyersandfletcherscouldbecompelledtoresidewheretheyweremostneeded,andthereweremanyactsregulatingthepriceofequipment.Inthefirsthalfof
thethirteenthcenturythebowappearstohavebeeningreatervogueinthenorthernthaninthewesterncountiesofEngland.TheratherobvioustheorythatmenfromthewoodlandregionswereproficientinbowmanshipissubstantiatedbyanattackmadeintheWealdduring1264–5byDeMontfort’sarchersonKingHenry’smarchingcolumns.ThenthereisawritissuedinMay
1266orderingRogerdeLeyburntoraise500archersintheWeald;inthiswritfromtheExchequerAccountsthesearchersarecalled‘WALLENSES,WALDENSESetalii’(Welshforestersandothers).ContemporarydocumentsoftenspeakoftheobligationofvariousmanorstoprovidetheKingwithoneormorearchers…‘whenhemakesanexpeditionagainstthe
Welsh’.Itiscurioustonotethatevenaslateas1281RichardtheLionheart’spreferenceforcrossbowmenseemstohavebeenmaintained,thewagesofitsbearerbeingconsiderablymorethanthoseofthearcher.Inthepay-rollofthegarrisonofRhuddlanCastlein1281itisnotedthat…‘paidtoGeoffreyleChamberlinforthewagesof12crossbowmen,and13archers,
for24days,£78s.Eachcrossbowmanreceivingbytheday4d.andeacharcher2d.’
Oddly,whentheAssizeofArmsin1181organisedEnglishnationalforces,thebowdidnotappearinthelistofnationalweapons,althoughithadbeeninfulluseforsometimeassuch.Itmightwellbethattheauthoritieshesitatedtorecommendthe
keepingofabowineverypoorfreeman’scottagebecauseoftheverystrongtemptationtoemployitforpoaching!EdwardIalteredthisin1285whenhere-enactedtheAssizeofArms,redistributingthenationalforceintonewformationsarmedwithnewweapons.Archerswerere-establishedbystatute,althoughrestrictedtobowsandboltsiftheylivedintheforest–thebolt
beinglessdeadlytotheKing’sdeerthantheirarrows.EdwardI,likehisgrandsonandgreat-grandson,wasanablesoldier,capableofdevisingnewexpedientsinwar.Unlikethem,healsoshowedconsiderablestrategicalability.Thismonarch,throughhislongexperienceinWelshwars,introducedascientificuseofarcherythusoriginatingthelongbow’srisetofavour.But
hismethodshadbeenforeshadowedmorethanhalfacenturyearlier–HenryIdismountedhisknightsandwonatTenchbriar(Tinchebrai)in1106,againstRobertofNormandy;heagainwasvictoriousatBreuvillein1125inthesamemanner.ButatBeaumontheaddedacompanyofarcherswhomovedofftotheirleftflankwhentheNormancavalrycamethundering
down,tobeoverthrownwithashowerofarrows.Thesearchersmustnotbeconfusedwiththoseofalaterdate,butwereprobablycopied(liketheorderofbattle)fromaByzantinemodel.TheytaughttheEnglishthesecondoftwomostusefullessons–HenryhadalreadydiscoveredthatdismountedknightscouldholdtheirownagainsttheimpetuousFrenchknights;nowhelearnedthatacavalry
attackcouldbeweakened,almosttoannihilation,byvolleysofarchers.
Suchknowledge,atatimewhencavalryheldabsolutesupremacyinwar,wasasecretofunfathomablevalue;asecretindeedwhichlaidthefoundationsofEngland’sverymilitarypower.Henrywasevidentlyalivetothesecret,andencouragedthepracticeofarcheryby
ordainingthatifanymanshouldbyaccidentslayanotheratthebuttsthemisadventureshouldnotbereckonedtohimasacrime.
Theyear1138wasmemorableforthefirstofthemanyactionsfoughtagainsttheScots–theBattleoftheStandardwastypicalofmanyvictoriestocome.TheEnglishknightsfoughtonfootand,aidedbyarchers,
madehavocoftheenemy.Dimly,throughthemistoftime,onecanseealreadythegermofthelaterEnglishinfantry–inforthcomingcenturieslancesandbowsgavewaytopikesandmuskets,butforfivewholecenturiesthefootsoldierswerecompoundedoftwoelements,offensiveanddefensive,untiltheinventionofthebayonetslowlyweldedthemintoone.TheFrench
inventedthemimicwarfareknownasthetournamentwhich,notbeingaduelofmanagainstmanbutessentiallyacontestoftroopagainsttroop,wasatrainingfortactics,skill,disciplineandleadership;victoryturningmainlyonskilfulhandlingofthemenandthepreservationofcompactorder.Thus,bytheblendingofEnglishfootsoldiersandNormancavalry,waslaid
earlierthaninanyotherEuropeancountrythefoundationofanarmywhereinbothbranchestookanequalshareofworkinthedayofaction.
Theperiodbetween1300and1500sawtheslowtransitionfrommediaevaltomodernworld;atransitionaffectingtheartofwaraswellaseverythingelse.Itcaneasilybeclaimedthatthe
mostsignificantsinglefactorthatchangedalltheoldtraditionsandconceptsofmediaevalfightingtechniqueswasthedevelopmentofthelongbowinthehandsofEnglishpeasantsdirectedbybrilliantandfar-seeingleaders.Itreducedwartotwosimpleelements,oneofwhichorbothofwhichhavetobeemployedtodefeatanenemy–hemustbeoverthrowneitherbyshockor
bymissile-fireorbybothincombination.Theshockmethodmeansthatsuccessisachievedwhenonesidebestsanother,oftenthroughsuperiornumbers,inahand-to-handstruggle.Thismethodismateriallyaffectedalsobythesuperiorityofarmsorthegreaterstrengthandskillwithwhichtheyarewielded.Themissilemethodmeansthatthedayiswonbyonesidekeepingupsuchaconstant
anddeadlyrainofmissilesthattheenemyaredestroyedordrivenbackbeforetheycancometoclosequarters;thismethodenablesasmallerforcetodefeatalargerone.Bothmethodsarecapableofcombinationsofvariousarmsandtactics,withcountlessvariationsandtechniques.
IntheirsimplestandmostelementaryformstheEnglisharcherandtheSwisspikeman
representedthesetwobasicmethodsofmilitaryefficiency.Theformerreliedonhisabilitytobeattheenemybyhighlytrained,skilledshootingofgreataccuracy;thelatterbybeingabletopresentasolidcolumnwithaformidablehedgeofspear-pointssurmountingit,sothatitwaspossibletodrivebeforethemsuperiornumbersoftheenemywhowereunabletowithstandthe
crashingimpactandsteadypressureofthepikemen.Thecommonfactorwasthatbothmethodsweretriumphantagainst,andoverthrew,theheavy,mail-cladhorsemenwhohadforsolongbeenmastersofthebattlefield.Becauseofthemarkedsuperiorityofthetwomethodstheywerecopiedandemulatedbythosewhohadsufferedfromthem;butneitherwaseasyto
accomplishandnooneeversucceededinbecomingbetterthantheoriginators.
Andsothewholemilitarysystemofthemediaevalperiodwastornasunder,tobeprofoundlymodifiedandirrevocablyaltered.AftertheriseoftheEnglisharchertheartofwartookonanewandmoreseriouscomplexion:ithadbeentransformedfromtherathergloriousextension
becomearecognisedmilitaryarmofgreatimportancetoEngland.TheRoyalStatutescompelledeverypersonearninglessthan100penceperyeartohaveinhispossessionabowandarrows,officersbeingappointedbytheCrowntoseethatalltheseweaponswereingoodorderandreadyforinstantuse.Iftheownersoftheweaponslivedwithintheconfinesof,ornearto,theRoyalForests,
anearlyconservationmeasureruledthattheirarrowsshouldbebluntones.Thearcherwasbeginningtoberecognisedasapersonofmilitaryimportance,ascanbeseenfromanancientmilitaryordinance:
‘Andinspecial,atthefirstmoustre,everyarchereshallhavehisboweandarroweshole,thatistowytte,inarrowesxxxorxxivatthe
least,headedandinasheaf.Andfurthermore,thateveryarcheredoswearethathisboweandarrowesbehisown,orhismastyresorcaptaynes.Andalsothatnomanonesmousteredandadmittedasanarchere,alterorchangehimselftoanyothercondition,withouttheKinge’sspecialleave,uponpayneofimprisonment.’
Poachersandoutlawsin
SherwoodForestwereofferedapardononconditiontheyservedintheKing’sarmyasarchers.Thiswasnotsimplyageneralormeaninglesspardoneither;theoffenceforwhicheachmanwaspardonedisspecified,clearindicationofthevalueputuponthem.Thesecriminals(liketheirdescendantsinWellington’sPeninsulaarmy)amplyvindicatedEngland’sfighting
capacitybygaininganotablevictoryatHalidonHillin1333.Whenitisconsideredjusthowseriouspoachingwasviewedinthosedays,thepardoningcomesintoitscorrectperspective.BriefexaminationandaspeedyfateawaitedthelucklessSaxonwholovedabuck’shaunchmorethanhefearedthepenaltiesoftheforestlaw,orwhosewifeandchildren’spiteouspleadingforfood
spurredhimtoventureforthwithbowandarrowamidthetrees.Acaballisticverserevealsthesuspiciouscircumstancesthatcouldbringsummaryjusticetotheunfortunateman:
‘Dogdraw,Stablestand,Blackberond,Bloodyhand.’
Thusisindicatedthefourevidencesbywhich,accordingtotheoldfeudallaws,amanwasconvictedofdeer-stealing.Thefirstrelatestoanoffendercaughtinaforest,drawingafteradeerwithahoundinleash;thesecondtohimcaughtwithabentbowreadytoshoot;thethirdtobearingawaythevenisononhisshouldersandthefourthtohimmerelyfoundwithhandstainedwith
blood.
EdwardtheConfessor’sRedBookcontainsthefollowingcaution:
‘Omnishomoabstestavenariismeis,superpoenamvitae.’(Leteverymanrefrainfrommyhuntinggroundsonpainofdeath.)
Anearbytreewouldformareadygallows,hisown
bowstringthehalterbywhichtheystrangledhimlikeahound.
Realisingthatthenecessaryskillwiththelongbowcouldonlybereachedwithconstantandunremittingpractice,thestrictestmeansweretakentoensurethateveryable-bodiedmangotinhishoursofpracticeshooting.Peersandchurchmenwereprivileged
bylaw,butnootherpersons,aliensexcepted,couldabsentthemselvesfromthepublicexercisegroundwithoutincurringwhatwasthenconsideredaseriouspenalty.Sotheindependentfranklin,thewealthyyeoman,therudepeasantandtheunwashedartisanallcongregated,distinctionofranklostsightofforthetime,andadroitnessalonegivingtitletosuperiority.Theancient
publicbuttsweresothrongedwitharchers,particularlyatholidaytimes,thattheyrakedupthesurroundingturfbytheveryarrowsthatmissed,insuchamannerthatthegrasswouldnotgrowagaininthesamespots.Thecontinualtrampingoffeetasthebowmencirculatedaboutthemarksalsocontributedtodestroytheturfandvegetation.Inthevicinityofthelargeandpopuloustowns
theconcoursemusthavebeenenormousandforthisreasonthearcherusedbutasinglearrowwhenpractising.Besidestheimpossibilityofgettinginasecondshotamidsuchconfusion,hefounditnecessarytohurryawaytotheoppositebuttinordertocatchuphisshaftbeforeitwasstolenortroddenunderfoot.
Notwithstandingallthis
activity,KingEdwardIcomplainedbylettertotheSheriffofLondonthatarcheryhadfallenintoagrievouscondition;hesaidthatskillwiththebowwasputasideinfavourofuselesssportsandcommandedthathereinaftertheSheriffshouldseetoitthatsuchidlepracticeswereabandonedandthatleisuretimeuponholidaysshouldbespentinthenoblerecreationof
archery.
ItfelltoEdwardIIItoreapthefullbenefitofEnglishbowmanship,buthisgrandfather,seencomplainingabove,plantedandfosteredinsuchawaytheseed.EvenbeforehisfirstWelshwar,in1277EdwardshowedhisinterestintheWelshlongbow;inthatyearaspecialforceof100pickedmenofMacclesfieldinthe
King’sownlands,werepurelyarchersunmixedwithspearmen.Theyservedfromthefirstdayofthewar,whichbrokeoutlaterinthatyear,totheverylastdayatthethenextraordinarywageof3d.perday;whereastheotherinfantrycameuponlyforshortperiods.Theonlyotherpurelybow-armedforceofthiswarcamefromGwentandCrickhowellandthat,too,servedforalongertime
thanusual.
Theearlyfourteenthcenturysawtheevolutionofacoherentmilitarypracticewhichusedinasingletacticalschemethedistinctivepowerofarchery,thedefensivesolidarityofdismountedmen-at-armsand,whennecessary,theoffensivepowerofmountedtroops.Edwardhaddiscovered,orcomprehendedwhatwasalreadyapparent,
firstthevirtuesofarcheryinattacktobreakupadefensiveinfantryformationand,second,itspowerindefencewhenbasedonarrayofdismountedknightsandmen-at-arms.AbeginningwasmadeintheWelshwars:atOrewinBridgein1282andatMaesMaydogin1295,thefirstagainstthemenofPrinceLlewelyn,whopreparedtostandtheirgroundinadefensiveposition.The
Englishadvancedagainstthem,archersinterposedwithcavalry–thearrowsinflictingsufficientlossontheWelshtroopstocausethemtoloosentheircohesionandfallintocomparativedisordersothatthecavalrywereabletoridethemdown.Inthesecondbattle,nearConway,theEarlofWarwickusedthesametactics.Acontemporaryreportsays:
‘TheWelshontheearl’sapproach,setthemselvesfrontinghisforcewithexceedinglongspears,which,beingsuddenlyturnedtowardtheearlandhiscompanywiththeirendsplacedintheearthandtheirpointsupwards,broketheforceoftheEnglishcavalry.Buttheearlwellprovidedagainstthem,byplacingarchersbetweenhismen-at-arms,sothatbythesemissiveweaponsthosewho
heldthelanceswereputtorout.’
Inlaterbattleswiththeotherhereditaryenemy,theScots,theeffectivenessofcombinedarcheryandcavalryactionagainstimmobileinfantryformationswasshown.SuchwerethebeginningsoftheuseofEnglishinfantrytobeapowerinwar;theseventyyearswhichfollowedthe
openingofEdward’sWelshwarssawstrikingdevelopmentsbothinmilitaryorganisationandtactics.Bothledtothesameculmination–thoseEnglishvictorieswhichastonishedEuropeintheopeningstagesoftheHundredYearsWar.ItremainedforEdwardIinhislatercampaigns,andforhisgrandsonEdwardIII,togettheEnglishtobecomeexpertintheuseofthelongbowby
practice,andtolearntoactasadisciplinedcorps.YetevenaftertheBattleofHalidonHilltheEnglishhadnomilitaryreputationwhatsoever.JehanleBelisquiteexplicitinshowingthattheirtriumphatCrécycameasacompletesurprisetothewholeofContinentalEurope.
largerthanthatofEngland,Francewasneverable,untilthelatterstagesoftheHundredYearsWar,toputintothefieldanarmycapableofstandinguptotheEnglishforces.Therewereanumberoffactorsresponsibleforthis,butmainlyitcanbelaiddowntosuperiorEnglishmethodsofrecruitment,alliedtothefactthattheycouldcommandfromtimetotimebothWelshandIrishtroops;
thiswasonlyslightlyoffsetbybodiesofScotsunderFrenchcommand.Forthefirstpartofthewar,England,likeFrance,constitutedtheirarmyonafeudalbasis,backedbytheNationalMilitia(theFyrd).EdwardIIIrevolutionisedthissystembyinstitutingamethodoforganisationthatwascertainlythemostsignificantdevelopmentinthehistoryoftheEnglisharmyinthelate
MiddleAges.Fromthecampaignof1341EdwardIIIhadreplacedtheoldfeudallevywithasystemofwrittenindenturedcontractsbetweentheCrownandthecaptainsofarmedretinues,amethodofraisingpaidprofessionalsoldiersforserviceinthefieldthatwastoremainuntiltheendoftheHundredYearsWar.
Bythesemeansa
commandercontractedwiththeKingtoprovideaspecifiedforceformilitaryservice;theforcegenerallybeingofallarmssuchasmen-at-arms,mountedandfootarchersandfootspearmen.Theindenturelaiddownpreciselythesizeandthecompositionoftheforce,itsratesofpay,theplaceofassemblytogetherwithitsobligationsandprivileges.Thelengthofservicevaried,
theshortestperiodbeingthetraditionalfortydaysandthelongesttimewasnormallyoneyear,afterwhichamantookhisdischargeorsignedonagainforafurtherperiod.TheEnglisharmyhadlifteditselffromthedraggingchainsofthefeudalsystemtobecomeapaid,professionalshort-servicearmyinwhichthemountednobleandtheyeomanarcherservedoverseasattheKing’swage.
Itwasahighlytrainedanddisciplinedmercenaryarmy;asoldierdrawingregularpayforhisservicesismoreamenabletodisciplinethanthemandependentonlootingandplunder.Edward’sarmywasthemostpowerfulandhighlytrainedforceofitsday.
France,ontheotherhand,neversucceeded,oreventried,toridherselfofthe
feudalsystemofraisingtroopsuntiltheclosingyearsofthewar.Herarmywastheusualfeudalhost,composedofaheterogeneouscollectionoflordsallclaimingequalitywiththeother,backedbyjealousretainers–allsubjecttotheslenderestcontrolbytheConstableofFrance.Theoldconceptionsremained,infantrywerescornedandtheknightsnotonlyregardedthemselvesasthebackbone
ofthearmybutconsideredthattheywerethearmy!Theusuallocalleviesproducedill-trainedinfantrywhowerestrengthenedbyforeignmercenariessuchastheGenoesecrossbowmen,andoccasionallyaidedbybodiesofcourageousScotscarryingon,indifferentfields,theirperpetualstrugglewiththeEnglish.AttheverybeginningofthewarCrécyprovedthestockexampleof
Frenchdisdainforanyformofco-operationbetweenaristocraticcavalryandallotherdespisedarms,itwasalessonthatFrancetooknearlyacenturytolearn.
Inspiteofthelengthofthewarthereweresurprisinglylittlechangesordevelopmentsinarms,armamentormethodoffighting,withthesoleexceptionsofartillery,which
showedmarkedprogressinpowerandeffectiveness,andinarmour,whichgraduallychangedfrommailtoplate.Inthematterofarmsandarmamentthesoldiersofbothcountrieswerenotdissimilar.Bothsideshadmen-at-arms(knightsweremen-at-armsbutmen-at-armswerenotnecessarilyknights)armedsimilarlywithsword,lance,daggerandsometimesbattle-mace,helm,shieldandspurs
completingtheequipage.Theknighthadthreearmedattendants,whomightbepagestocleanandpolishhisarmour,helphiminandoutofit,holdhishorseandassisthimtomount;theyalsogroomedthehorse;thenhehadtwomountedarchersandoneswordsman;thewholeconstitutinga‘Lance’.Healsohadthreeorfourhorses,includingtwoheavychargers(destriers).Men-at-armswere
coveredinarmourfromtoptotoe(capàpie),butasthedevelopmentwasinastageoftransitioninthefourteenthcentury,itisdifficulttodescribetheirequipmentwithcertainty.Theincreaseinplate-armourreducedthemobilityoftheman-at-armsasitreducedtheeffectivenessofthearrow.Theydonotseemtohavebeengreathorsemen.Itisrecordedthatsometimestheyweretiedto
thesaddle;butthehorseswereundoubtedlydifficulttomanoeuvre–thebitsweretooweak,thecumbrousnessofthesaddleandtheweightofthearmourwereobstaclestogoodhorsemanship.Fromtheendofthethirteenthcenturythehorsesthemselvesworedefensivearmour.Toprotectitsheadthehorseworeachanfron,whilsttheneckwascoveredwithacrinetwithmailattachment.Thefrontof
thehorse’sbodywasprotectedbythepeytral,itssidesbytheflanchardsanditsrearbythecrupper.Astronghorsehadnodifficultyincarryingthisdefensivecoveringwhichinthelaterstagesofitsdevelopmentonlyweighedjustoverseventypounds,includingsaddleandmail.
Theshieldgraduallybecameobsoleteowingtothe
effectivenessofplate-armouranditsineffectivenessagainstcannon-balls.Briefly,armourimprovedslowlyfromaboutthemiddleofthethirteenthcenturywhenmailwasworn,withaflat-toppedbarrelhelm;thenfromabout1280itwasreinforcedwithplateandthehelmwas‘sugar-loaf;from1300therewasfurtherplatereinforcement,andavisoredhelm(thegreatbascinet),andinthefifteenth
centurycompleteplate-armourwascommon–thiswasundoubtedlythefinestperiodofarmour.
ThereisplentyofevidenceinthechroniclesoftheFrenchwarsthatifmen-at-arms,coveredcompletelyinplate,advancedagainstEnglishbowmenwithouttheirtoo-vulnerablehorsesthentheywouldstandatleastsomechanceofcomingto
handstrokes.Whenabodyoffullyarmouredmen-at-armsploddedwithbentheadsintothestormofarrows,howeverpowerfullytheshaftsstruckthehard,smooth,curvedsurfacesofthearmour,theywouldglanceoffunlesstheyfoundlodgementwhereplateoverlappedplate.Therewerenoexposedjointsexceptfortheweakspotsattheshoulderwherethespandlersmetthearmholesofthebreastplate.
Realisingthis,theEnglisharchersoftenfiredatthefaceandthroat,sothat,whentheman-at-armsunwarilyliftedhisvisororremovedhisgorgetduringahotday,heoftenreceivedashaftinthismostvulnerablespot.Chroniclersclaimthatfewmenwholiftedtheirvisorsinbattleeverlivedtoclosethemagain!Later,atTowtonduringtheWarsoftheRoses,LorddeClifford,faintwith
pain,heatandthirst,tookoffhisgorget–instantlyanarrowpassedthroughhisneckandkilledhim.
However,ifthearrowsdidnotpenetratethearmourtheireffectsweresuchasthoughtheydid,forthepresenceofarchersinthefieldeventuallycompelledtheFrenchtoadvanceonfoot.Thoughplate-armourisnotmuchheavierthanmail,andismost
flexiblyjointed,itisnotmeantformarchingin.Thenecessityofhavingtotrudgeamileormore,oftenuphilloroverploughedlandorthroughlonggrassandscrub(asatMauronin1352andatPoitiersin1356),andtofightattheendofit,wasalmostasdevastatingtotheFrenchmen-at-armsashavinghishorseshotfromunderhim.Moreoftenthannot,hediedineithercase.Itismost
markedthatinalltheEnglishvictoriesduringtheHundredYearsWaritwasalwaystheFrenchwhoattackedandtrudgedupthehillsintheirarmour.TheEnglishquietlystoodabout,waitingintheirstrong,carefullychosendefensivepositions,perfectlyfreshforcombatwhentheexhaustedFrenchmencametogripswiththem.
Andthatwasnotall.In
havingtofacethedeadlyshaftsoftheEnglishlongbowmanthemen-at-armshadtosuffertheextremelybewilderingandnerve-rackingeffectofthedeadlymissileshissingandhummingpastthem,smackingontheirarmourandricochetingoffit.Fewsoldiershavehadtofacearrowsandmusket-ballsatthesametime,buttheevidenceofthosewhohave(inIndiawithClive)
unanimouslyagreethatthearrowsweremoredemoralisingthantheballs.
WhentheFrenchattackedonhorseitwastheirpracticetopacktheirmen-at-armsintoacloseandsolidmass;untilthemomentofactiontherewasonlysufficientspaceallowedforeachhorsetoturninitsownground.Butfortheactualattackranksandfilesclosedupastightlyas
possibletomaintainacompactarraysothatitwasrecordedthatanapplethrownintothemiddleofattackingFrenchknightswouldnothavereachedtheground.ThesemethodsplayedintothehandsoftheEnglisharcher,who,evenifhewasnotalwaysablecompletelytopreventtheFrenchattackstrikinghome,wasablesotodecimateitsranksthatitwasweakanddisorderedwhenit
reachedtheEnglishposition.Aman-at-armswasnotaheadlonggallopingcavalier,hisattackcouldnotbeveryrapidunlessitwasmadeindisorder;itwasshock-action,butshockofaponderouscolumnmovingatamoderaterate.
ThewordsputintothemouthsofhisfictionalcharactersbyConanDoylegiveareasonableideaofthe
characterandcourageoftheFrenchsoldiers,besidesillustratingthedifferencebetweenthepeasantclassesofthetwocountries.1
‘TheFrenchare…veryworthymen.WehavehadgreatgoodfortuneinFrance,andithathledtomuchbobnanceandcamp-firetalk,butIhaveevernoticedthatthosewhoknowthemosthavetheleasttosayaboutit.
IhaveseenFrenchmenfightbothinopenfield,intheintakingandthedefendingoftownsorcastlewicks,inescalados,camisades,nightforays,bushments,sallies,outfallsandknightlyspear-runnings.Theirknightsandsquires,lad,areeverywhitasgoodasours,andIcouldpickoutascoreofthosewhoridebehindDuGuesclinwhocouldholdthelistswithsharpenedlancesagainstthe
bestmeninthearmyofEngland.Ontheotherhand,theircommonfolkaresocrusheddownwithgabelle,andpoll-tax,andeverymannerofcursedtallage,thatthespirithaspassedrightoutofthem.Itisafool’splantoteachamantobeacurinpeace,andthinkthathewillbealioninwar.Ifthenobleshadnotconqueredthepoorfolkitislikeenoughthatweshouldnothaveconquered
thenobles.ThemenofthelawarestronginFranceaswellasthemenofwar.Bymyhilt!Iholdthatamanhasmoretofeartherefromtheink-potoftheonethanfromtheironoftheother.Thereiseversomecursedsheepskinintheirstrongboxestoprovethattherichmanshouldbericherandthepoormanpoorer.ItwouldscarcepassinEnglandbuttheyarequietfolkoverthewater.’
TheEnglishinfantryconsistedofarchersandfootspearmen;thelatterweremostlyfromWales.Althoughthelongboworiginatedinthatcountry,itsooncrossedtheborderandfirstCheshiremenandthenarchersofothercountieswerearmedwithit;allthearchersinEdwardIII’sarmywereEnglishmen.EdwardIIIcreatedamountedarchercorpsin1334,butfootarcherswerealmost
indistinguishablefrommountedarchersoncethebattlebegan.Bothweresimilarlyarmedwithalongbow,swordanddagger,bothworebreastplatesorpaddedhauberksandasteelcap;spearmenweresimilarlyattiredexceptthattheyseldomworebreastplates.Thearcherscoulddischargethelongbowsixtimesaminuteataneffectiverangeof250yardswithanextreme
rangeof350yards.Frencharcherswerearmedwiththecrossbow,morepowerfulthanthelongbowbutfourarrowscouldbefiredinthetimeittooktodischargeonebolt.UsuallyusedbyGenoesemercenaries,itwasmoreinaccurateandhadashorterrange.
Littlewasheardofartilleryinfieldoperations,onlysurprisereactionbeing
claimedforthecannonthatEdwardcarefullynursedallthewaytoCrécy.Butinsiegeoperationsthepowerofthecannonwassteadilyincreasing,sothatinthelastyearsofthewarithadapredominatingeffectinsecuringthesurrenderofdefendedtownsandcastles.
Edward’sarmyhadregularratesofpay;thereisarecordofthePrinceofWales’s
retinue:
7banneretsat4s.aday(abanneretwasaknightentitledtocarryabanner–eachbanneretwasexpectedtofindanarcherforeachman-at-armsheprovided).
136knightsat2s.aday.
143esquires(rank-and-filemen-at-arms)at1s.aday.
Chapter4
TheirWayofFightingTheageoftheknightinarmourwillalwayspossessacolourandglorybecauseofitscodeofhonourhallowedandreveredbytheupper
classesintheirattemptstorenderthemselvesworthyoftheirexceptionalprivileges.Butmuchoftheoutwarddisplayandtheclass-consciousconventionsonwhichsuchchivalryhadalwaysrestedweresweptawaybytheexigenciesofseriouswarfarewhentheHundredYearsWarbroughtnationalconflictbetweenFranceandEngland.Withsuchvastdisparitiesof
population–FrancehadovertenmillionandEnglandonlythreetofourmillion2–theEnglishleadershadtomakethebestuseofthematerialattheirdisposalandwerehighlysatisfiediftheirmethodsenabledthemtobeattheenemy.Thesecommanderswhomadesuchgooduseofarcheryasanationaltactichadnorealconceptionofthefactthatinterminatingthe
ascendancyinwarofthemailedhorsemantheywereputtinganendtothefeudalregimeandallthatitentailed.Regardingthemselvesastheveryflowerofchivalry,EdwardI,EdwardIIIandtheBlackPrincemighthavepausedintheireffortshadtheyrealisedthattheirsuccessfultacticsmeanttheendofso-calledchivalrouswarfare.Itcouldbethattheneedsofthemoment
preventedthemhavingsuchthoughts,justasthefullestimplicationsofHiroshimawerenotrealisedin1945.
Beforearcherybecameofsupremeimportanceinwarfarethereexistedalengthyandtacticallystagnantepochwhenthemail-cladfeudalhorsemanreignedsupreme.Becausethefeudalorganisationofsocietymadeeverymanofgentle
bloodafighting-man,butnotnecessarilyasoldier,afeudalarmypresentedanunbelievablecollectionofunsoldierlikequalities.Althougharrogance,stupidityandgreatcouragecolouredtheactivitiesofthesearmies,theirinabilitytoreplaceskillandexperiencemadetacticsandstrategyimpossible.Theknighthadnoconceptionthatdisciplineandtacticalskillwereasimportantascourage;
itwasalwayspossiblethatatsomeinopportuneandcriticalmomentabattlemightbeprecipitatedoracarefullylaidplanruinedbytheincrediblyfoolishbraveryofsomepettyknightwithlustforonlypersonalglory.Socialstatusratherthanprofessionalexperienceledtocommand,sothatthenoblewiththelargestfollowingwasalwayssuperiortotheskilledveteranwithonlyafewlancesto
lead.
Whenanumberoftenants-in-chief,allblindlyjealousofeachother,hadbeencollectedtogetherwithgreatdifficultytheyformedanunwieldy,unmanoeuvrablehostreadytomeltawayfromthestandardthemomenttheirshortperiodofwar-servicewasover.TheyrecognisednosuperiorbuttheKing,and,unlesshewerealeaderofuncommon
skill,hewasoftenpowerlesstocontrolthem,sothattheradicalviceofinsubordinationcontinuedunchecked.Theirveryformationencouragedthisinmanyways;confinedtoasinglepattern,theywereformedintothreegreatmassesorbattlesandthenlaunchedattheenemy;therecouldreallybenootherwaybecausethetroopswereneitherdisciplinednor
accustomedtoacttogethersothatcombinedmovementsofsmallbodieswereimpossible.
Keepingareserveinhandwasarefinementpractisedbyveryfewcommanders,partlybecauseitwouldhavebeenverydifficulttopersuadeafeudalchieftostayoutofthefrontlineofbattlesothatheincurredtheriskofmissingsomeofthehardfighting.Regardedasamodelof
militaryefficiencyifhecouldsithischargersteadilyandskilfullyhandleaswordandlance,nothingcouldrestrainhimwhentheenemycameinsight.Hisshieldwouldbeshiftedintoposition,thelancedroppedintorest,thespurplungedintothechargerandthemail-cladlinewouldponderouslyrollforward.Thunderingonastheygainedspeed,theyhadlittleregardforanythingthatmightlie
beforethem;asoftenasnottheformationdashedthemselvesagainstastonewallortumbledintoaditch;painfullyflounderedinabogorsurgedfutilelyaroundawallorpalisade.Iftheenemyweresimilartothemselvesthetwoforceswouldmeetwithafearfulshock,menandhorsestumblinginalldirections,andthenachaoticmêléewouldfollow,sometimeslastingforhours.
Thismeantthatmostengagementswerenothingmorethanahuge,sprawlingscuffleandscrambleofmenandhorsesoverapatchofbarelandorahillside.Sometimes,asifbygeneralagreement,bothpartieswouldlaboriouslywheeltotherear,haltforawhileastheirhorsesregainedbreath,andthenrushateachotheragainuntilonesidewasworstedandfledfromthe
field.Themostelementarymilitarytactics,suchaspreselectingabattleposition,orusingareservetotaketheenemyinrearorflank,wereconsideredexamplesofexceptionalmilitaryskill.Thecommendationoftheageboileddowntostrikingindividualfeatsofarmsratherthananyeffortsatrealleadership.
Greatbattlesdidnottake
placeveryoften,simplybecauseopposingarmiesoftencompletelylosteachotherbecausetheyneglectedtokeepintouchbyvedettesoroutpostsandpatrols.Itwasusuallytheexistenceofsometopographicalobjective,suchasaroad,fordorbridge,whichprecipitatedaconflict;withmapsnon-existentandgeographicalknowledgebothscantyandinaccurate,itwaseasyforarmiestostrayaway
andlosesightofeachother.Arecognisedmannerinwhichthislastcontingencywaspreventedlayintheopposinggeneralssolemnlysendingandacceptingchallengestomeetinbattleatagivenplaceandonadefinitedate.
Therewaslittlefortheinfantrytodo,noimportantpartforthemtoplay;theyaccompaniedthearmiesfor
nobetterpurposethantoperformthemenialcampdutiesandassistinthenumeroussiegesoftheperiod.Nowandthen,asasortofoverture,theywereusedtodemonstrateineffectuallyattheopeningofabattle,butiftheypresumedtoprolongthesedemonstrations,theirlords,affrontedbysuchpresumption,wouldendtheskirmishingbyridinginto
andovertheirlucklessfollowers.Thehalf-armedpeasantsandburgherswhohadunwillinglyjoinedthelevybecauseitwasthedutyofeveryable-bodiedmantodosowereincapableofcombiningtowithstandacavalrycharge;lackingadequateweaponsandwithoutdiscipline,theywereriddendownandcrushed.
Theonlyinfantrywho
commandedanyrespectwerethosebodieswhowerearmedwithmoreorlessuniformequipmentandweapons;thechiefcauseofthemilitaryunworthinessofinfantrygenerallycanbesaidtohavebeendueprimarilytothemiscellaneousnatureoftheirarmament.TheScottishlowlanders,withtheirlongspears,andtheSaracenauxiliaries,plyingtheircrossbows,stoodoutas
troopscapableofputtingupgoodperformancesonfootandwithoutallthebenefitsofhighbirth.Thefewinfantrysuccesseswhichoccurredtowardstheendofthefeudalperiodwereexceptionalandservedtoforeshadowtheneweraofco-ordinateddismountedwarfare.
Whenafeudalhostcameupagainstaforceoracommandercapableof
exercisingeventhemostsimpleandrudimentarytacticsonthefieldofbattletheyinvariablytookahiding.Witheachcommandermakinghisownspeedintotheattack,followedbyhissupporters,thefeudalforcearrivedatthesceneofbattleinsmallscatteredgroups.Thismeantthatthebattlewasmadeupofanumberofdetachedandunco-ordinatedcavalrycombatsanda
systematicenemycoulddefeateachofthesegroupsindetailsothatthesumtotalofthesmallroutsaddeduptoagreatdefeat.Inthiswayaskirmish,astreetfightorthebogging-downofagroupofheavilyarmedhorsemencouldoverthrowanentireforce.
Withsuchanunscientificmethodofwarfare,resemblingnothingmorethan
ahugetilting-match,itonlyneededonesidetobringintothefieldafactorthatwouldpreventtheiropponentsfromapproachingnearenoughtobreakalanceforthewholeconceptofthen-knownwarfaretobreakdown.ByintroducingauxiliariesliketheEnglisharcheragainstamilitarycastetoohideboundandblindtoalteritslosingmethodsthroughoutalmostthewholeofahundred-year
period,theEnglishcommanderscouldhardlyfailtobringtoearththeflowerofFrenchchivalry.Frenchchivalrywastoreceiveanearlyandstrikinglessonwhenthepeasant-archerfacedthehigh-bornknightatCrécyin1346.Itwasalessonthatwastobeunheeded,inspiteoffindinghimselfunabletoapproachthepositionfromwhichthedeadlyarrowreachedhim,
theknightstillclungtothetraditionwhichgavethemosthonourablenameinwartothemountedman.Thuswerecavalry,whosedayhadreallypassed,perpetuatedforanothercentury;asystemsointimatelyboundupwithmediaevallifeandcustomswouldtakemorethanasingledisaster,orthedozenotherstofollow,beforebeingirretrievablysmashed.
Chapter5
TheEnglishArcher
‘We’llalldrinktogetherTothegreygoosefeather,Andthelandwherethegreygooseflew.
Whatofthemen?ThemenwerebredinEngland,TheBowmen,theyeomen,Theladsofdaleandfell.Here’stoyouandtoyouTotheheartsthataretrue,Andthelandwherethetrueheartsdwell.’
MarchingSongoftheWhite
CompanyConanDoyle
ThewholehistoryofEnglishwarfarefromthemiddleofthetwelfthcenturytotheendofthefifteenthcenturyprovesthattheflowerofherinfantrywasthearchers.ThebowwasputinthehandofeveryEnglishboyattheageofsevenanditdidnotceasetofurnishhimwithsportand
occupationuntiltheyearshaddeprivedhisarmofstrengthandhiseyeofskill.FromtheConquestdowntothegeneralintroductionofthemusket,theuseandpracticeofthelongbowwereenforcedbysomeformorotherofEnglishlegislature.TheEnglisharcherwasnotonlyasingularmanofwar,healsopossessedasingularstatusunlikeanythingelseinContinentalEurope;itwasastatusthat
madehimthefightingmanhewas,capableofstandingtothedeathiforderedormakingasuddenflankattackonhisowninitiativewhenthesituationdemanded.Hewasnotapeasantboundtosomeonesuperiorinbirthandposition,hewasafreeman,ayeomanwhogavehisvaluablefightingservicesinreturnforacontractsettingouthisrateofpayandtermofservice.
Historyandfictiongivemanydescriptionsofthearcher;mostofthempicturehimasaRobinHood-likemandressedinLincolngreenandwearingahatofawell-knownshape,withafancyfeatherrisingfromitsside.InthepagesofhisCanterburyTalesGeoffreyChaucershowsushisarcher:
‘Andhewascladincote
andhoodofgrene;Asheefeofpecock-arrowesbrighteandkeeneUnderhisbelthebarfulthriftily;(Welcoudehedressehistakenyemanly;Hisarrowesdroupednoughtwithfethereslowe,)Andinhishandhebaramightybowe;Anot-heedhaddlehe,
withabrounvisage.Ofwodecraftwelcoudehealtheusage.Underhisarmhebaragaybracer,Andbyhissydeaswerdandabokeler,Andonthatothersydeagaydaggere,Harneisedwel,andsharpaspointofspere;ACristofreonhisbrestofsilvershene.Ahornhebar,the
baudrickwasofgrene.’
Lesscolourful,butofamorewarlikenature,isthedescriptionoftheEnglisharchergivenbyoneRalpheSmithe:
‘Captainsandofficersshouldbeskilfulofthatmostnobleweapon,andtoseethattheirsoldiersaccordingtotheirdraughtandstrength,
havegoodbows,wellnocked,wellstrynged,everiestryngewhippeintheirnock,andinthemiddlesrubbedwithwax;baserandshooting-glove;somesparestryngesasaforesaid.Everiemanoneshefeofarrowswithacaseofleather,defensibleagainsttherayne;andinthesamefoure-and-twentyarrows,whereofeightofthemshouldbelighterthantheresiduetogallorastonyetheenemywiththe
hail-shotoflightarrows.Leteveriemanhaveabrigandine,orlittlecoteofplate;askull[cap],orhufkin;amauloflead,fivefeetinlength;andapike,andthesamehangingbyhisside,withahookanddagger.Beingthusfurnished,teachthembytheirmasterstomarch,shooteandretyre,keepingtheirfacestotheenemy.Sometimeputthemingreatnowmbers,astobattellappertayneth,andthus
usethemoftentymestilltheybeperfecte;forthosemeninbattellorskirmishcannotbespared.’
Itseemsreasonabletoassume,becauseofthephysicaltrainingthattheirpracticeentailed,thatthearcherswerestrong,muscularmen;tall,sinewy,brown,clear-eyedandhard-visaged–middle-sizedortallmenofbigandrobustbuild,with
archingchestsandextraordinarybreadthofshoulder.Theoldersoldiersweregrizzledandlean,withfiercepuckeredfeaturesandshaggybristlingbrows,skintannedanddriedbytheweather.Theyoungermenhadfresh,Englishfaces,withbeardscombedoutandhaircurlingfromundertheirclose,steelhufkins.Theirprofessionwasproclaimedbytheyeworhazelstaveslung
overtheirshoulder,plainandserviceablewiththeoldermenbutgaudilypaintedandcarvedateitherendwhenbelongingtoyoungerarchers.Steelcaps,mailbrigandines,whitesurcoatswiththeredLionofSt.George,andswordorbattleaxeswingingfromtheirbeltscompletedtheequipment.Insomecasesthemurderousmauleorfive-footmalletwashungacrossthebow-stave,beingfastenedto
theirleathernshoulder-beltbyahookinthecentreofthehandle.Whentheywenttowar,sparebow-stavesweretaken,plusthreesparecordsallowedforeachbowandagreatstoreofarrow-heads.
Accordingtohisstrengthandheight,sothearcherequippedhimself.Thetallandmuscularmanofsixfeetandupwardsfoundthatapowerfulbowofsevenfeet
wasbestsuitedtohispurposeandhisarrowswereacloth-yard,besidesthehead.Hissmallercomradewoulduseasix-footbowandshorterarrows,reducingthemtothecorrectlengthiftheyweretoolongforhim,althoughitappearstohavebeenquiteusualforarcherstofixloosearrow-headstotheirownshafts.ItissaidthatatAgincourtthearmyofHenryVconsistedofsuch
tremendousarchersthatmostofthemdrewayard.Tallmen,withstrengthandlengthofarm,coulddrawtheclothyardshaft,othersadaptedthemselvestothearrowlengthstheycouldhandle.SirSamuelRushMeyrick,authorofanoldhistoryofarmsandarmour,wrote:
‘Withrespecttothesizeofthebow,thestringoughtto
betheheightoftheman,andthearrowhalfthelengthofthestring.Now,asfromthat,tothetopofthemiddlefinger,isequaltohalfhiswholeheight,itmustbeequalalsotothelengthofhisarrow;andthelefthand,therefore,beingclenchedroundthebow,willleavejustroomforthearrow-headbeyondit.Fromthisitwillappearthatamansixfeethighmustshootwitha
clothyardarrowandviceversa.’
Englisharcherscarriedintothefieldasheafoftwenty-fourbarbedarrows,buckledwithintheirgirdles.Aportionofthem,aboutsixoreight,werelonger,lighterandwingedwithnarrowerfeathersthantherest.Withtheseflightarrows,astheywerecalled,theycouldhitamarkatagreaterdistance
thanwiththeremainingheavysheafarrows.Theadvantagesoccasionallyderivedfromthissuperiorityofrange,whendirectedbyaskilfulleader,haveledtoveryimportantresultssuchasthatatTowton.Unfledgedarrowscannotflyfarandaregreatlyaffectedbythewind.Ascham,the‘IzaakWaltonofarchery’,says:‘Neitherwood,horn,metal,parchment,papernorcloth
butonlyafeatherisfitforashaft.’Theremusthavebeenagreatconsumptionofgoosefeathers;anarmyneededatleast20,000sheavesofarrows,requiringamillionandahalfgoosefeathers.Peacockfeatherswereusedaswellasthoseofthegreygoose:
‘Witheveriearroweanelllong,
Withpeacockewellydyght.’
Thearcherhadtofindastylewhichwasreasonablynaturalandwhichconsequentlycamefairlyautomatically;iftheEnglisharchersshotbyinstinctthenitwasintheknowledgeofhowmuchforcetousethatthisinstinctcamein.Butitwasnotreallyaninnateskill,itwasone
nurturedandfosteredbyyearsofpractice,beginningataboutseventonineyearsofage.Thentheladwouldholdoutaroundstickinhislefthand,armstiffandstraightfromtheshoulder;assilentandstillasasmallstatue,theladwouldholdoutthestickuntilhisarmwasasheavyaslead–inthiswaytheleftarmwastrainedtohaveasteadygraspofthebow.Whenhebecameolderandcouldbend
awar-bowsoastobeabletobringdownasquirrelatahundredpaces,thenaboywasreadytobeconsideredsuitabletobecomeanarcherintheKing’sarmy.Eventhenitwasstillnecessarytopractise–infact,itwascompulsory.
Duringtheiroff-dutyperiodstheyoungarcherswouldthrowasidetheircoatsofmailorleatherhauberks,
setdowntheirsteelskull-caps,andturnbacktheirjerkinstogivefreeplaytotheirbrawnychestsandarms.Standinginline,theywouldeachlooseashaftinturn,whiletheolder,experiencedbowmenloungedupanddownthelinewithcriticaleyesandwordsofroughpraiseorcurtcensureforeachmarksman.Nowandthentheycouldcryoutadvice:
‘Looseiteasy,steadyandyetsharp!’
‘Don’twinkwithoneeyeandlookwiththeother!Nay,lad!Youdon’tneedtohopanddanceafteryoushoot–thatwon’tspeeditonitsway!Standfirmandstraight,asGodmadeyou.Movenotthebow-armandsteadywiththedrawinghand.’
Thescarredandgrizzled
veteransknewthatitwasonethingtoshootatatarget-shield,butanotherthingwhentherewasamanbehindthatshield,ridingatyouwithawaveofswordorlance,andeyesglintingfrombehindaclosedvisor–thenitbecamealesseasymark!
Representationsoftheoldlongbowmenintheancientilluminatedmanuscriptsofthethirteenthtothefifteenth
centuriesidentifytheoldstanceandpracticewiththemodern.Apen-and-inkdrawingbyJohndeRous,abowmanaswellasacontemporarybiographeroftheEarlofWarwick,showsthenecessaryslightinclinationoftheheadandneck–this‘layingofthebodyintothebow’–thedrawingwithtwoandwiththreefingers,arecorrectlydelineated.Thisdrawingis
amongtheMSS.attheBritishMuseum.Asixteenth-centuryversesays:
‘WhothoughtitthenamanliesightandtrimToseeayouthofclean,compactedlimb,Whowithacomelygrace,inhislefthand,Holdinghisbow,didtakehissteadfaststand,Settinghisleftfoot
somewhatforthbefore,Hisarrowwithhisrighthandnockingsure,Notstooping,noryetstandingstraightupright,Then,withhislefthandlittle‘bovehissight,Stretchinghisarmout,withaneasystrength,Todrawanarrowofayardinlength.’
TheEnglishlongbowmen
mightwellhaveappearedtoaiminstinctivelybecauseitwasquicker,buttheyreallytookcarefulaim,usingtheirjudgmenttodeterminetheheightoftheiraim.Overthecourseofhundredsofyearsithasbeenproventhatthebestmannerofusingabowistousethesameforceforeveryshotregardlessofwhetherthetargetiscloseorfaraway.ThisisexactlywhattheEnglisharcherdid–heused
thefullpowerofhisboweverytime,neverinstinctivelyusingmoreorlessofitinordertoreachhismark.Thebowbeingheldperpendicularlytotheground,theirstancewassidewaysontotheirtarget;inthiswaythebestusecouldbemadeofthemusclesneededfordrawingawar-bowintosuchapositionthatthearrowinthebowlayundertheeye.Thisstancealsomeantthat
theycouldstandclosertogether,thusbetterconcentratingtheirvolleys,whichweremadeevenmoreeffectivebytherearranksbeingabletofireovertheheadsofthemeninfrontofthem.
Thebestarcherslookedcomfortableandfreefromawkwardness–agoodstancewasalwaysgracefulandneverugly–competent
archerylendsitselfadmirablytothestatuesqueposition.Withthebowheldoutbyonearmpointingtowardsthemarkortarget,theheadwasturnedinthesamedirectiononlyasfaraswascomfortable.Theotherhand,drawingthestringbackwiththearrow‘nocked’ontoit,wasbroughttosuchapositionunderoralongsidethechinthatthetailofthearrowwasatapointunder
theaimingeye.Tomakesurethatthearrowwasbroughtbacktothesamepointundertheeyeeverytime,thestringwouldtouchonepointontheface–onthechin,thelipsorthenose.Thechin,eitherrightinthemiddleoratsomespotontheside,wasthecommonest;thelipswerethemostsensitiveandmadeitpossibletodetectmoreeasilyanyslightvariationtoonesideoftheproperplace.The
drawing-handwas,atthesametime,broughtbackfirmlytoits‘anchor-point’(adefinite‘anchor-point’wasoftheutmostimportanceasitverylargelyinfluencedtheaccuracyoftheaimforelevation).Iftheknuckleatthebaseofthefirstfingercameupagainsttheangleofthejaw,analmostfoolproofanchor-pointwasobtained.
Afterreachingthefull-
drawpositiontherewasabriefpausebeforethearrowwassentonitsdeadlyway;duringwhichtheaimwasfinallytaken.Nowwasthetimewhenpractice,instinct,innateability,andalltheotherfactorsthatmadeonearcherbetterthananother,cameintoplay.Instinctively,thebowmancheckedalltheothervitalpointsinhisstance–hisbodilybalance,thepressureofthefingersofboth
hands,thepositionoftheelbows,theanchor-point,theangleofthebow,butespeciallythelengthofthedraw.
Themoreexpertthearcher,theshortertheperiodofholding;anditwasalwaysthesamelengthoftime–everyfractionofasecondoverhisnormalholdingperiod,withthebowheldatfulldraw,tooksomething
awayfromthecastofthebowandcausedthearrowtofallshort.Duringthewholeactofshooting,fromthebeginningofthedrawuntilafterthearrowwasloosed,thearcherheldhisbreath,withlungsjustnormallyfilled.Theactionofshootingwasnothurried,thesametimewastakenwitheacharrow;theEnglisharcheracquiredaregularrhythm.Hewouldrathercomedownand
startagainifhewerenotsatisfied–betterthatthantotakeachancewithwhatheknewtobeabadarrow.
Whenthewholebodywasundertensionatfull-draw,concentrationreacheditspeakastheslightfinalmovementofthebow-armwasmadetocompletetheaim.Ratherthanforcetheirarmstomovefractionallyintheirsockets,somearchers
wouldshifttheirbodyweightatrifleontotherearfoot.Allknewthatitwasbesttobringthebow-handuptotherequiredelevationjustbeforeoratthemomentthedrawwascompleted;inthiswayonlyaveryminuteadjustmentwasneededaftertheshaft-handhadbeenfinallyanchored.Everyarcherdevelopedsomelittlecharacteristicactionormovementthatdistinguished
himfromhisfellows;hesoughttosettledownintoastylewhichsuitedhimbest,becauseitwascomfortableandautomatic,bringingmaximumsuccess.
WhenHenryVaddressedhisarchersbeforeAgincourtheendeavouredtofirethembydwellingonthecrueltiesinstoreforthemshouldtheyfallintothehandsoftheFrench,who,hesaid,had
sworntoamputatetheirfirstthreefingerssothattheywouldnevermoreslaymanorhorse.ManyanEnglisharcher,capturedbyFrenchorScots,couldruefullyholduptwohandstoshowthatthethumbsandfirsttwofingershadbeentornawayfromeach.Hiscomradessetavengefulvalueonthem–twentyenemylivesforthethumbsandhalfascoreforthefingers.Fromthis,the
importanceofthearcher’sfingersisemphasised–everyarchersoughtfora‘sharploose’;acquiredbyanapparent,althoughnotactual,feelingofincreasingthepullofthefingersonthestringuntilitsuddenlyandinstantaneouslyslippedoffthefingerswithoutanysignofcreeping,oranyfeelthatthefingershadrelaxed.Mostofthefeelofdrawingshouldbeputintothefirstfinger;the
stringstartingquitecloseuptothefirstjointonthatfingerandslopingawayacrossthemiddleofthefirstjointofthesecondfinger,finishingupalmostatthetipofthethirdfinger,whichwillthenbepreventedfromdoingtoomuch.Avery‘sharploose’couldbegotinthisway,asthefirstfinger,thelazyone,wasunderbettercontrol.
Thefirstfingerwasthe
strongestbutthelaziest;thesecondwasalsostrongandnotnoticeablytemperamental,itwouldgenerallyfollowthefirstfinger;thethirdfingerwastheweakest,butitwasalsothemostwillingandcouldbehurtifitdidmorethanitspropershareofdrawing.
Theolderarchersendeavouredtoinstilintothebeginnerstheneedtolaythe
bodytothebow,todrawfromthethighandhipasmuchasfromthearm.Tolearntoshootwithadroppingshaftwasessential;anarrowwillgoacertaindistanceupintotheairbeforeitfallstowardsitsmark–whenanarrowhasitspointdirectlyonthetargettobehitthereisonlyonedistanceatwhichthearrowwillfallontothemarkitself.Thisis‘point-blank’rangeandforan
averagemandrawingabowof,say,forty-two-pounddraw-weight(underhalfthatoftheoldEnglisharcher)thatdistancewillbesomewherebetween80and100yards.Anadjustmenthadtobemadeintheaimforelevationwhenshootingatadistancelongerorshorterthanpoint-blankrange,bearinginmindthatthebowwasalwaysdrawntothesameextentsothatthesamepowerwasused
eachtime.Thiswasdonebyselectingapointatwhichtoaimeither,forshorterdistances,onthegroundshortofthetarget,or,forlongerdistances,inatreeorsomeothertallobjectaboveandbehindthetarget.Inthelattercase,thisoftenmeantthatthemarkwasobscuredbythebow-hand,butthelineofthearrowwasconstantlyunderobservation.
Anarcherwasoftencalledupontoshootstraightandfast;butoftenhehadtodealwithanenemyhidingbehindawalloranarbalastierwithhismantlet(awoodenshield)raised–theonlywayinwhichsuchprotectedmencouldbehitwastofireinsuchamannerthattheshaftfelluponthemstraightfromtheclouds.EvenasearlyasRichardI’ssiegeofMessina,thearchersdrovetheSicilians
fromthewallsinthismanner–‘fornomancouldlookoutofdoorsbuthewouldhaveanarrowinhiseyebeforehecouldshutit’.
Itisevidentfromthefactthattheyworenodefensivearmourthatthearchersweredesignedtobelightinfantry,swiftandmobile,skilfulanddeadlywiththeirweapons.ThenameofEdwardImusteverbememorableinhistory
fortheencouragementhegavetothelongbow.ButweseekinvainforthemanwhofoundedthetraditionthattheEnglish,whatevertheirweapon,shouldalwaysbegoodshots–theEnglisharcherwasreputedtobeabletodrawanddischargehisbowtwelvetimesinasingleminute,atarangeof250yards,andifheoncemissedhismaninthesetwelveshotshewasbutlightlyesteemed.
Hereitisdifficulttoseparatefactfromfiction;theoldchroniclersventuredawayfromaccuracywhendescribingthefeatsoftheEnglisharcher,thatishighlypossible–but,tocounterit,therearemanymodernarcherswhocanemulateandbestthereputedfeatsofRobinHoodandhismen!Forawearyandsickarmyoflessthan6,000mentodefeatover25,000FrenchatAgincourt
mustindicatethatthearcherscouldnotchwithashafteverycreviceandjointofaman-at-arms’harness,fromtheclaspofhisbascinettothehingeofhisgreave.Withthatinmind,canwecalmlydiscountthestoryoftheGenoancrossbowmanwhoraisedhisarmoverhismantletandshookhisfistattheEnglish,ahundredpacesfromhim?TwentyoftheEnglishbowmenimmediatelyloosed
shaftsathim,andwhenthemanwasafterwardsslain,itwasfoundthathehadtakeneighteenshaftsthroughhisforearm.Or,theaccountoftwoEnglisharchersfiringatthehempenanchor-cordofthecapturedEnglishcogChristopherheldinCalaisharbour–at200pacesthearchersinfourshotshadcuteverystrandofthecordsothattheboatwentontotherocks!
Wellauthenticatedfictionabouttheperiod,withcopioususeofthechroniclesofsuchasFroissart,cantellmuchabouttheperformancesofthesesemi-legendarycharacterswhosomouldedmediaevalEnglishhistory.OnecanreadinTheWhiteCompanybyA.ConanDoyleofacontestbetweenacrossbowmanofBrabantandanEnglisharcherwhosays:
‘Tomymind,thelongbowisabetterweaponthanthearbalest;Iwillventurearoverwithyou,ortrythelongbuttsorhoyles.’TheveteranselectsaScotchbow,recognisablebecausetheuppernockiswithoutandthelowerwithin–‘Agoodpieceofyew,wellnocked,wellstrung,wellwaxedandveryjoyfultothefeel.’Heisverycarefulaboutthearrowsthatheuses‘…Iloveanash
arrowpiercedwithcornel-woodforarovingshaft..ithasbeenmymindtochooseasaddle-backedfeatherforadeadshaftandaswine-backedforasmoothflier…’
Thecrossbowman,impatientatsuchslowandmethodicalactions,drewhismoulinetfromhisgirdleand,fixingittothewindlass,drawsbackthepowerfuldoublecorduntilitclicked
intothecatch.Thenfromhisquiverhedrewashortthickquarrel,whichheplacedwiththeutmostcareuponthegroove.Beforehecouldfireatthenominatedmark,alargegreystorkflappedheavilyintoviewwithaperegrinefalconpoisedoveritshead,awaitingitsopportunityofdartingdownonitsclumsyvictim.Whenthepairwereahundredpacesfromthemthecrossbowman
raisedhisweapontotheskyandtherecametheshort,deeptwangofhispowerfulstring.Hisboltstruckthestorkjustwhereitswingmeetsthebody,andthebirdwhirledaloftinalastconvulsiveflutterbeforefallingwoundedandflappingtotheearth.Attheinstantthattheboltstruckitsmark,theoldarcher,hithertostandinglistlesswitharrowonstring,benthisbowand
spedashaftthroughthebodyofthefalcon.Whippinganotherarrowfromhisgirdle,hesentitskimmingafewfeetfromtheearthtostrikeandtransfixthestorkforasecondtimebeforeitcouldtouchtheground.
Inthiswaythearcherprovedthatthelongbowcoulddowhatthecrossbowcouldnot,foreventhemostexpertarbalestiercouldnot
speedanothershaftskywardsbeforethebirdhadreachedtheground,asdidthearcher.
Inthenatureoftrick-shootingprobablyoflittleuseinactualwarfareistheshootingofanarrowsothatitcoversvastdistances–amileinthreeflightsisrecorded,asisalengthof630paces.Todothisthearcherwoulduseabowofexceptionalsizeandstrength;sittingdownupon
thegroundhewouldplacehistwofeetateitherendofthestave.Withanarrowfitted,hethenpulledthestringtowardshimwithbothhandsuntiltheheadoftheshaftwaslevelwiththewood.Thegreatbowwouldbreakandgroanandthecordvibratewiththetension;thearcherraisedhistwofeet,withthebow-staveontheirsoles,andhiscordtwangedwithadeeprichhumthatcouldbeheard
foraconsiderabledistanceasthearrowspedonitsway.
Duringthecontestbetweenthearcherandcrossbowmanthathasalreadybeenmentioned,bothfireatashieldmadeofinch-thickelmwithabull’shideoverit.Theboltfromthecrossbowisdrivendeeplyintothewood;thearchercarefullygreaseshisshaftandsendsittowardstheshield.Oninspection,the
shieldhasaroundclearholeinthewoodatthebackofit,showingthatthearrowhaspassedthroughit.
Englisharcherstriedtoavoidfightingwiththesunintheirfront,consideringthedazzlingsplendourofasummer’sdaytobeveryunfavourabletoshooting.AtCrécy,whenthesuddengleamofsunshineaftertherainburstforthbehindthe
English,itsbeams,besidesdazzlingtheeyesoftheenemy,flashedupontheirpolishedshieldsandcorseletswithalustresobrilliantthatthearchersdischargedtheirfirstflightofarrowswithmorethanusualcertaintyofaim.Windandweatherwilllikewiseexerciseacertaininfluenceuponeventhemostsuperblydirectedarrow;forshootinginboisterousweather,acomparatively
heavyarrowdoesbest.
Inadditiontobeingincomparablewithhismissileweapon,theEnglisharcherwouldfrequentlydiscardhisbowandfightonfootwithsword,axeormaul.Whenaknightwasseatedonahorseitwasalmostimpossibletogetanypowerintoaswingwithasword,sothathehadtostanduptodeliverhisblow.Standinginthestirrups,
heleftexposedtheoneunprotectedpartinhiswholearmouredbody–hisseat.Thiswasthetargetofthenimblearchersandtheyseldommissedwiththeirkeenswordsastheydodgedonlightfeetinandoutofthehorseandfootmêlée.
WellmightSirJohnFortescuesay:
‘Themightoftherealmeof
bows;FormenwhoarefreeLovetheoldyew-treeAndthelandwheretheyew-treegrows.’
MarchingSongoftheWhiteCompany
GonanDoyle
Apartfromsomeroughunfinishedstavesinthe
TowerofLondonrecovered,in1841,fromthewreckoftheMaryRosesunkin1545,andtheremainsofanearlybowdugupatBerkhamstedCastle,thoughttohavedatedfromthesiegeof1217,andnowintheBritishMuseum–thereareprobablynosurvivingspecimensofthetensofthousandsoflongbowsmadeduringtheMiddleAges.
Thereislittlereasonforanyofthemtobepreserved;itwasaweaponofthecommonman,keptinthecorneroflowlycottagesandthenonlyiffitforuse.Thewar-bowwasnotadecorationtobehungonthewallsofcastles,manorsandgreathouses,alongwiththeswords,shieldsandlancesofancestralknights.Theoldbowhadnothingsufficientlyartisticaboutitforittoform
anattractiveornamentforthewallafteritsusefullifewasover.Ifusedlongenough,everygoodboweventuallybrokeordevelopedfaultsthatmadeituselessforanythingexceptfirewood–noinferiorweaponcouldberetainedbytheEnglisharcherbecausehisverylifedependeduponitsefficiency.
Itcannotbeclaimedthatthelongbowcontributed
towardsthefoundationoftheBritishEmpire;butitmaywellhavegonealongwaytowardsdiscouragingothercountriesandpowersfromattemptingtoaddEnglandtotheirempires.Itwas,infact,simplyaprimitiveformofartillery,playingthesamepartthenasnow–softeninguptheenemytoallowtheinfantrytogettogripsunderthemostadvantageousconditions.Thereare
numerousinstancesofarchersbeingusedinmostintelligentfashiontocoverthemovementofothertroops–a‘combinedoperation’atthelandingofEnglishmen-at-armsatCadzand,in1346,enabledthemtogetcomfortablyashorewhilstthedefenderswerepinneddownbyhailsofarrowsfrommassedarchers.Intheautumnof1342RobertofArtoiswasbesiegingVannes,
thensecondcityofBrittany;afterspendingthefirstfewdaysinmakingpreparationsfortheassaultD’Artoisdelivereditearlyonemorning.Thearchersputdownwhatwouldnowbecalleda‘standingbarrage’ontothebattlements–sofierceandaccuratethat,accordingtoFroissart,thebattlementsweresoonclearedandnotanenemydaredshowhishead.Coveredbythisfire,themen-
at-armsadvancedtotheassault;butthetownactuallyfellatnightwhenafeintattackdrewdefendersfromthewallstothegates,thuspermittingsmallpartiesofEnglishtoscalethewallsandattackfromwithin.
Inthesummerof1344theEarlofDerbywasattackingthetownofBergeracinGascony,usingthefleetontheriverDordogneina
combinedland-and-waterattackonaportionofthewallclosetotheriver.Vesselswerefilledwitharchers,who,assoonasabreachhadbeenmadeinthewall,keptupsuchaheavyfirethatthegarrisondidnotdareventureintotheopentorepairit.OthersengagedinalongduelwithGenoesecrossbowmeninthetowntodrawtheirfirefromthebreach.Therangesatwhichtheseoperations
tookplacearenotknown,butthelongbowhadaneffectiverangeof200–240yards;Shakespearesays290yards(HenryIV,Part2,ActIII,Sceneii).EdwardVI’s‘Journal’statesthattheKing’sarcherscouldcompletelypierceaboardoneinchthick.
TheskillanddeadlinessoftheEnglisharcherwerenotamatterofchance;thelaw
prescribedthebow-weightswhichwereproperforyouthsofvariousages,becausetheweaponwaslittleusewithoutspecialtraining.BishopLatimerwrote:‘Myfatherwasdiligentinteachingmetoshootwiththebow;hetaughtmetodraw,tolaymybodytothebow,nottodrawwiththestrengthofthearmasothernationsdo,butwiththestrengthofthebody.Ihadmybowsboughtmeaccordingto
myageandstrength;asIincreasedinthesemybowsweremadebiggerandbigger.’Withsomuchpracticeandlegislaturetoensurethatitwascarriedout,itissmallwonderthattheyeomenofEnglandcouldpullawar-bowof100lb.ormorewitheaseandskill.Incidentally,thecontractpriceofabowin1341was–unpainted,is.;painted,1s.6d.;asheafoftwenty-four
arrowscost15.2d.andthearchersreceivedpayamountingto3d.perday.
Thewar-bowwasaboutsixfeetinlengthandusuallypulled100lb.;thestrengthofthebowwascalculatedbythepowerwherebyitrestoresitselftoitsnaturalposition,accordingtothedistancefromwhichitisremoved;herethephysicalstrengthofthearcheristhedeciding
factorintheeffectiverange.Itwasusuallyself-nocking;thatis,thenocksforthestringattopandbottomwereintegralpartsofthebowitself.Fancierbowshadhornorivorynocksfastenedtotheendsofthebowlimbs.Incross-sectionthelongbowlookedlikealetter‘D’lyingonitsback;thebellyofthebowfacedtheshooter,formedtheroundofthe‘D’,whilsttheback,facingthe
target,wasflat.Althoughfromastandpointofdesignthelongbowwaswastefulofbothwoodandenergy,theEnglishuseditwithoutthatfactbeingknown,nordoesitappeartohavedetractedfromitsefficacy.
IntothemakingofagoodEnglishlongbowwentagreatdealoffinecraftsmanship–ithadtobetaperedcorrectly,withmuchpatienceand
experience,fromthemiddletowardseachendsothatitwasbroughttoanevencurveatfulldraw.Allknotsandirregularitiesinthegrainhadtobecarefullywatchedand‘raised’orskilfullyfollowedtoeliminateweakspots.Exceptintheveryrarecaseofaperfectstave,thefinishedarticlewasaknobblylengthofwoodlackinginbeauty.Therewerenocunninglycarvedhornnocksonthe
ends,merelysimplegroovescutintothewooditselftotaketheloopsofthebowstring;therewasnovelvetorleatherpaddedgripatthecentre;nomother-of-pearlarrow-plateletintothesideofthestavewheretheshaftrestedagainstit,sothatthearrowwaspreventedfromwearingagrooveasitpassed.Thecrossbowwasanintricateandcomplicatedmechanismwithmuchmetal
workaboutit–butthelongbowwasaplain,ratheruglystick.Itwasalmostascrudeinappearanceasawoodenclubthatcouldbecutfromanytreeorhedgerow,inspiteofthecarefulworkmanshipthatwentintoit.Infinitelygreaterartistrywentintothefashioningofarrow-heads;thereareplentyofspecimenstobeseeninmuseumsbutfewcompleteshaftsremain.
TheEnglisharcherwasaccustomedtonoothersortofbowthanthatstyled‘self’orformedofasinglepiece.Whensummonedondomesticmilitaryservice,thearchers,exceptthoselivingonCrownlands,camearmedintothefield;iftheywereengagedonforeignexpeditions,thenecessaryequipmentwasprovidedatpubliccost.Thebowsthemselveswereofmany
woods.ThechroniclesseemwrongininvariablylistingbowsasbeingmadeofEnglishyew;althoughthebestwoodwasundoubtedlyyew,itcamefromtreessoughtinallthemountainouspartsofSpain,Portugal,ItalyandGermany.AtonetimeSpainhadsuppliedEnglandwithmanyoftheroughbowstavesofyew–butSpainherselfhadsufferedraidsbyEnglishbowmenunderthe
BlackPrince,whichsoaffrontedSpanishpridethatthelegendssaythatallyewtreeswerecutdownaftertheinvasionandallowedtogrownomoreforfeartheEnglishwouldcomeagain,plyingbowsofSpanishyew!AcomparativelysmallnumberofbowsweremadeofEnglishyewbecauselittleofitgrewinEngland,andthatmostlyinchurchyardsorotherenclosedplaceswhere
cattlecouldnotreachitspoisonousleaves.Englishyewwastooquick-grownandcoarse-grainedtomakeareallygoodbow;itwassoknottyanddefectivethatnopartcouldbereliedupon,exceptthatportionoftheheartprotectedbytheexteriorstratumofsapwood.Otherwoodswerealsoused,probablyforcompulsorypracticepurposes,amongthemwych-elm,ashand
hazel,buttheslow-grownmountainyewis,tothisday,thesupremewoodforthelongbowoftraditionalEnglishpattern.
Inmakingayewself-bowtheentirebuttofacleantree,insideaswellasoutside,canbeused,providedthatthestavesarenotsawnbutcleftfromtheplank.Oneoldauthorityclaimsthatthebestisthatnearesttheoutsideof
thelog,consistingofpracticallyallthelight-colouredsapwoodimmediatelyunderthebarkandonlyasmuchofthedarkerheartwoodasmaybeneeded.Thiscombinationofsapwoodandheart-woodinyewprovidesthetwoessentialproperties–thesap-woodisresistanttostretchandisthereforesuitablefortheback(theconvexsidewhenthebowisbent);and
theheartwoodresistscompressionandis,forthatreason,perfectforthebellyofthebow.Infact,theheartwoodwillnotstretchatallifbentthe‘wrong’way,butburstsimmediately.Becauseofthis,abrokenstringusuallymeantabrokenbowinthecaseofayewbow,becausethebowflewbackuncheckedbythestringtoapointbeyonditsnaturalpositionofrest.
Ascham,thepatronofthelongbow,wrote:‘Thebestcolourofabowiswhenthebackandbellyinworkingaremuchalike;foroft-timesinwearing,itproveslikevirginwaxorgold.’Inotherwords,itbecamesilky,smoothandtookafinepolish.
Sincetheoldwar-bowsweremadeinonepiecefromendtoend,theremightwellbeconsiderablechangesin
thepropertiesofthewoodinsuchasix-footlength–thethicknessofthesapwoodanddirectionofthegrainmightvary,togetherwiththeincidenceofknotsandpins.Thismeantthatverygreatskillhadtobeexercisedinshapingthelimbstoobtainequalbendinginboth.Itseemslikelythattherewastremendousdifficultyinfindinglongstavesfitforfirst-classbowsinthe
numbersrequired;theobviousinequalitiesintheseoldbowsgivingthemaveryshortlifeofusefulworkandlittlechanceofsurvivaltothepresentday.AsEnglandalonewasquiteunabletomeetthesupplyofbow-stavesdemanded,itwasnecessarytoimportthem;thisoftenmeantthattheycameinatpriceswhichputthemoutofreachoftheordinarycommonman.Tocombat
this,thegovernmentofthedayhituponacleverschemeorexpedienttorenderthemasinexpensiveaspossible.
Sincealltimberpossessesahardertextureandafinergrainwhengrowninawarmclimatethanwhenrearedinonelessgentle,thetradersandmerchantsofLombardywerecompelledtodeliveracertainquantityofforeignyewwitheverycaskofGreek
andItalianwineadmittedintotheLondoncustom-house.EdwardIV,withwhomthislaworiginated,fixedthenumberofbow-stavesatfour,butRichardIII,hissuccessor,increasedthemtotenforeachbutt.Themerchantswouldhaveyewtrees,alreadyloppedandtrimmed,conveyedtotheports,wheretheyselectedenough,ataroughguess,toequalthewineonboardandmadethem
usefulasdunnageamongthecasks.Bow-staveswerealsoimportedforcash;underRichardIIIalawwaspassedwhichcomplainedofthemendacityoftheLombardtraders,whohadcausedinflationintheprice.Formerly100staveshadbrought£2,butduetothetraders’machinationsthepricehadrisento£8.Itwastocounterpriceincreasesoriginallythatthewoodand
winelawwaspassed.
Theoldauthority,Ascham,speakingofthequalityofbows,said:‘Agoodbowisknownbytheproof.Ifyoucometoashopandseeonethatissmall,long,heavyandstrong,lyingstraightandnotwindingormarredwithknots,buythatbowonmywarrant.Theshort-grainedbowisforthemostpartbrittle.Everybowismadeof
theboughorplantofatree.Theformeriscommonlyveryknotty,small,weakandwillsoonfollowthestring.Thelatterprovethmanytimeswell,ifitbeofagoodcleangrowth;and,ifthepithisgood,itwillplyandbendbeforeitbreaks.Letthestavesbegoodandevenchosen,andafterwardswroughtasthegrainofthewoodleadethaman,orelsethebowmustbreak,andthat
soon,inshivers.Thismustbeconsideredintheroughwood.Youmustnotstickforagroatortwomorethananothermanwouldgiveforagoodbow;forsuchaonetwicepaidforisbetterthananilloneoncebroken.Thusashootermustbegin,notatthemakingofhisbowlikeabowyer,butatthebuyingofhisbowlikeanarcher.Beforehetrusthisbow,lethimtakeitintothefieldsandshoot
withdead,heavyshafts.Lookwhereitcomethmost,andprovideforthatplace,lestitpinchandsofrete.Thuswhenyouhaveshothim,andperceivegoodwoodinhim,youmusttakehimtoagoodworkman,whichshallcuthimshorteranddresshimfitter,makehimcomeroundcompasseverywhere.’
Bowstringsoftheeraweremadeofagoodgradeofflax
orlinenand,whenstrung,wereimpregnatedwithbeeswaxsoastorepelrainanddew.Thebowmanwouldwatchhisstringcarefullyandifitshowedsignsoffraying,especiallyattheloops,hescrappeditbeforeitbroke.Withagoodyewbow,abrokenstringoftenmeantabrokenbow.Sparestringswerealwayscarefullybrokeninatpractice–anewstringnevershotatfirstinthesame
wayastheoldone;archerswererequiredtocarrytwosparebowstrings.
Mostarcherscarriedtwenty-fourarrowsattheirside,intheirbeltorgirdle–inbattletheyweretakenfromthegirdleandplacedhead-firstinthegroundimmediatelyinfrontofthearcher’sposition,withineasyreachofhishand.Thearrowswereofvaryinglengthsbut
generallytheyweredescribedas‘clothyardshafts’;theywerefittedwithabarbandpointofiron,fledgedwithfeathersofgooseorpeacock.Anarrow-headfound,manyyearsafterthebattle,onthefieldofAgincourtshowedthatitwasmadespeciallytopiercearmour;theferrulebywhichtheheadwasoriginallyattachedtothewoodwasstillperfect,butitsdiameterprovedthattheshaftcould
nothavemeasuredmorethantwenty-eight,or,atthemost,thirty,inches.
InanancientActofParliamentitisstated:‘Trespedesfaciuntulnam’–(Threefeetmakeanell)–thisestablishesanidentitywiththeclothier’syardatthemostgloriousperiodinthehistoryofancientarchery.Onnoothersuppositioncantheindiscriminateuseof‘yard’
and‘ell’byhistorianswhentalkingofarrowsbejustified.AsaFlemishellmeasuredtwenty-seveninches,andamodernEnglishellforty-fiveinches,itwouldseemthatanarrowmightwellhavebeenlessthananactualyardinlength.
Thearrow-headsusedinthisgreatperiodweretippedwithlittleiron‘piles’nobroaderthantheshaftsupon
whichtheywereset.Theyweresmallheadswithabodkin-point,likeasmallcold-chisel,squareordiamondinsection,abouttwoincheslongandabouthalfaninchsquareatthewidestpoint,taperingtoasharppoint;itwasasolidchunkofironwithfourbarbsfittedtotheshaftbyashortsocket.Againstthistinyheadandtheenormous‘muzzle-velocity’behindit,chain-mailwasno
protectionanditcouldevenburstthroughplate-armourwhenasquarehitwasobtained.Butplate-armourwasmorelikelythannottodeflecttheshaft,hencethereasonforitsrapiddevelopmentafterCrécyhadimpresseduponanastoundedEuropethattheEnglishbowmanwasanewpowerwithwhichtoreckon.
Theeffectivenessofthese
arrowsisaccentuatedwhenoneconsidersthemuchlightermodernhuntingarrow,broad-headedandshotfromabowofperhaps65lb.weight;suchanarrowisquitecapableofcuttingitswayrightthroughadeerandwilleasilypenetrateathousandsheetsofpaperasusedintelephonedirectories.Whenfittedwithablunt,flat-endedcylindricalsteelhead,havingthediameteroftheshaftofthe
longbow,havingseenforhimselfhoweffectiveitcouldbewhenproperlyhandled;itspotentialitieshadbeenbroughttohisnoticebysomeoftheextremelyablesoldierswhohadfoughtforbothsidesduringthecivilwarsinthe1260’s.HeusedthetraditionalenmityoftheScotsfortheEnglishtoprovidearrowfodderforthelongbowintheexperimentinghandsoftheEnglisharchers.
TheseearlyAnglo-ScotsbattlesseemtohavemadenoimpressionupontheseresponsibleformilitaryaffairsinFrance.Whenthenowwell-triedtechniqueswereusedintheearlybattlesoftheHundredYearsWartheyseemtohavetakentheFrenchcompletelybysurprise.
FollowingtheirvictoryovertheEnglishatStirling
Bridgeon13thSeptember1297thetriumphantScotssoravagedtheEnglishbordercountiesthattheenragedEdwardwasforcedtoconcludeahastytreatywiththeKingofFranceandrushhome.HereachedEnglandinmid-March1298;instantlyhesummonedthebaronsandtheircaptainstomeethimatYorkontheFeastofPentecost.Thearmyassembled.InJuneEdward
ledhisforcesintoScotlandbytheeasternborderswiththeideaofmarchingintothewesterncountiesandcrushingtherebellionoftheScots,ashetermedtheaffair.
ThearmyhereviewedatRoxburghconsistedofEnglish,WelshandIrishinfantry,withapowerfulbodyofmailed,mountedandwell-disciplinedcavalry,theveteransofhisFrenchwars;
inadditionhehadwithhimamountedcorpsofGascons.Theyprobablynumbered10,000footandabout2,500horses.ToopposethemWilliamWallace,theScotsleader,collectedaforcelargelycomposedofarmedpeasantryorganisedasspearmenandarmedwithpikessomeelevenfeetinlength.HealsohadagroupofarchersfromtheEttrickForestandaforceofabout
500cavalryunderJohnComyn,sonoftheLordofBadenoch.TheywereconsiderablylessinnumberthantheEnglisharmy,buttheyhadgreatconfidenceintheirleader,whohadpositionedtheminaverystrongsitetoawaitbattle.
ThattheScotswereformidableopponentsisborneoutbytheverydiscerningopinionofthe
archerinConanDoyle’sbook,TheWhiteCompany:
‘“IhaveheardthattheScotsaregoodmenofwar,”saidHordleJohn.
‘“ForaxemenandforspearmenIhavenotseentheirmatch,”thearcheranswered.“Theycantravel,too,withbagofmealandgrid-ironslungtotheirsword-belt,sothatitisillto
followthem.Therearescantcropsandfewbeevesintheborderland,whereamanmustreaphisgrainwithsickleinonefistandbrownbillintheother.Ontheotherhand,theyarethesorriestarchersthatIhaveeverseen,andcannotsomuchasaimwiththearbalest,tosaynoughtofthelongbow.Again,theyaremostlypoorfolk,eventhenoblesamongthem,sothattherearefew
whocanbuyasgoodabrigandineofchainmailasthatwhichIamwearing,anditisillforthemtostandupagainstourownknights,whocarrythepriceoffiveScotchfarmsupontheirchestsandshoulders.Manforman,withequalweapons,theyareasworthyandvaliantmenascouldbefoundinthewholeofChristendom.”’
Theirpositionwasfronted
byDarnrigMoss,amarshthroughwhichnocavalrycouldpass;theflankshadbeenskilfullyprotectedbyfield-worksofwoodpalisadesdrivendeepintotheearthandropedtogether.HeretheScotsspearmenwereformedintofourgreatmasses,knownasschiltrons,ofcircularformandreadytofaceoutwardsinanydirection.Thespearmen,whenreadyforaction,wouldleveltheirlongpikesfromthe
hiptorepelcavalry;theimmediatefrontrankswouldkneelontherightknee,againstwhichthebuttofthespearwasplaced;thusabristlingwallofsharpspear-pointspresenteditselfinwhateverdirectionthecavalrymightchoosetoattack.BetweeneachoftheschiltronswasplacedabandoftheEttrickarchers,whilstthecavalryremainedcloseathandinreserve.
OnthemorningofthebattleEdwardhadtobepainfullyassistedinmountinghishorse;duringthepreviousnight,whilstsleepingwithhismenonthebareheathalongsidetheirchargers,hehadbeentroddenonbythehorse,sothatthreeribswerebroken.Patchedupbythesurgeons,helaboriouslybutresolutelymountedandshowedhimselftohistroops.Heorderedthebannerstobe
unfurled,thetrumpetstosound,andthearmyrolledforwardtowardstheforestofFalkirk.OnreachingthesummitoftheheightsofCallendar,thewholeEnglisharmyhalted;attheirfeetlaythefertilecarseofFalkirk,andthevastoakforestknownastheTorwoodstretchedawaytowherethetowersandtownofStirlingroseinthesunshine.TheriverForthflowedlikeathreadofblue
andsilverbetweenforestsinallthegloriousfoliageofsummer.Intheimmediateforeground,midwaybetweenFalkirkandtheriverofCarron,theweaponsoftheScotsarmygleamedandtwinkledinthesun’srays.
TheEnglisharmycelebratedMass,conductedbytheBishopofDurhamcladinfullarmourwithaswordbyhissideandashieldslung
athisback.Thearraythatsurroundedthemilitantchurchmanwasimpressive–thebannersborethearmsofEdward…gules,threelionspassantregardant;andthoseofSt.EdwardtheConfessor–acrossfleurybetweenfivemartletsor.Thetunicswornoverthemailshirtswereelaboratelypaintedandblazoned;thosecuriousornamentscalledailetteswerewornontheknights’
shoulders.Thebarrel-shapedhelmetsweresurmountedbytheircrests;skull-caps,sphericalandconical,werewornbytheinfantry;thelanceshadlittleemblazonedbannershangingfromtheirheads.TheScots’bannersshowedtheScottishlionrampant,andthesilvercrossofSt.Andrew;Wallacehimselfworeahelmetsurmountedwithadragoncrest.
Then,ashadbeenordered,theEnglisharmyadvancedinthreecolumnsofhorsemen,withthearchersdisposedbetweenthem.ThefirstcolumnwasledbytheEarlMarshal;thesecondbythefightingBishopofDurhamandthethirdbyEdwardinperson.Themediaevalknightseldomtookthetroubletoexaminethegroundoverwhichhewastofight,consequentlythefirst
column,ridingfuriouslyforward,dashedpell-mellintothemarsh.Theheavilyarmouredmenandhorsesflounderedwetlyinthemorass,EnglishandGasconalike,whilsttheScotsarcherspouredarrowsintothemandcausedconsiderablecasualties.Therearmostranksofthecolumn,seeingthedanger,swervedtotheirlefttofindfirmerground,then,closingtheirfiles,
crashedintotheScotsformations.Wallacelookedaroundhimandcriedloudly:
‘Now!Ihaifbrochtyetothering–hopgifyecan!’
TheunwaveringbarrierofoutstretchedspearsinthehandsofsturdyandresoluteScotsbroughttheknightsofthefirstcolumntoashudderinghalt,sothattheymilled,cavortedandplunged
acrossthefrontofthepositionastheytriedtoforcetheirwaythrough,reachingouttostrikeatthedismountedScotsbeforethem.Seeingtheerrorofthefirstcolumn,theBishopofDurham’ssecondgroupavoidedthemarshandwheeledtotherightsothattheythreatenedtheScots’leftflank.ThesmallbodyofScotscavalryeyedwithsomemisgivingstheapproachof
thisvastlysuperiormountedforceandwavered,thenafewturnedandfled,panicsetinandthewholeforcefledfromthefieldwithoutstrikingablow;adisasterlaterreputedtohavebeenduetothetreacheryoftheirleader,Comyn.
Notwithstandingthis,theScotsinfantryremainedsteadyandunbroken,presentingathreateningand
ominouslyunwaveringfront.TheexperiencedBishopsawthatthiswastheWelshhedgehogalloveragainandrealisedthatitwouldbeprudenttowaituntilthearcherscameupwiththeKing’sdivision.HehaltedhisforceandtheysatlookingatthegrimScotsformation;afterafewminutesRadultBassetdeDrayton,foratimetheEnglishgovernorofEdinburghCastle,scornfully
bellowed:
‘Sticktothymass,thouLordBishop!Weshallconductthemilitaryoperationsofthisday!’
TheBishopbridled–brandishinghissword,hecried:
‘Onthen,forthisdayweareallboundtodoourdutyasgoodsoldiers!’
Spurringhishorse,heledhiscolumnponderouslytowardstheenemy,tofallheavilyontheScotsleftwhilsttheremnantsoftheEarlMarshal’scolumnassailedtheirright.TheScottishpikemenstoodfirm,shouldertoshoulder;againcamethemilling,scufflingandplungingofinjuredhorsesasknightsbumpedandgotintoeachother’swaybutwithoutforcingtheposition
atanypoint.TheEnglishhorsemendrewback,theirhorsesbreathingheavily.Theygatheredthemselvesandchargedagain…andagain…andagain…buttheystillhadnotbrokenthroughthelevelledpikeswhentheKingcameup,leadingtheinfantryandtheremainderofthecavalryaroundtheendofthemarsh.Hetookinthesituationataglance;broughthisarchers
forwardsothattheywerewithinpoint-blankrangeoftheScotsmasses,amanoeuvremadepossiblebecausetheEttrickarcherswiththeirleader,theyoungKnightofBonhill,hadallbeenkilledorhadfledwhenriddendownbytheEnglishcavalry.
AttheKing’sorders,thearchersconcentratedtheirrainofarrowsonparticularly
stubbornpointsofScotsresistance;ahailofclothyardshaftspouredunceasinglyintotheunarmouredranksoftheScots,mercilesslybringingthemcrashingtotheground.Verysoonthe‘woodofspears’begantowaver,tobecomethinnerandlessthreateningasmanaftermandroppedtothegroundwithanarrowprojectingfromhisunprotectedbody.Desertedbytheircavalryandtheirown
archersdestroyed,theScotsinfantrylevelledtheirpikesoverabreastworkoftheirowndeadanddyingastheymadedesperateattemptstoholdtheirground.Buttheirnumberswerethinningfastandtheywerebecomingunsteady;theirmoralewaswaveringastheylostheartatthehopelessprospectoffightingagainstthehissingdeaththatcameatthemfrombeyondtheirreach.Hereand
thereamancreptawayfromtheformations,soonthetricklebecameastreamanddisorderbecameevident.
Seeingthatthemomentwasripe,Edwardthrewinthecavalryofhisowndivision;theythunderedacrossthetorngroundinasuddencharge,todashthroughthegapingranksofScotspikemenandtolumberthroughthescatteredrankslayingaboutthemwith
lance,swordandaxe.Onceinsidethepikes,therewasnothingtostoptheknights;theywallowedinadreadfulslaughteroftheirlighter-armedenemy.Fightingbravely,wieldinghisgreattwo-handedsword,Wallacesluggedhiswayfromthefieldaccompaniedbyahandfuloffaithfulfollowers.Hisarmywasshatteredandofthosewhoescapedtheshamblesmanywere
drownedcrossingtheriverCarroninheadlongflighttothenorth.
TothedefeatedScotstherewastheminuteconsolationthatbeforebeingvanquishedtheyhadcomewithinsightofvictory;themonumentalstubbornnessoftheschiltronshadprovedamatchforcavalrychargesfarmoreviolentthananythingseenintheWelshwars.Inspiteof
thefactthatarcherssupplementedbycavalryhadprovedthattheycouldbeatsuchtactics,theformationtriedoutbytheWelshandperfectedbyWallacewastobethebasicmethodofinfantryfightinguptotheearlynineteenthcenturyatWaterloo,outlastingtheheavy-armedcavalryandlongsurvivingtheintroductionoffirearms.
Falkirkwasthefirstengagementofanyrealsizeorimportanceinwhicharchers,properlysupplementedbycavalry,playedaleadingpart.SostrikingwasthedemonstrationofthedevastatingeffectofthelongbowthatnoEnglishcommandercouldfailtobeimpressedortoseethetacticallessonthathadbeensetoutbeforehim.
Chapter8
Bannockburn–1314TheBattleofBannockburnhasfiguredsomuchinlegendandstorythatitisdifficulttodisentanglewhatactuallytookplace;stillmoredifficult
todiscoveriswhereittookplace.Manyantiquarianshavelosttheirtempersoveritstrueacreage,buttheactualsiteseemstohavebeenwithintheangleofBannockburnandtheriverForth,justtothesouth-eastofStirling,intheparishofSt.Ninians.Thedetailsofthis–’themostlamentabledefeatwhichanEnglisharmyeversuffered’–aresimilarlyblurred,butoutofthe
confusionarisestheclaimthatitis…‘theonlypitchedbattleinrecordedmediaevalhistoryinwhichinfantrytotallyandoverwhelminglydefeatedcavalry’.
Inthesummerof1314KingEdwardII–thevacillatingsonofaninspiringfather–invadedScotland.RobertBrucewithdrewtotheForth,knowingthatEdwardwouldtirehistroopsand
strainhiscommissariatincrossingthewastedlandstothesouth.StirlingCastle,commandingtheonlybridgeovertheriver,wasbeingbesiegedbytheScotsandEdwardwasdeterminedtorelieveit.Hehadtomovequicklybecause,byanarrangementcommoninmediaevalwarfare,thedefendershadagreedtosurrenderifnoreliefarrivedbymidsummer’sday.
BrucegavealotofthoughttohisselectionofapositiononwhichtogivebattletothenumericallysuperiorEnglish.Hehadtobearinmindhisgreatdeficiencyofcavalry,thosefewhehad,bothinnumbersandaccoutrements,beingtotallyunfittedtocopewiththeEnglishmen-at-arms.BothfromhisownexperienceandthatofWallace,hewasawarethatabodyofScotsinfantry,when
armedwiththeirlengthypikesandjudiciouslyposted,couldeffectivelyresistallchargesofcavalry.ThepieceofgroundthatBruceselectedwasthenknownastheNewPark,partlyopenandpartlyencumberedwithtrees;ononesideitwasprotectedbyamorass,theNewmilnBog,thepassageofwhichheknewtobedifficultanddangerous.Inhisrearlayalittlevalleyabovewhichrosealong
greenridge,nowknownastheGilliesHill,forthereuponwereallhiscamp-followersandbaggage.
Brucereceivedtidingsonthe22ndofJune1314thattheEnglishwereadvancingfromEdinburgh.Heimmediatelymarchedhismen,about8,000inall,fromtheTorwoodtothepositionsthathehadassignedtothemlessthantwodaysbefore.He
formedtheminfourcolumnsofdivisions,apartfromeachotheryetnearenoughtokeepintouch.TherightcolumnwascommandedbyhisbrotherEdward;theleftbyDouglasandtheyoungStewardofScotland;thecentrebyThomasRandolph,theveteranEarlofMoray;andthereserveorfourthcolumnwascommandedbyBrucehimself.Hehadasmallbodyofcavalry,under
SirRobertKeith,theMareschalofScotland;tothemheassignedtheimportantandspecificdutyofattackingand,ifpossible,dispersingtheEnglisharchers.
TheScotsdispositionshadbeenmadetomeetanattackalongtheoldRomanroadwhichranfromFalkirktoStirling;thismeantthatBruce’sthreecolumnswere
facingsouth-east,thedirectionbywhichheexpectedtheEnglishtoapproach.TheScotswereinalineextendingfromthebrook,or‘burn’,calledtheBannock,tothevillageofSt.Ninian.Therightwingwasprotectedbymeansofpitsdugwherethegroundwasfirm,aboutthreefeetdeepwithastakeineach,lightlycoveredwithsodsandbranches.Ironcalthrops–
triangularmetalpiecesconstructedinsuchamannerthatapointsticksthreateninglyupwardswhilsttheotherpointsrestontheground–werestrewnoverareaswherecavalrymightbeexpectedtocharge,sothattheirhorseswouldbelamedbythesharppoints.
Edward’sarmymovedthroughoutthemorningandearlyafternoonof23rdJune,
beingalreadywearywhentheycameintotheScots’sightastheydebouchedfromthevastwoodwhichthenstretchedawaytowardsFalkirk.TheJunesunshinefellbrightlyontheirburnishedarms,innumerablewhitebannerswereflutteringintheslightbreezeandtheparticolouredpennonsoftheknightsfloatedabovetheglitteringcolumnslikeavividsea.Edwardobviously
consideredthathisfirstobjectivewastocontactStirlingCastleinforce,sothathecouldreleaseitscommander,SirRobertMowbray,fromhispromiseofsurrender.Thatdone,thegarrisoncouldthen,withoutdishonour,makeasortieontheScottishleftwing.Toaccomplishthetask,Edwardsentforwardaforceofabout500cavalryunderSirRobertClifford;theymadeagreat
circuitbythelowgroundsborderingontheForthandhadactuallypassedtheScots’leftbeforeBrucedetectedtheglitteroftheirspearsandarmourarisingthroughthelonglineofdustthatrollednorthwardinthedirectionofStirling.ItisnotclearwhethertheEnglishforcecameupagainsttheScotsdefencesorwhetherBrucesentoutastrongpartytocounterthem;butitdoes
seemapparentthatthecavalrywererepelledbytheScottishspearmenandsentreelingbackincompletedisorder,horsesgallopinginalldirectionswithemptysaddles.
Whilstthisaffairtookplace,theEnglishvanguardwerestillsteadilyadvancing,butyetsodistantthatBruce,whohadnotmountedhisbattle-charger,wasstillriding
alonghislinemountedonasmallhackney,toseethatallwereintheirplaces.Hecarriedabattleaxeinhishand,andworeagoldencrownuponhishelmetthusshowingtoallthathewastheKing.FromtheEnglishvanguardtherecamegalloping‘awychtknichtandhardy’namedSirHenrydeBohun,whobravelyconceivedtheideaofterminatingthestrifeatonce
andcoveringhimselfwithhonour.Couchinghislance,herodefuriouslyattheKing.
Armedatallpointsandmoreheavilymounted,theencounterwasmostunequalbutBrucedidnotdeclineit,androdeforwardtomeethiminfullcareer.Justastheywereabouttocloseheswervedhishackneyround,andasdeBohun’slancepassedharmlessly,heclove
hisheadandhelmetintwainwithoneblowofhisbattle-axe,andlaidhimdeadathisfeet.Theweaponwasshiveredbytheviolenceofthestroke;andtothosewhoblamedhimforhistemerity,Brucerepliedsimply:
‘Ihavebrokenmygoodbattle-axe.’
Easilydiscouraged,Edwardnowdecidedtotryto
outflanktheScots,turningtheirpositionundercoverofdarkness.SotheEnglishspentthenightof23rd/24thJunefollowingthecourseofthelittleriverBannock,whichjoinstheForthafewmilesbelowStirling,andcrossingitinthemarshflatsbetweenBannockburnvillageandCrookbridge.Inthefourteenthcenturythisareawasextremelywetandmarshy,makingitavery
difficultpassageforheavycavalry;the20,000heavilyarmedmenofEdward’sarmyspentallnightlaboriouslycrossingthestream.ThesunrisesearlyonmidsummerdayinScotlandanddaybreakfoundtheEnglishhostadisorganisedmassmillingaboutonthemarshyflatsbelowSt.Ninian’sChurch.ThemainEnglishbodywasacrossthestreambutnotyetformedupforbattle;onlythe
vanguardundertheDukeofGloucesterhadmanagedtogetintoanysortoforder.
Theyweregivennotimetoorganise;Brucesawthatthiswastheoneoccasioninathousandwhenhispikemencould,inattack,bemorethanamatchforEdward’scavalry.Rapidlyfacinghisarmytothenewfront,helaunchedthemdowntheslightslopeinechelonofschiltrons.Inthe
whitelightoftheearlymorningthestillflounderingEnglishcavalrysuddenlybecameawareofthephalanxesofpikesthreateninglyinmotionandbearingdownuponthem.Beforetheycouldgatherthemselves,thefootmencrashedheavilyintothewallowingmassofmenandhorses;thegreatclashofmenandarmsatthefirstshockwassaidtohavebeenheard
oversomedistance.Theattackhadadevastatingeffect,manyofthecavalrywereimmediatelyunhorsedtorollhelplesslyontheground,whiletheirhorses,stabbedandmaddenedwithwounds,plunged,rearedandbolted,tospreadconfusiontotherear.
Warnedbythenoise,someoftheEnglisharchersnimblyranforwardtoapositionon
therightflankoftheaffray,gettingtheirunarmouredpersonsoutoftroubleandalsocausingcasualtiesinthemassedScotsranks.Forashorttimetheyfiredunchecked,theirarrowscarvingtheusualdeadlygapsinthehithertosteadyScotsranks.SadexperiencehadalreadywarnedtheScotsthatthismightoccur;themountedforceunderSirRobertKeith,thathadbeenreservedforthis
verypurposebyBruce,cameswiftlyroundthefringesofthemorassandthunderedintothelightlycladarchers.Lackingspearsorotherlongweaponsandwithoutanyheavysupport,thearcherswereimmediatelyoverthrownastheyhuddledtogether;soontheyhadbeencutdownordispersedinalldirections,furtheraddingtothedisorderthatwasnowturningtheEnglisharmyintoan
undisciplinedrabble.Seeingwhathadhappened,otherEnglisharchersfearedtomovetotheflanksandtriedtomaketheirpresencefeltbyfiringfromtherear,buttheirflightsofarrows,dischargedovertheheadsoftheirowntroopsagainsttargetsoutoftheirsight,didlittledamagetotheScotsandprobablyfarmoretothestrugglingEnglishcavalry.
BattleofBannockburn24thJune1314
ThebattledevelopedintoaconfusedmêléebetweenBruce’sspearmenandtheEnglishmen-at-arms;thehugemassesofhorseandfootstoodlockedtogether.TheEnglishcavalrytrieddesperatelytoextricatethemselvesbutwerequite
unabletofindsufficientspacetodrawoutandchargebackin.FreshknightscomingupfromEdward’smainbodycouldonlymakepartialandineffectivechargesinsmallbodies,effortswhichfailedutterlytobreakdownthelineofpikes,whichcauseddreadfulcasualtiestothecavalry.Theairwasfilledwiththedinofwar,theclangofarms,theshoutingofwarcries;horsesran
masterless,bannersalternatelyroseandsankwhilethegroundranwithbloodamidtheshredsofarmour,brokenspears,pennonsandrichtrappingstornandsoiledwithbloodandmuddyclay.
TheScotswerepressinghardonthewaveringmassesoftheEnglish,whoserearranksfounditimpossibletogetupandintothefray;they
stoodhelplesswhilsttheircomradesweremowndown.ThentheEnglishlinebegantogiveway,tofalter;thegapsbecamelargerastheexhaustedanddispiritedmenlookedwildlyaboutthemandwavered.Suddenly,likeadambeforeatidalwave,itbrokecompletely.Themenwhohadnotfallenonthepikesturnedandfledindisorder.Thepanicwascontagious,affectingthose
behindthemwhohadnotevenhadtheopportunityofliftingtheirarmtomakeawarlikestroke;theystaredhopelesslyatthefleeingfrontranksandthenturnedtoflywiththem,runningfortheirlivesuntilthedefeatbecamearout.BehindthemlaythemarshybanksoftheBannockburnandthebroadreachesoftheriverForth–theyhadnoeasyroadtofreedom.Soon,thenarrow
ravineoftheburnwasliterallychokedandbridgedoverbytheslain;theypiledupattheobstacleitpresenteduntil,coupledwiththedifficultnatureoftheground,whichheldupthefugitivehorsemen,theScottishspearmenwereuponthem.Many,interror,dashedtheirmountsintotheriverForthwheretheydrownedmiserably.
Leavingtheremnantsofhisarmytotheirfate,EdwardeludedcapturebytakingacircuitousroutewhichledhimpastStirlingCastle;hereheaskedforshelter,buttheGovernorrefusedtoadmithimandshortlyafterwardssurrenderedthecastleashehadpromised.ThedefeatedKingstruggledonuntilhereachedthecastleofDunbar,wherehewashospitablyreceivedbytheEarlof
March.ComparedwiththeslightlossesoftheScots,theEnglisharmyhadlostanenormousnumberofmen.Thelessonstandingoutforalltolearnwasthatcavalry,nomatterhowbraveordetermined,cannotdefeatsteadypikemen,unlessthehorsemenaresupportedbyarchers,who,intheirturn,areworthlesswithoutthebackingofheavytroops.Bannockburnwasan
exceptionalreversetotheusualandfastdevelopingsuccessfulmethodsoftheEnglish,butitwasabattlelostbyunskilful,almostinsane,generalshipratherthanbyfailingtousethetacticsthathadbroughtvictoryatFalkirk.
Chapter9
HalidonHill–1333WiththenotableexceptionofBannockburn,forthetwocenturiesthatfollowedtheBattleofFalkirk,itscharacteristicswerealmost
monotonouslyrepeatedwheneverScotsandEnglishmetinbattle.OnlyinsmallerforaysdidtheScotsleaders,inthesamewayastheWelshbeforethem,managetoevadeanddrawtheenemyintotheirunknownanddifficultcountrysothattheirunmountedspearmencouldbringdisastertotheheavilyarmouredEnglishknight.Withthesealmostinsignificantexceptions,the
battlesofHalidonHill,Neville’sCross,HomildonandFloddenwereallvariationsonthesametheme.Thesteadybutslow-movingmassesoftheScottishinfantryfellasacrificetotheirownpersistentbraveryastheystaggeredforwardinvainattemptstoreachthewell-chosenpositionlinedbyarcher-flankedmen-at-arms.TheEnglishbowmanmightwellboastthathecarried
twelveScotslivesathisgirdle;hehadbuttolaunchhisshaftintotheeasytargetpresentedbythegreatsurgingmassofpikemenanditwascertaintododreadfulexecution.
In1333KingEdwardIIIofEnglanddecidedtoaidEdwardBaliolinhisattempttowresttheCrownofScotlandfromtheyoungKingDavidII,aminorwho
ruledwiththeaidofaRegent.ThecaptureandreductionofthetownofBerwickwasEdward’sfirstobjective;withapowerfularmyhelaidsiegetothetown,investingitbylandandsea.FollowingtheslaughterofanumberofScotshostagesbeforethewallsofthetown,theGovernor,SirWilliamKeith,gaveoneoftheconditionalsurrenderpromisescharacteristicofthe
time.Heagreedunconditionallytosurrenderbeforethehourofvespersonthe19thofJulyunlesstheScots,inthemeantime,couldreinforcethegarrisonwith200men-at-arms,ordefeattheEnglishinapitchedbattle.Topreventthelossofthisimportantfrontiertown,theScottisharmy,undertheRegent,crossedtheTweedonthe18thofJulyandencampedatDunsePark,a
fewmilesnorthofBerwick.
TheScotsleader–ArchibaldDouglas,LordofGalloway–wasabravemanbutanimprudentleader.HehadheardbutfailedtoobservethedyingadviceofKingRobert:‘…thefateofthekingdomshouldnever,ifpossible,dependuponthedoubtfulissueofageneralengagement.’Douglasdeterminedonjustsucha
courseofaction,apparentlyconfidentthatbothheandhisarmywouldbevictorious.HefoundtheEnglishstronglypositionedonthecrestofaneminencecalledHalidonHill,situatedtothewestwardofthetownofBerwick.LittleisknownofthespecificnatureoftheEnglishpositionortheirdispositions,savethatBaliolcommandedoneofthewingsandthatamarshyhollowlayinfrontoftheir
line.
ThefirstofthefourcolumnsintowhichtheScottisharmywasdividedwasledbyJohn,EarlofMoray,assistedbyJohnandSimonFraserofOliverCastle;thesecondbytheStewardofScotland,aboyofsixteenyearsbutassistedbyhisuncle,SirJamesStewart;thethirdwasledbyDouglashimself,havingwithhimthe
EarlofCarrick,andthefourthcolumn,inreserve,wasledbyHugh,EarlofRoss.ThenumericalstrengthoftheScotsarmyisvariouslyrecordedbythehistorians.ItisbelievedtohavebeenlargerthantheEnglish,andtheContinuatorofHemingford,acontemporarychronicler,givesitas14,655fightingmen.Theseconsistedof55knights,1,100mountedmen-at-arms,and13,500
lightlyarmedfootsoldiers.
Itwasnoononthe19thofJuly1333whenthisforcemovedforwardtodecidethefateofBerwick,andpossiblyScotland.Theyreceivedanearlyset-backwhentheycameuptotheEnglishposition,findingthatitwaspostedinsuchawayastobeimpossibletoattackwithcavalry.ThewholeoftheScottishknightsandmen-at-
armsthereforedismounted,senttheirhorsestotherearwiththeirpagesandpreparedtofightonfoot.Theorderwasgiventoadvanceandtheforceponderouslylurchedforward;uptheslopeofHalidonHilltheyplodded,headsdownandshelteredbytheirupraisedforwardshoulder.NeverthelesstheywereseverelygalledbythefiercefireoftheEnglisharchers.Inspiteofthis,they
managedtoreachthemarsh,spreadingbeforetheEnglishpositionwithoutlosingtheirorder,butherethedisastersofthedaybegan.Thesoft,boggygroundexacteditstollupontheheavilycladmen,impedingthemandslowingthemdownsothatthestrongerpressedforwardandtheweakerlaggedbackandtheranksbecamebroken.Allthetime,withoutcessation,thearcherspouredintheir
volleysfromthecrestofthehill;theyfiredwithcertainaimandfataleffectatsuchcloserange.Anancientwriter,quotedbyTytler,says:‘Thesearrowsflewasthickasmotesinthesunbeam.’
ThestrugglingScotsbegantofallintheirdozens,scoresandthenhundreds;butthestill-strongsurvivorsbattledtheirwaythroughthemarshtostrugglelaboriouslyand
wearilyforward.Theirlongpikesheldinfrontofthem,levelledpointsunwavering,theygainedencouragementfromthenow-nearnessoftheEnglish.Musteringtheirstrength,theymadeafuriousuphillcharge.Theimpactwasnoisyandbreathtaking,sofuriouswasitthattheEnglishlinemomentarilywaveredandsteppedback.Itwas,however,onlyasiftheyhadsteppedbackinadmirationof
thestrengthandcourageoftheScots,whomtheynowfoundtobebreathlessanddisorderedbytheirclimbandstrugglethroughthemarshsothattheirfightingwasbutbrieflyfierceandspasmodic.Theill-fatedandill-ledScotswereunabletosustaintheirinitialimpetusandinashortandsharpstrugglewereremorselesslybornebackinaslowpageantofdesperatelystrugglingmen,tobefinally
forcedbackintothedeadlyembraceofthecloyingmarsh.
TheEarlofRossledthereservetoattackthewingoftheEnglisharmyledbyBaliol,buthewassoonkilledandtheattackpeteredout.Fightinginthevan,Douglasreceivedamortalwoundandwascaptured,togetherwiththeEarlsofSutherlandandMonteith.TheScotsnow
werebeginningtogivewayonallsides;tomakemattersworse,thepagesatthefootofthehill,seeingthedaygoingagainsttheirmasters,panickedandfledwiththehorses;thewearyknightsandmen-at-armsnowhadnomeansofescapeastheyweretoospenttorunfarintheirarmour.Thismeantthatveryfewofthenoblesormen-at-armsescapedinthebloodypursuitthatfollowed;itonly
endedwhen4,000ormoreScotslaydeadontheslopesofHalidonHillandinthefieldsaroundit.EnglishhistoriansofthedayclaimthattheEnglishlostonlyoneknight,oneesquireandtwelvefootsoldiers.
‘Norwillthisappearincredible,’saidLordHailes,‘whenitisrememberedthattheEnglishranksremainedunbrokenandthattheir
archers,atasecuredistance,incessantlyannoyedtheScottishinfantry.’
ThetownandcastleofBerwicksurrenderedonthe20thofMay,accordingtotheagreement.
AfterthedusthaddieddownatBannockburn,nineteenyearsbefore,itwasrealisedthatitneedneverhavebeensuchadreadful
defeat;thattheEnglishpossessedthetacticalcombinationtodestroytheadvanceoftheScottishspearmen.IntheyearsbetweenBannockburnandCrécytherewasadecisivedifference,adifferenceablyexploitedatHalidonHill.Itwasatacticthatutilisedtheoldmethodofreceivingtheenemy’sattackbydismountedmen-at-armsdrawnuptoexploitthe
advantagesofmassanddensity,coupledwiththeinnovationofhavingarchersdrawnupontheflankstoinflictmaximumdamageontheadvancingenemybeforehecouldcometogrips.Asearlyas1322,AndrewHarcia,fightingforEdwardII,hadusedarchersanddismountedmen-at-armswhendisputingthepassageoftheriverUrewithThomasofLancasterandtheEarlof
Hereford.TenyearslaterEdwardBaliol,invadingScotlandtoclaimthethrone,stoodonthedefenceonDupplinMoor;theshootingofhisarchersfromtheflanksenabledhisdismountedcentretowintheday.HalidonHill,in1333,gaveEdwardIIItheopportunityofpractisingthesametacticsbutwithgreaterelaboration;theKingwassoldierenoughtoknowwhathehadathis
disposal.
Themeanshadbeendevisedtooverthrowtheschiltrons–iftheScottishspearmenstoodfirmtheyweredecimatedbyarcheryuntiltheEnglishmen-at-armscameintotheassault.
IftheScotsattackedtheywerebeatenbydismountedmen-at-arms,flankedbyarchers.Intheseearlyyears
ofEdwardIIItheessentialmilitaryconditionsofsuccessintheHundredYearsWar,bothintacticsandinorganisation,hadalreadybeenprepared.
Chapter10
TheArcheratSea:Sluys–1340TheEnglishvictoriesovertheScotsseemtohavemadenoimpressionwhatsoeverupon
thoseresponsibleformilitaryaffairsinFrance.AsthoughtogivetheFrenchalastchanceofassessingthenewEnglishtacticsbyparadingbeforetheminvictorythearchers,thebackboneofthesuccessfulmethods,theopeningnotesofthelongAnglo-Frenchconflictrangoutfirstoverwater.PhilipofFrancewaswellawareofEdward’sdesignsonhisthroneand,aspartofhis
preparations,hegatheredtogetheralargefleetofNormanandGenoeseships-of-war.TheseheassembledinSluysharbour,fromwheretheycouldemergetocutcommunicationswiththeEnglishfleetwhentheymadeforAntwerporportsofFlanders.
Hearingofthis,Edwardcollectedfromportsbothinthenorthandsouthofhis
kingdomafleettofacetheFrench;numbersonbothsidesaregreatlyatvarianceinthedifferentchronicles,somegoingsofarastostatethattheFrenchhad400vesselstotheEnglish260sail–atleasttheproportionatesizesareprobablycorrect!EdwardinpersoncommandedtheEnglishfleet,whichwasfoughtby4,000men-at-armsand12,000archers–largenumbersof
menforthetime.TheEnglishappearedoffSluysonthe24thofJune1340;theyenteredtheharbourataboutnoonwhenthetidewashigh,toseetheFrenchshipsinfourlines,boundandclampedtogetherwithropesandchainstoformfourgiganticfloatingplatforms.Seabattles,beingcontestedbylandarmies,hadtohavebattlefields.
Edwarddisplayedthatgeniusfortheartofwarwhichalwayscharacterisedhim,givingthenecessaryordersandforminghislinesasifhehadbeenbredtothesea.TheEnglishshipsformedintotwolines,thefirstconsistingofthelargestandstoutestshipstobearthebruntoftheencounter,eachalternateshipbeingfilledwitharchers,supportedbymen-at-arms.Thesecondline
wasalmostareserve,tobedrawnuponifnecessary.TheEnglishline-upwasliterallya‘Crécy-formation’onthehighseas.
EachEnglishvesselclampeditselfbygrappling-ironstoitsoppositeFrenchnumber,untiltheharbourresembledavastfloatingraftoffightingships.Atsuchcloserangethearchershad‘sittingtargets’andtheir
arrowswhirredinadeadlysleetamongthemassedranksontheFrenchdecks.Thebowmenwereshootingatarangewhichwassoshortastoenableaclothyardshafttopiercethroughmailcoatsortransfixashield,evenifitwereaninchthick.Whentheyclosedatfirst,theEnglishcouldseetheFrenchships’deckscrowdedwithmassedfigures,wavingarms,exultantfaces;inafew
minutesithadbeenreplacedwithablood-soakedshambles,withbodiespiledthree-deepuponeachother,thelivingcoweringbehindthedeadtoshelterthemselvesfromthesuddenstorm-blastofdeath.Withtheenemydeadpiledhigh,theEnglishmen-at-armswarilyclamberedacrossthegapbetweenthevesselsandontotheFrenchdecks,tominglewiththeenemysoclosely
thatitwasimpossibleforthearcherstodrawstringtohelpthem.Itwasawildchaoswhereaxeandswordroseandfell,daggerandpikelungedandpiercedhome;EnglishmanandFrenchmanstaggeredandslippedondeckscumberedwithbodiesandslipperywithblood.Theclangofblows,thecriesofthestricken,theshortdeepshoutsofthemen-at-armsandthearchers,whohad
droppedtheirbowsandenteredthemêléewithswordsandmauls,rosetogetherinadeafeningtumult.Remorselessly,theEnglishmen-at-armscarriedontheslaughterbegunbythearchers,slowlybutdecidedlytheypushedtheiropponentsacrossthetreacherousdecks,stepbystep,untiltheyplummetedintotheseabelow–tosinklikestonesintheirarmour.Othersrushedwith
wildscreamsandcurses,divingunderthesails,crouchingbehindbooms,huddlingintocornerslikerabbitswhentheferretsareuponthem,ashelplessandashopeless.Theyweresterndays,andtheordinarysoldier,toopoorforaransom,hadnoprospectofmercyuponthebattlefield,evenwhenitwasatsea.
Onlytherearsquadronof
twenty-fourFrenchshipsescaped,theremainderbeingcapturedordestroyed.Edwardpersonallyclaimedthat30,000Frenchhadbeenkilled,butamorereasonableestimatewouldbesomethinglike10,000or12,000;theEnglishlostabout4,000andonegreatship,agalleyfromHull,wassunkwithallhandsbyashowerofstones,asomewhatsingularbroadsidebutcommoninthosedays.
Edwardkeptatseaforthreedayswithallhisbannersflying,toputhisvictorybeyondalldispute.ItisrecordedthatonlyonemaninFrancedaredtellKingPhiliptheterriblestoryofthelossofhisfleet–thecourtbuffoon,whoexercisedthetraditionallicencegiventothefool.ComingintotheKing’spresenceinanapparentpassion,heexclaimed:‘Cowardly
Englishmen!Dastardly,faint-heartedEnglishmen!’Philipenquiredwhyhesocalledthem.‘Because,’repliedthejester,‘theydurstnotleapoutoftheirshipsintothesea,asthebraveFrenchmendid!’
‘ThenameofEdwardIII,’saysSirHarryNicolas,‘ismoreidentifiedwiththenavalgloryofEnglandthanofanyotherofhersovereigns;forthoughthesagaciousAlfred
andthechivalrousRichardcommandedfleetsanddefeatedtheenemyatsea,Edwardgainedinhisownpersontwosignalvictories,fightingononeoccasionuntilhisshipactuallysankunderhim,andwasrewardedbyhissubjectswiththeproudesttitleeverconferredonaBritishmonarch–”KingoftheSea”.’
ThevictoryatSluysseems
tohavesoraisedtheardouroftheEnglishparliamentthattheywereeagerfortheprosecutionofthewarandgaveEdwardeverypossibleaid.
AnotherforetasteofwhatwastocomeoccurredwhenEdwardsentSirWalterMannywithasmallforcetoraidtheFlemishislandofCadzand;thiswasareprisalforaFrenchraidon
PortsmouthandtheSouthCoast.Thereisquiteamodernflavouraboutthissmallactioninwhichthearcherswereusedas‘artillery’tocoveraninfantrylanding.Froissartwrites:‘Thearcherswereorderedtodrawtheirbowsstiffandstronggoandsetuptheirshouts;uponwhichthosewhoguardedthehavenwereforcedtoretire,whethertheywouldornot,forthefirst
dischargedidgreatmischief,andmanyweremaimedorhurt.’Landingundercoverofthearrow-barrage,theinfantrythenformedupinlinewiththearchersmassedintwobastionsattheendsoftheline.Thislater-to-become-familiarformationachievedasignalsuccessandthearchershadusheredinthelong,longwar.
Chapter11
Morlaix–1342ThelongbowhadasyetbeenemployedprincipallyindefensivewarfareandagainstanenemyinferiorincavalrytotheEnglish.Butwhen
EdwardIIIledhisinvadingforceintoFrancetheconditionsofwarwereentirelychangedfortheEnglish.Nowtheywereupagainstacountrytobeinvariablysuperiorinthenumbersoftheirhorsemen,sowhilethetacticsofthearcherweretoremaindefensive,theyalsohadtobevariedtomeetthenewthreat.Buttheyeomanwithhislongbowwassoontofindthat
thechargingsquadronpresentedanevenbettermarkforhisshaftthanthestationarymassofinfantryformedbytheScotsschiltron.AtthebeginningoftheHundredYearsWar,intheearly1340’s,theContinentalworldhadnotyetlearnedthatitwasalmosthopelessforcavalrytotrytoforce,inafrontalattack,apositiondefendedbymen-at-armssupportedontheirflankby
archers.
TheFrenchhadlearnednothingfromwhathadalreadytranspiredinScotlandandatSluysandCadzand;infacttheylearnednothingfromthebattlesthatweretofollowandwerestillmakingthesamemistakeseightyyearslater!Whenthenowwell-triedtechniquewasusedinabattlenearMorlaixin1342,afewyearsbefore
Crécy,itseemstohavetakentheFrenchcompletelybysurprise,asitdidashortspaceoffouryearslateronthefatalfieldofCrécy.
MorlaixwasthefirstpitchedlandbattleoftheHundredYearsWar;itprovedthatBannockburnandHalidonHillhadtaughttheEnglishsomething.InfactHalidonHillformedtheprototypeforMorlaixandall
theothergreatbattlesofthewar–exceptthelast.TheEarlofNorthampton,withanarmyofabout3,000,wasbesiegingMorlaixinSeptember1342;hewassuddenlythreatenedbyarelievingarmyofbetween15,000and20,000underCharlesdeBlois.RealisingthathemustnotpermithisarmytobecaughtbetweenCharlesontheonesideandthetownontheother,
Northamptonmarchedouttofindasuitablepositioninwhichhecouldacceptbattle.Hewaslookingforaridgeorhillwhichwouldallowofapositionwithaforwardslopegivingalongviewtothefront,preferablystridingtheroaduponwhichtheenemywasexpectedtoapproach.Ifhehadawoodinhisrear,thenitwasideal,forthepositioncouldnotbeeffectivelyflankedbycavalry
andthewoodwasausefulbaggage-park.
OntheroadtoLanmeur,aboutfourmilesfromMorlaix,hefoundwhathesought–apositionastridetheroadonthebeginningofagentleslopeintoadipabout300yardsinfront,withawoodimmediatelyinrearoftheposition.TheEnglishline,about600yardsinlength,wasabout50yardsinfrontof
thiswood,withatrenchdugabout100yardsfromthewood.Takingalessonfromthe‘pots’oftheScotsatBannockburn,theEnglishcoveredthetrenchwithgrasssothatitservedasabooby-trapfortheenemyhorsemen.TheEnglishmen-at-armsweredismountedandinthecentreoftheline,withthearchersstationedontheflanks.TheCountofBloisdrewuphisarmyinthree
hugecolumns,onebehindtheotherwithaspacebetweeneach;theleadingcolumn,formedoflocallevies,beingdismounted.
TheFrenchadvancedstraightdownthehill,intotheslightdipanduptheothersidetowardsthewaitingEnglish.Assoonastheywerewithinrange,thecolumnwassentreelingbackdownthehillbyahailofarrows;they
didnotevenreachthehiddentrench.Thesecondcolumn,ofmountedmen,werelaunchedattheEnglish;theyrodeforwardcolourfully,impetuouslyandunsuspectingly,toplungeintothehiddentrenchinatangledconfusionofhorsesandmen.Heretheywerebedevilledanddistractedbyarrowsastheytriedtosortthemselvesoutandgetbackintosomesortoforder;buttheattack
hadlostitsmomentum,ithadcometoahalt.Withtheexceptionofabout200horsemenwhodidgoforwardandreachtheEnglishline,tobekilledorcaptured,thesecondattackdribbledback.
Nowapauseensued,whilsttheFrenchlickedtheirwoundsandconsideredtheirnextcourseofaction.Northamptonprayedthattheywouldretreat,buttohis
dismaytheyshowednosignsofthisandhecouldseetheirthirdcolumn,biggerthanhiswholearmy,drawnupontheridgefacinghim.TheEnglishcommanderknewthathewasstillinperilalthoughhehadalreadyrepulsedtwocolumnseachgreaterthanhisownsmallforce.Moreworrying,hisarchersweredesperatelyshortofarrowsandhadnofurthersourceofsupply.Thethirdcolumnshowedsignsof
movement,itbeganponderouslytolurchforward.TheEnglishmurmuredinapprehension–theycouldseethatthebatteredandalmostfilled-intrenchwouldbeoflittleaidtothemonthisoccasion.Moreover,theFrenchmasswaslargeenoughtoextendbeyondtheEnglishflanksandsothreatenthepositionfromthesides.
Northamptoncourageously
decideduponamanoeuvrealmostunprecedentedfortheera:hewithdrewhisforceinorderbackintotheshelterofthewoodsothattheyformedahedgehogordefensivelinealongtheedgesofthetrees,facingineachdirection.ReservingtheirscantyammunitionuntiltheFrenchcameclose,theEnglishmanagedtopreventthemfrompenetratingtheirnewpositionatanypoint.
Marksmanshipwastheorderofthedayandthedroningofmassedarrowswasreplacedbysingle‘whirrs’asindividualshaftsfoundtheirmarksand,withacrash,aFrenchman-at-armswouldcollapsefromhisstartledhorse.
Nightwasapproaching,andtheCountdeBlois,discouragedandwithhismendesertingonallsides,began
towithdrawslowlybacktoLanmeur.Seeingthis,Northamptongatheredtogetherhissmallbandand,inadefensiveformation,leftthewoodtoreturntothesiegeofMorlaix.Hehadthegreatsatisfactionofknowingthathehadachievedhispurposeofsettingtoflighttherelievingarmy,althoughitoutnumberedhimbyfourorfivetoone.But,morethanthat,hehadperpetuated,
knowinglyitmustbeassumed,futuretacticsfromthelessonslearnedatBannockburnandHalidonHill–themen-at-armsfightingdismounted,thetrenchinfrontforminganobstacle(amarshatHalidon);thedefensivepositiononaridge,theskilfuluseofthearcher’sfire-powerinco-operationwithsupportingheavytroops.Allthesefactorsco-ordinatedtodefeat
themountedattack,togethermakingnotableabattleclaimedbythosewhofoughtinthemalltohavebeenevenmoredesperatelycontestedthanHalidonHill,CrécyorPoitiers.
ThedefeatedCharlesdeBloisisagainencounteredinJune1346,when,withaforcegreatlysuperiorinnumbers,hecameupwithSirThomasDagworth’ssmallarmyatSt.
PoldeLéon,north-westofMorlaix,on9thJune1346.AsatMorlaixfouryearspreviouslythefirstattackofCharleswasrepulsed,thenhissecondlinecameintooverlapthetinyEnglishforceonthreesides.TheEnglishheldtheirgroundandpouredinsuchdeadlyhailsofarrowsthattheFrenchweresentreelingback;afteralittleofthistheyfledfromthefield.Thereisnorecordthat
Charleswasdismayedbythedisastrousrepetition,thefurtherexhibitionofthepoweroftheEnglishlongbowcomingjustintimetoaddtothemoraleandprestigeofthearchersatCrécy.
SiegeofMortagne.FromChroniqued’Angleterre(c.167-87)byJeanWavrin.
EdwardIII,Electrotypefromthegiltcoppertombeffigy(c.1377–80)afterthewax
funeraleffigyinWestminsterAbbey.NationalPortrait
Gallery.
EffigyoftheBlackPrince(d.1376),ChapelofSt.Thomas
Becket,CanterburyCathedral.Thelimbsare
enclosedinplatearmour;thesurcoatdisplaysthefleur-de-lisofFranceandthelionsof
England.
JohnLordMontacutewhofoughtatCrécy.FromhismonumentinthenaveofSalisburyCathedral.
Ralph,Neville,EarlofWestmorland,whofoughtat
Agincourt.FromhismonumentinStaindropChurch,Durham.
TiltinghelmetbytraditionwornbyHenryVat
Agincourt,flankedbyhissaddleandshield,boughtfortheKing’sfuneralin1422.FromtheChantryChapel,WestminsterAbbey.
WallaceCollection
Abascinet–theheadpiece,parexcellence,ofthe
HundredYearsWar–shownwithandwithoutitsvisor.Thepointedapextothe
helmetwasdesignedtoofferaglancingsurfacetoablow.
YewbowfoundduringtheexcavationsatBerkhamsted.Itisfourfeetlonganddatesbacktothetimeofthe
HundredYearsWar.BritishMuseum
WorldArcheryChampioniships,Oslo,August1939.Lessthanayearlaterheusedthelong-bowin
actionagainstheGermans.
Chapter12
Crécy–1346AbriefnoteinrecordsoftheperiodindicatesthatEdwardIIIwashighlyencouragedbysuchsuccessesasMorlaixandthathewasanticipatingmorebattlesinFrance.In1342heorderedthatevery
sheriffmustprovide500whitebow-stavesand500bundlesofarrowsforthecomingbattles.ThenextyeartheorderwasrepeatedwiththeadditionaldemandthattheSheriffofGloucesterwasnotonlyrequiredtoprovide500whitebowstavesbutalsothesamenumberofpaintedstaves.Inthesummerof1346EdwardhadmarchedhisarmyfromtheCherbourgPeninsulaalmosttoParis,
crossingtheSeineatPoissyandmarchingtowardsAmienstomakecontactwithhisFlemishallies.ButhefoundKingPhilipwithalargearmyintheAmiensarea,andtheyfrustratedallEdward’sattemptstotakehisarmyacrosstheriverSomme.Finally,byofferinglargerewardstoprisoners,oneGobinAgachewaspersuadedtotellhimofapracticalfordatBlanchetaque(TheWhite
Spot).Hereamancouldcrosstheriver,atlowtide,withthewateronlyuptohiskneesinspiteofthefordbeingnearly2,000yardslong.
ItwasessentialthattheEnglisharmyshouldgainthefarbank;theirsituationhadsuddenlybecomecritical–bootswerewornout,breadwasscarceandthemenweresufferingfromeatingtheunripewaysidefruit.Their
horsesweregettingfewerinnumberandmanyknightswerereducedtoridingclumsycapturedfarmanimals.EdwardhadnoideaoftheprogressofhisFlemishalliesandhewasoutoftouchwiththefleet.TheFrencharmywasvastlysuperiortotheEnglishforcenumerically,andEdwardknewthathecouldeasilylosetheentirewarinasinglebattleofafewhours’
duration.
Theyreachedthefordatdawn,whenthetidewasonlyjuststartingtoebb;theyhadfourlongandanxioushourstowaitbeforethefordbecamecrossable.Theyhadmarchedinsinglecolumn,Warwickleadingtheadvance-guardwithaforceofarchers,thenmen-at-arms,followedbybaggageand,rearmost,theKing’sdivision.
Thecolumnclosedupuntiltheentirearmywasconcentratedonthesouthbank,immediatelyoppositetheford.Itissaidtohavebeenteno’clockbeforethefirstman–HughDespenser–ledthevanguardofarchersintotheglisteningwatertobeginwhatappearedtobeanuneventfulprogressovertheone-and-a-half-milecauseway.Whentheycamewithinahundredyardsofthe
shoretheyweregreetedwithanunexpectedshowerofcrossbowbolts–Philiphadpostedaforceofabout3,500men-at-armsandinfantry,withaforceofGenoesecrossbowmen,toholdtheford.
Takenbysurpriseandwithoutcoverorprotection,theEnglishweremassedinaneasytargetfortheGenoesecrossbows;theytooka
numberofcasualtiesastheytriedtodeployandreturnthefire.Thewaterwasstillwaist-deep,makingitdifficulttowieldthelongbowsefficiently,besideswettingthebowstrings.Botharchersandcavalrystumbledandfellintothechurned-upwaterastheywerehit;someslippedoffthecausewayintothedeeperriveroneitherside.Thiscausewaywaswideenoughforsomeelevenmen
tostandabreast,sothearcherspackedinwhilsttheremainderfiredovertheheadsofthefrontrank.Quickly,thelongbowassumeditshabitualascendancyoverthecrossbowandtheGenoesefirebegantoslacken.Seeingthis,Warwickgavethesignalforthemen-at-armstoadvance;thehorsemenplungedandsplashedthroughandpastthearchers,who
edgedtothesidesofthecausewaytoletthemthrough.TheEnglishhorseweremetbysomeoftheFrenchcavalrywhohadplungedfromthebanktodisputethepassageandaconfused,splashingconflictofshortdurationtookplaceintheshallowwater,endingwiththeFrenchretiringinconfusiontothebank.TheEnglishmen-at-armsfollowedclosebehindthem,
thearcherscoveringtheiradvancewithasteadybarrageofhissingarrows.TheFrenchquicklyshowedthattheywantednoneofthisandtookflight,leavingbehindthemalmost2,000casualties.
Attheotherendofthecauseway,thelastoftheEnglishmenandwagonswereenteringthenowrapidlydeepeningwater.SuddenlytheFrenchadvance-guard,
undertheKingofBohemia,camedashingupandtherewasashort,sharpengagementbetweenthemandtheEnglishrearguard.Therewereafewcasualtiesandsomewagonswerecaptured,butthebulkofthem,bearingtheirpreciouscargoofarrows,escapedandweretrundlingtheirway,axle-deep,acrosstheriver.TheFrenchmadenoattempttopursue,allowingthe
Englishtoescape–EdwardhadsucceededincrossingtheriverSommeandcouldnowseekhisFlemishalliesandprepareapositioninwhichtoreceivetheFrenchattack.
TheEnglisharmymarchedtotheedgeofaforestaboutninemilesnorth-eastofBlanchetaqueand,onthedayfollowingthecrossing,werehaltedonthebanksofthelittleriverMaye,beyond
whichlayavillagecalledCrécy-en-Ponthieu.InthisareaEdwardfoundasuitablepositiontoofferbattle:hechoseawindmill-crownedridgeimmediatelytothenorth-eastofthevillage,fromwhichitextendedforabout2,000yardstothehamletofWadicourt.Infrontofthepositionwasadepression,latertobecalledtheValléeauxClercs(ValleyoftheClerks),rangingfromabout
onehundredfeetindepthontherighttonothingontheleft.Theslopeinfrontoftherightflankofthepositionwasaboutoneintwelveandalmostimperceptibleontheleft;thevillageandtheriverMayeprotectedtherightflankagainstcavalryattack,buttheleft(andmuchweakerflank)hadonlythesmallhamletofWadicourtasprotection,withopencountrybeyond.Afewhundredyards
behindthecentreoftheridge.wasasmallwood,theBoisdeCrécy-Grange.
Numerically,theEnglisharmyisthoughttohavebeenbetween12,000and13,000strong,beingpositionedinthreedistinctdivisions.ThatoftheBlackPrince,consistingof800dismountedmen-at-armsflankedoneithersidebyatotalof2,000archersandabout1,000
Welshspearmen,wasplacedwelldowntheslopewithin300yardsofthevalleybottom.OnthePrince’sleftandsomewhatdrawnbacksothattheywereslightlyhigheruptheslope,laytherearguardundertheexperiencedEarlofNorthampton;itwassmallerthanthefirstdivision,consistingofabout500men-at-armsand1,200archersformedupinthesame
manner.TherightofthisdivisionrestedonthePrince’sleftanditsleftflankwasprotectedbyWadi-court.Thethirddivision,thatoftheKing,consistedof700men-at-arms,2,000archersandperhaps1,000Welshspearmen,andwereformedontheplateauinfrontofthewoodofCrécy-Grange,behindthebattleofthePrinceofWales.Thebaggagewasparkedinawagon-leaguer
backingontothewood;itsinteriorbeingoccupiedbythehorsesandgarrisonedbythepages.Edwardintendedtofightwithhismen-at-armsdismounted,ashadbeendonebyNorthamptonatMorlaixafewyearspreviously.TheBlackPrincehadaschiefofficerstheEarlsofWarwickandOxford,andhewasunderthepersonalprotectionofGodfreyHarcourt.
Themen-at-armsweredeployedintolinebythemarshalsandthenasolidwedgeofarchersformedupontheflanksofeachofthedivisions.Knownas‘herces’3thesewedgeswereformedbythebodyofarchersinchingforwarddiagonally,pivotingontheflankoftheirownmen-at-arms;wherethetwocontiguouslinesofarchersmet,anapexwasformed.In
thiswayabastion-likeformationwascreatedintheintervalsbetweenthedivisions;obviousadvantagesbeingthatthefrontofthemen-at-armsandtheflanksofthearmycouldbeenfiladedbyarrowfire.Thearchersdugsmallholesinfrontoftheirpositionandplantedaplentifulsupplyofarrowsintheground;theirusualsupplyoftwenty-fourorforty-eightarrowsbeingsupplemented
fromthewagons.Whentheywereexhausted,thearcherhadthreechoices:
1.Hecouldawaitthearrivalofafreshsupplyfromthewagons.
2.Hecoulddashforwardduringalullandpickuparrowsfiredattheenemythathadmissedtheirmarkandwerelyingontheground.ThiswasdoneatPoitiers.
3.Hecouldabandonhisbowandjoininthemêléewithhissword,ashedidatAgincourt.Beingunencumberedwitharmour,thearchersweremorenimbleandmosteffectiveinhand-to-handfighting.Theywereprobablyhefty,muscularmen,asonlyastrongmancouldeffectivelywieldalongbow.
Themen-at-armswere
armour-clad;wearingavisoredbascinet,thecrestedhelmetwasusedonlyinthelists.Thecasingofthebodyinjointedarmourwasnownearlycomplete,andtheadoptionofbreastandbackplatesenabledtheknightstodispensewiththeancienthauberkofrings.Theuseofplate-armourwasadecidedimprovementfromaprotectionpointofview;itwasalsopossiblylighterthan
chainmailwithitsaccompanyinggarments.Themagnificentjupon,emblazonedwiththewearer’sarms,andthesplendidknightlygirdlewerebothtestimoniesofthewarlikeage.Greaves,orjambs(steelboots)andsolleretstocoverthefeethadbeenintroduced;thebacksofthegauntletswerefurnishedwithoverlappingplates,armedwithknobsorspikesofiron.
Wheneverymaninthearmywasinhisallottedposition,theKingrodeslowlydownthelineonawhitepalfrey;hestudiedthedispositionswithanexperiencedeyeandtalkedtothemen,givingthemwordsofcheerandencouragement.Itwasmiddaywhenhecametotheendoftheline,andtherewasstillnosignoftheFrench.Edwardgaveordersforthementofalloutand
eat,positionstobeinstantlyresumedatthesoundofthetrumpet.Themenremovedtheirhelms,thearcherslaidtheirbowscarefullyalongsidetheirarrows,sothattheymarkedtheirplaces.Whenthefoodwasconsumed,themenlaydownandrestedorstoodingroupstalking,eyesconstantlystrayinginthedirectionfromwhichtheenemywasexpectedtocome.Fouro’clockcame;still
withoutanywarningcryfromthelookoutatthetopofthewindmill.Theskysuddenlydarkenedandabriefbutfiercerainstormfelluponthem;thearchersrushedtoprotecttheirpreciousbowstrings,eachmanquicklyunstringinghisbowandcoilingupthestringinsidehishat.Thestormpassedoverandthebowswerere-strung;theclearair,freshwiththescentoftherain,hummed
withthemumblinghubbubofthousandsofdeepmalevoices.
Abovethenoisecameasuddensharpcryfromthewindmill,whichhadbeenearlierpickedasapostofcommandbyEdwardbecauseoftheclearviewitgaveofthewholeposition.TheKingrushedtoverifythatitdidindeedbetokentheapproachoftheenemy;satisfied,he
gavethesignalandthetrumpetssounded.Thegroupsbrokeupanddispersed;discardedarmourandhelmswerehastilydonned;everyonestoodtotheirallottedpostingrimandconfidentsilence;theyknewthateverythingwasready,thatnothinghadbeenoverlooked.Thearchershadcheckedtheirdistancesandwereconsciousthattheirshaftscouldreachthebottom
ofthevalley,buttheywereorderedtoholdtheirfireuntiltheenemywerewithineffectiverange.Then,witheverymanmotionlessandalleyesfixedforward,thevanoftheFrencharmyhoveinsight,descendingthegentleslopeintothevalleyoftheMaye.Theirarmourgleamed,andlancepennonsfluttered;atfirsttheyseemedaformidablehostbut,astheymovednearerandwithevery
steptheytookclearlyseenfromtheEnglishposition,theylostmuchoftheirthreatinthehourittookthemtogetwithinstrikingdistance.
TheFrencharmyhadapproachedthebattlefieldfromMarcheville,sothattheyhadtoturnsharplylefttofacetheEnglishposition.Thesuddenchangeinthedirectionofmarchbroughtaninevitabledisorderandthe
usuallyraggedmarchdisciplineoftheFrenchsadlyaccentuatedthesituation.Itwasamixedarmy,formedoftheKing’sregulartroops;foreignnotabilitieswiththeircontingents;GermanmercenariesandtheGenoesecrossbowmen,whohadalreadytastedthepowerofEnglisharrows.Allweremassedtogetherwithadisorderly,stragglingcrowdofprovinciallevies.
Contingentsjostledeachother,unitsbumpedandbecameinextricablymixed;thearmywasalmostoutofhandevenbeforeashothadbeenfired.TestimonytothisconfusionarethevaryingreportsonthesizeanddispositionoftheFrencharmy;itsnumbersarereportedtohavebeenasmanyas145,000or100,000,itsdivisionsfromthreetotwelve.Itseemsfromthe
moresoberreportsandchroniclesthattheywereaboutthreetimesasstrongastheEnglisharmy–consistingofabout40,000menformedinthreedivisions.Thefirstdivisionconsistedofabout6,000GenoesecrossbowmenunderAntonioDoriaandCarloGrimaldi;thesecondwasledbytheCountd’Alençon,brothertotheKing,withthreecrownedheadsservingunderhis
banner–JohnofLuxemburg,theblindKingofBohemia;theKingoftheRomans,hisson,andtheKingofMajorca,ThethirddivisionwasunderCodemardeFaye.
BattleofCrécy26thAugust1346
KingPhilipwasundecidedastohisbestcourseofaction.HehadbeentakenbysurpriseatthesuddensightoftheEnglishdrawnupinbattlearray.Histroopswereweariedbythemarch,hungryandinconsiderabledisorder;itseemedsensibletowait
untilthemorningbeforeattacking.Hegavetheordertohalt.Whentheorderreachedthevanguard,theimpulsiveFrenchknightsattheheadofthecolumnbelievedthattheyweretobedeprivedofthehonourofopeningthebattle,astheycouldseethatsomeofthetroopsintherearwerestilladvancing.Sotheypushedforwardimpatiently,feelingconfidentthattheirsuperior
numericalstrengthwouldtriumph.Seeingthemmoveforward,themainbodypersistedinfollowingthemuntilthewholearmyarrivedsoclosetotheEnglishpositionthatabattlebecameunavoidable.Inpushingforward,theFrenchknightsforciblypropelledbeforethemtheGenoesemercenarieswhoformedtheadvance-guard.TheheavilyaccoutredItalians,wearyafter
amarchofsixleaguesbearingtheirweightyweapons,drenchedanddraggled,consciousthattheywerevirtuallydisarmedbecauseofthewetnessoftheirbowstrings,shuffledwearilyintotheirstationsalongtheFrenchfront.Seeingthishesitationandnowbeingcommittedtofight,theKingcried:
‘MaketheGenoesegoin
frontandbeginthebattle,inthenameofGodandSt.Denis!’
Themercenariesmutteredandcomplainedtotheirconstables:
‘Webenotwellorderedtofightthisday;webenotinthecasetodoanygreatdeedofarms,andhavemoreneedofrest.’
Theconstables,intheirturn,complainedthattheirmenwerebeingunfairlytreated.TheCountd’Alençonwasscornful:
‘Truly,amaniswellateasetobechargedwiththesekindofrascals,whoarefaintandfailusnowwhenmostatneed!’
Stungbyhiswords,theGenoesemercenaries
attemptedtodeployandmarchagainsttheEnglishpositionloomingaheadofthem.Itwasadifficultprocedureforsuchalargebodyofalreadydisorderedmen,nowbeingrudelyhustledintheirrearbythearrogantFrenchknights.Inspiteoftheeffortsoftheseexperiencedprofessionalsoldiers,theirlinebecamehopelesslyraggedandoutofdressing,sothattheyhadto
behaltedtoreformthreetimesinlessthanamileofshamblingprogress.IntherearoftheEnglishposition,thesunemergedbrilliantly,toshinefullintheeyesoftheenemyandtopresentconditionssaidtobeidealforthearchers,nowominouslytestingtheirbows.
SlowlytheGenoesecontinuedtheiradvance;theirprogressacrossthevalley
beingmarkedwithwhoops,shoutsandarm-wavingasthoughtobolsteruptheirflaggingspirits.Theyhalted,gavethreeorderedloudcriesandthencommencedtoascendthegentleslopeleadinguptotheEnglishposition.Theboltstheyhaltedtodischargeoccasionallyallfellshort,therecentrainhavingsadlyrelaxedthestringsoftheirclumsyweapons;theirfingers
fumbledastheywentthroughthecumbrousprocessofwindinguptheirarbalesta,theireyesfixedontheunmovinglinetotheirfront.Whentheycametowithin150yardsoftheEnglisharcherstheirforwardmovementwaveredinthefaceoftheirsilent,immobilefoe;theysetupmoreshoutsandwhoopsinthehopeofshakingthatcalm.
AheadoftheGenoeseasharpwordofcommandrangout;inresponsetheEnglisharchers,asoneman,steppedforwardapacetodrawtheirbowstringstotheirears.Suddenlythebrightsunlightwasshutoffbyblackswarmsofarrows,theairfulloftheirhissing.TheclothyardshaftsquiveredinthefacesandbodiesoftheItalianmercenaries,thedischargestrikingtheircloselyknit
linesindevastatingfashion.Theyreeledandstaggered,fallingintoevengreaterdisorderastheyrecoiledfromthecontinuousshowerofwailingarrows.
Theirdiscomfortwasincreasedbyaseriesofbelchesofflame,withroaringnoiseslikethunderclaps,followedbythehissingprogressofheavyballsofironandstonewhichtore
throughtheranksofthecrossbowmentoprostratemenandstampedehorsesintheranksbehindthem.ItwasEdward’s‘secretweapon’–crudeirontubesthathadbeenlaboriouslyborneacrossFranceinthebottomoftheammunitionwagonstotaketheirplaceasthefirstcannontobefiredinopenwarfare.SurprisingastheirappearancemusthavebeentotheFrench,thesecrudeandnoisy
innovationstotheartofwardonotseemtohavehadasmuchphysicalormoraleeffectupontheFrenchasmighthavebeenexpected.ThechroniclersallcontinuetoreportthisbattleinthetermsofdevastatingresultsofEnglisharcheryratherthanthosecausedbyroughstoneandironballs,eachofwhichweighedperhaps1½to2lb.andweresentontheirwaywithsuchaspectaculargush
offlameandsmoke.
Theunfortunate,belabouredGenoesenowhad,crowdingforwardontheirheels,theeliteofthenobilityofFrance,allspoilingforafightandresentfulthattheforeignmercenarieshaddonethemoutofthehonourofopeningthebattle.Liketheirleader,Countd’Alençon,theywerereadytosuspectthecrossbowmenoftreachery;
hadtheItaliansnotbaulkedatgoingforwardinthefirstplace?Thehot-headedd’Alençonprovidedthespark,cryingloudly:
‘Slaymethoserascals!Theydobuthinderandtroubleuswithoutreason!’
Clappingspursintohishorse’sflanks,hedrovehischargerintothemidstoftheGenoese,closelyfollowedby
hismen-at-arms,shoutingandcursingastheyrodeandtrampledunderfootthemercenaries.BesetfrombothsidesandunabletogetcloseenoughtotheEnglishtoreturntheirfire,thecrossbowmenfuriouslydischargedtheirboltsattheirnewadversaries,sothatsmallinternecinefightsaddedtotheconfusion.TheheavilyarmouredFrenchknightswerenottobewithstood;
theyrelentlesslybatteredtheirwayforwardtowardsthePrinceofWales’sdivision,leavingbehindthematrailoftheirownarrow-piercedknightsandhorsesflounderingamongthecrossbowmentheyhadriddendown.
InthemeantimethedivisionsintherearhadalsobrushedpastthelucklessGenoeseanddeployedinto
positionuntilacontinuouslinewasformedroughlyequalinlengthandparalleltotheEnglishposition.Thenbegantheseriesoffruitlesschargesofheavilycladhorsemenlumberinguphillagainstshowersofarrowsremorselesslyplaguingthem;thegreatstallions,madfromthepainofthekeen,barbedshafts,brokefromallcontrol.Theypushed,reared,swervedandplunged,strikingand
lashingouthideously.Soonthegroundwasheapedwiththebodiesofmenandhorses.Themen-at-armsforcedtheirreluctantsteedsforward,strugglingonwithheadsbowed;thehorses,belabouredwithlengthyandfiercemediaevalspurs,werenoisilyshuffledtowardsthedismounted,armouredformationsinfrontofthem,whilstbeingassailedbyashort-rangecrossfireof
arrowsfromtheirflanks.Asinalmosteverybattle,themainassaultoftheFrenchwasdirectedagainstthedismountedmen-at-armsratherthanagainstthearchers;asituationduemainlytothefactthattheywere‘channelled’thatwayintheireffortstogetawayfromthehissingarrows.TheCountd’Alençonandhisremainingknightshadreachedandengagedinhand-to-hand
fightingthebattleofthePrinceofWales,whilstothershadclosedwithNorthampton’sdivision.ThesewerenotconcertedeffortsbutratherirregularandspasmodicsurgesthatdidnotcausetheEnglishlinetoyieldasinglefoot.
Frenchcasualtiesroserapidly.Thegroundwasheapedhighwiththebodiesofmenandhorses.The
WelshandIrishfootsoldiersnowbegantocreepforward,bearingtheirgreatsharpknives.Thesemen,cladinthickleatherjerkins,nimbleoffootandaccustomedtoalifeofactivity,mingledfearlesslyamongtheconfusedmassesoffightingmen,creepingbeneaththehorses’bellies,standingupwhentheygotachancetostabhorsesandmen.Theyslewbystabsandgashes
throughthejointsinthearmourthoseFrenchmen-at-arms,whorolledhelplesslyliketurtlesupturnedamidthepress.
ThenumericalsuperiorityoftheFrenchenabledthemtopersistintheirefforts,unsuccessfulastheyappearedtobeuptothen.Wheneveramanfell,anotherlurchedforwardtotakehisplacefromtheapparentlyinexhaustible
supplyoftheFrencharmy.InthismannerthepressureontheEnglishlineincreased,particularlyontheright,whereGodfreyHarcourtbegantofeelanxiousforthesafetyofhisroyalcharge.Inperson,heranclumsilyacrosstothenearestunitofNorthampton’sdivision–thatcommandedbytheEarlofArundel–andbeggedhimtoputinacounter-attack,sostrikingintheflankthose
enemyassailingthePrince’sdivision.HarcourtthensentamessengertotheKing,askingforreinforcements.Fromhiscommand-posthighinthewindmill,theKingcouldseethatArundel’scounter-attackwastakingeffect;thatitwasnotyettheopportunemomenttothrowinhispreciousreserve.Withouttakinghiseyesfromthesurging,heavingbattlespreadoutbeforehimlikeacolourful
carpet,hesaid:
‘Lettheboywinhisspurs,’wavinghishandindismissalashespoke.TheexperiencedsoldierandKingwasrightinhisjudgment.Whenthemessengerarrivedback,thePrinceandhismen-at-armsweresittingamongthedead,restingafterbeatingofftheattack.Infrontoftheirpositionweremorethan1,500deadFrenchmen-at-
arms.
Inwaveafterwave,notcontinuouslyandwithvaryingintervals,theFrenchchivalrybravelyandcharacteristicallythunderedclumsilyuptotheEnglishposition,withoutevereffectingapenetrationbeforebeingbeatenback.InthepausestheEnglisharcherswouldleavetheirlines,runforwardtosearchforarrows
amongthedead.Theydidnotwastetimetryingtopullthemfromthebodiesofthedead,knowingthatthebarbedarrow-headcouldonlyberemovedfromsoftfleshbymajorfeatsofsurgeryorextensivecrudecarpentry.
Theold,blindKingofBohemiasatrestlesslychafingonhischarger,hearingallaroundhimthenoiseofthebattle.He
repeatedlyaskedafteritsprogressandthensaid:
‘Sirs,yearemymen,myfriendsandcompanions.IrequireyetoleadmesofarforwardthatImaystrikeonestrokewithmysword.’
Twoknightsbuckledthereinsoftheirbridlestothoseofhishorse,lesttheyshouldlosehiminthepress,andthethreechargedforward
together.InthecentreofthemtheoldKingheldhissightlessheadhighasthoughsniffingthescentofbattle.Thetrioreachedthefighting,guidedtheirwrenchinghorsesforwarduntiltheywerebroughtuptoastandstillbythepress.Theagedmonarchswungastrokewithhissword,struckagain–sometimesatthinair,sometimesfeelingsolidresistancethatjarredhisarm.
Theyfoughtvaliantlybutperhapsventuredtoofarforward,tobefoundnextday,stilltetheredtotheirKing,aboutwhomtheylaydead.
Therearmostmen,carriedforwardbytheirownmomentum,surgedontothetopoftheforemost,towedgethewholeintoahelpless,chokingmass.Stillthepitilessarrowshissedintothe
pressandtheentireFrenchfightinglinebecameaconfusedwelterofstrugglinganimals,maimedcrossbowmenandfallenmen-at-arms,who,crippledbytheweightoftheirarmour,layaneasypreytothelong,keenknivesoftheWelsh.ItisreportedthatatleastfifteenattackswereputinbytheFrench,whodidnotrealisein1346andstilldidnotcomprehendnearly100years
lateratAgincourt,thattoforceafineofbowmensupportedbymen-at-armswithafrontalattackwasanalmosthopelesstaskforcavalry.Thereislittlethatcanbemoredisconcertingtochargingcavalrythanaflightofarrows,layinglownotonlymanyoftheridersbutalsocausingdisorderbysettingthewoundedhorsesplungingandrearingsoastosadlychecktheimpetusof
thecharge.Then,asthechargenearedtheEnglishposition,thewoundstomanandhorsebecamemorenumerous,thedisorderincreased,thepaceprogressivelyslackeneduntilatlastthechargecametoastandstill,waveredandthenwithdrew.
Thefightwentonafterdarknesshadfallen,underarisingmoon,untillateinthe
eveningitpeteredouttogivewaytoanuneasysemi-silencebrokenonlybythegroansofthewounded.PhilipofFrance,withonlythreescoreknightsremaining,wasunwillingtobelievethatallwaslost;hewaspreventedfrompersonallyleadingyetanotherchargebytherestraininghandonhishorse’sbridleofSirJohnofHeynault,whosaid:
‘Sire,departwhilethereisyettime.Losenotyourselfwillingly.Ifthisfieldislost,youshallrecoveritagainanotherseason.’
TheEnglishhadwonthedaywithoutstirringafootfromtheirposition;theenemyhadconvenientlycometothemtobekilled.MorethanathirdofhisnumberlaydeadbeforetheunbrokenEnglishlines,the
majoritylaidlowbyclothyardshafts.Weariedwithslaughterandsatiatedwithvictory,theEnglishlaydownandslept,supperless,wheretheyhadfought.TheIrishandWelshinfantrywereoutinfullforce,combingthebattlefieldandgivingnoquarterastheyfinishedoffthosewhohadfallenbutstilllived.Therewasnoattemptmadetopursuethevanquished,whomelted
awaysilentlyintothenight,eachmanretreatinginwhateverdirectionhefanciedbecausetherewerefewlefttogivecommandsororders.KingPhiliphadlosthisownbrother,theCountd’Alençon;hisbrother-in-law,JohnofBohemia,andhisnephew,theCountofBlois,besidesacleansweepofhisgenerals.TheflowerofthechivalryofFrancehadbeenwipedout,morethan1,500ofthem,ina
totalcasualtylistofover10,000.Therestofthearmy,thealliesfromBohemia,HainaultandFlanders,dispersedandreturnedtotheirhomes.InafewhoursPhilip,themostpowerfulmonarchinWesternEurope,hadlostanarmy.
Thenextmorning,Sunday,the27thofAugust,arrivedwithathickfog,asthoughmercifullytoblanketthegrim
scene–thevalleyblackwiththebodiesofmenandhorses.Edwardsenthisclerksouttomakeatallyofthedead,and,tothisday,thesceneoftheirlaboursisknownastheValleyoftheClerks.
Beforeleavingthesceneitmightbeopportunetoconsiderwhyanoverwhelmingvictoryshouldhavebeengainedbyaforcesomuchsmallerinnumbers
thantheirenemy.Crécyprovedthatthearcher,whensupportedbydismountedmen-at-arms,couldbeatoffthemostdeterminedcavalrycharges.ThiswasnotnewstoEdward;hehadlearnedmuchfromHalidonHill,Morlaixandothersmallerbattles,butprobablyevenhewassurprisedatthewayinwhichthebattlehad,forhim,beensopurelydefensive.Thisisborneoutbythefactthathe
hadresistedusinghisreserve,eventoaidhisson;thatheheldthemfirmlyunderhishand,intendingtolaunchtheminagreat,finalcounter-attack,acourseofactionmadeunnecessarybythedesperateandsenselessbraveryoftheFrenchknights,wholearnednothingofwhatwashappeningfromthosewhohadchargedbeforethemandpersistedinfollowingtheonlycreedtheyknew.Inthe
endthisresultedintheflowerofFrenchchivalrylyingdeadwitharrowsbristlingfromtheirbodiesorawaitingthebloodyknivesoftheWelshandIrish.
ThereinlayalessonthattheFrenchneverlearned,refusingintheirclass-pridetorecognisethattheirdefeatwasatthehandsofdespisedpeasants.Forgenerationstheypersistedinthedelusion
thatthedefeatwasduetothestabilityofdismountedEnglishmen-at-arms.Inpartthiswastrue,becausethenewlysuccessfulEnglishtacticalschemedependeduponmen-at-armsfightingdismountedandinmutualsupportofthearchers.Undoubtedly,thequalitiesofthetwoarmieshadagreatbearingontheresultofthebattle;ontheonehandtheEnglishwerewelltrained,
wellled,welldisciplinedandwellarmed.TheFrench,ontheotherhand,wereahastilycollectedforcefromdifferentcountries,notparticularlywelltrainedandnounitknowingmuchaboutitsneighbours.Asaresultitlackedcohesion,neithertrustingnorrespectingeachother,sothat,asanarmy,itwasboundtodisintegratewhenexposedtoorderedblows.
Inthisdayandageitmightseemincredulousthatsuchasuccessionoffruitlesschargesshouldhavebeenmadewheneachonewasobviouslybeingdecimated.SuchastatementmustbeconsideredinthelightofthehappeningsatWaterloonearly500yearslater,whenthecreamofNapoléon’scavalrywerewipedoutinasuccessionoffruitlessuphillchargesagainstsquaresof
Britishinfantrymen,descendantsofthearchersofCrécy;or,eventothepresentday,withinlivingmemoryarethevastandbloodyonslaughtsmadeonpreparedpositionsbyinfantryduringthewarof1914–18.
TheBattleofCrécymarksastepintheprogressofthemilitaryart,intheage-longcontestbetweenmountedanddismountedmen,between
missileandpersonalweaponsandintheemergenceofathirdarm:artillery.Itwasabattlethatshouldhavetaughtastrikinglessontofeudalchivalry,buttheoldtraditionhallowingthemountedknightasthemosthonourablenameinwarfarewasstrongenoughtobeperpetuatedforanothercentury;themethodsthatreallydiedonthe26thofAugust1346werestilltobebreathingin1415andeven
later.Itwouldtakemorethanonesuchdisastertodestroyasystemsointimatelyboundupwithmediaevallifeandideas.
AsanironicalepitaphtotheFrenchknight,itmightwellbesaidthathischivalrouscodewouldhavebeenhorrifiedattheverythoughtofshirkingadirectfrontalattackagainstanumericallyinferiorenemy!
Chapter13
Neville’sCross–1346FollowinghisdefeatatCrécyandthemelting-awayofhisarmy,PhilipofFrancefoundhimselfsorelypressedbytheinvadingarmyofEdwardIII.
HesoughttorelievethispressurebyurgentlyentreatingDavidII,KingofScotland,toinvadeEnglandinthehopeofdrawingEdwardbacktodefendhisrealm.Davidsuccumbedtothelureand,inOctober1346,hemarchedhisarmyovertheborderandintoEngland,beingassuredthatEdwardandhischiefcommanderswereabsentsothat‘…herearenonetoopposeour
progresssavechurchmenandbaseartisans’.HecrossedtheTyneatRyton,abovethetownofNewcastle,andadvancedintoDurhamtoencamp,onthe16thofOctober,atBeaurepair(BearPark),abouttwomilesnorth-westofthecityofDurham.
Withinthecityitself,theutmostconsternationprevailed;itappearedtobeatthemercyoftheinvaders.
ButthingswerenotasbadastheyappearedandtheScotsweretobeopposedbyaforcethatwascollectingwithallspeedandconsiderablezeal.Thisarmy,wellarmedandnumberingabout16,000men-at-arms,archersandinfantry,wasledbythenorthernbarons–Ralph,BaronNevilleofRaby;Henry,BaronPercyofAlnwick;Musgrove,Scrope,Hastingsandtheubiquitous
EdwardBaliol.
TheEnglishforceadvancedslowlyandcautiouslyeastwards;nearthevillageofFerryHilltheymetandscatteredaraidingpartyofabout500menunderSirWilliamDouglas.Thelatter,flyingfromthefieldandleavingmorethan200ofhisforcedead,arrivedbreathlessatBeaurepairtowarnDavidthattheEnglishhadformed
anarmyandwereadvancingtomeethim.StillmovingslowlybytheRedHillsonthewestofthecityofDurham,theEnglishwerecominguptothegroundonwhichtheforthcomingbattlewasdestinedtobefought.Thebattlefieldlaywestandwestbynorthofthecathedral;itwasalevelridge,sincecutupintofieldsandpartlybuiltover;northwardstherewasasharpslope
formingakindoftroughintowhichaspurjutsout–hereaboutsthegroundwascoveredthicklybyShawWood.Inthetroughandwoodyrecesseswasalittlepear-shapedhillockknownastheMaiden’sBower,onthetopofwhichtheclergyfromthecityclusteredtoprayaroundtheholyrelicofSt.Cuthbert.
DavidformedtheScots
armyintothreedivisions.ThefirstwasledbythehighStewardofScotland,thesecondbytheEarlofMorayandSirWilliamDouglasofLiddesdale(thennamed‘TheFlowerofChivalry’),andthethirddivision,consistingofselecttroopsandapartyofFrenchauxiliaries,wasledbytheKinginperson.
TheEnglishweredisposedsothatLordPercyledthe
vanguardwhich,inthebattle,becametherightwingandwasopposedtotheScotsleftwingundertheHighSteward.ThemainbodywascommandedbyLordNevilleand,ascentre,inthebattlejoinedissuewiththeScottishmainbodyandcentreunderKingDavid.TheEnglishrearguard(theleftwing)underRokeby,wasinconflictwiththeScottishrightwingledbytheEarlofMoray.The
EnglishalsohadprovidedforthatwhichtheScotshadnot–apowerfulreserveofpickedcavalry–mailedhorsemen,underthecommandofEdwardBaliol.
Stillmovingslowly,theEnglishadvancedanddeployedforaction;theScotslefttheirpositiononDurhamMoorandmovedforwardtomeetthem.SirJohnGraham,rememberinghowaquick
cavalrymovementagainstthearchersatBannockburnhaddecidedtheday,askedleavetoattackthem.‘GivemebutonehundredhorseandIshalldispersethem,’hedeclared.KingDavidrefusedand,atnineo’clockinthemorning,orderedageneralattack.
TheScotsadvancewassorelyimpededbywallsandhedges,behindeachofwhichwerestationedEnglish
archers,whosearrowsgalledandplayedtheusualhavocwiththeadvancingScots.Flyingasthickashail,thedestructivevolleys,atlongrange,pouredintotheenemysothattheirspearmenfellthicklywithouthavingbeenabletoinflictasingleinjuryupontheEnglish.Graham,furiousatthislossofmenandsensibleenoughtorealisethatarchersat‘longbowls’hadaterribleadvantageovermen
armedwithsword,axeandspear,tookmattersintohisownhandsandstruckthefirstblow.Attheheadofhisownpersonalfollowers,herodestraightforthearchers,chargingdownonthemsoquicklythathislittlebandactuallybrokethroughinoneplaceanddispersedthearchersthere.Atshortrange,Graham’shorsewasshotdownandwaswounded,buthemanagedtoregainthe
Scotslines.
TheHighSteward,quicklygraspingthesituation,orderedhismentochargethepartlydisorderedEnglishrightwing.Momentarilyfreedfromthenaggingarrows,theScotscameonwithsuchimpetuousfurythatbysheerweightofswordandbattle-axetheyhurledtheEnglishcolumnbackinconfusionagainstthatofLord
Percy,whosewingwasthenindangerofrout.Atthismomentofcrisisthevalueofpossessingacavalryreserveunderacapablecommanderbecameapparent–Baliol,withgreatspirit,chargedtheScottishtroopsthreateningPercy.NotonlywastheScotsattackontherightwingrepulsed,butthatrepulsewasconvertedintoacompleteroutandwithinabriefspacethedivisionoftheHigh
Stewardwereabunchoffugitives.TheHighStewarddesperatelyworkedtore-formandreorganisehistroops,whowereentangledamonghedgesandditches,againbeingdecimatedbythefireofthenowsteadyEnglisharchers.
Thebattlebetweenthecentreshadbeenproceedingonalmostequalterms.Ataglance,Balioltookinthe
situation;refusingtosuccumbtothetemptationofpursuingthebeatenHighSteward’sdivision,hewheeledhismenandflungthemintoachargeontheleftflankoftheScottishKing’sdivision.Theleftflankofthisformation,throughtheflightoftheleftwing,wasleftpracticallydefencelessandBaliol’smoveprovedalmostcompletelydisastroustotheScots.Theircentre,attacked
infrontbyNeville(whosemenhadpouredthroughgapsintheenclosurestochargetheScotsinasomewhatconfusedbutneverthelessdesperatemanner)andontheleftflankbyBaliol’scavalry,begantowaverandslowlygiveway.Theconflictwascarriedonrelentlesslyforsometime,theEnglishandtheScotshackingawayateachother,thearchersfiringatwhatevertargetspresented
themselvesandthenlayingonwiththeirswords.InspiteoftheKing,surroundedbyhisnobles,fightingbravely,hisdivisionbegantobreakup,thefugitivestakingofftowardstheright,whereRokebywasvaliantlydoingmorethanholdhisown.ButherethemenoftheScotsrightdivision,hamperedbythenatureoftheground,couldnotretreat;caughtinenclosuresandbetween
hedges,theywereslainwithoutmercyanddiedinheaps.
OnallsidestheScotshadnowcompletelygivenway,buttheirKing,byhisexhortationsandexample,repeatedlybroughtmassesofthembacktothefray.Itwasinvainandatlast,almostaprecursorofFlodden,theremainingknightsformedthemselvesinaringaround
theirmonarchandstoodatbay.Inspiteoftheirgallantdefence,atnoontheroyalbannerwasseentobebeatendown;seeingitfall,theremnantsoftheScottisharmyinallpartsofthefieldfledindespair.Acknowledgingthatallwaslost,theeightyorsoknightsremainingaroundDavidsurrenderedand,atlast,theKinghimselfwastaken.Hisswordwasbrokeninhishandandhewassaidto
havehadatleasttwoseverebodywounds,butproud,fieryandintheprimeoflife,Daviddisdainedcaptivityandtriedtoprovokehiscaptor,SirJohnCopeland,tokillhim.Althoughhesmashedhismailedgauntletintothatknight’sface,hisactiondidnotbringthedeathhedesiredandDavidII,KingofScotland,wasconveyedintriumphthroughEnglandtotheTowerofLondon.
TheEnglishlossesarenotknown,althoughinsuchafiercelycontestedbattletheymusthavebeensevere.TheScotsundoubtedlylostthemore.Itissaidthat,outof30,000men,nearlyhalfperishedonthespotandmanymoreinthesubsequentpursuit.
Andsotheyear1346becameayearofvictories;theTowerofLondondidnot
seemtohavesufficientroomstoaccommodateallitsroyalandnobleprisonersofwar.Englandwasayoungnation,onlyrecentlyunitedandjustfindingherfeet;thevictoriousexploitsofhersoldiers,whichhadgiventhemafearsomereputationinanamazinglyshortspaceoftime,hadarousedaspiritofnationalprideandconsciousnessnevertobelost.Bymethodsderived
fromhisgrandfather,EdwardIIIhadblendedwithskillandexperiencetacticalmethodsthatweretobeforgedinthefiresofsuccessatHalidonHill,Morlaix,Crécy,Neville’sCrossandmanysubsequentvictories.Tocarryoutthesemethods,Edwardhadathisdisposalmenofthehighestclass–men-at-armswhowerethepickofthecountry,andarcherswhohadbroughttheircrafttoapeak
ofperfectionbylongpractice.TherearenumerousFrenchwritingsandchroniclesthattestifytothefearsomeanddeadlyimpressionthatthesearchershadmadeuponcontinentalsoldiery.ItwasindeedatimeofnationalrejoicingthatthelustyEnglishinfanthadlearnedtowalkandwasnowlayingabouthimsothathispresencewastobeknownthroughhispowerofarmsformany
Chapter14
Mauron–1352SocolourfulandvitalarethevictoriesofCrécyin1346andatPoitiersin1356thattheinterveningyearsoftheHundredYearsWartendto
assumeinterest-lackingqualitiessofarasbattlesandengagementsareconcerned.Thisisdue,inpart,totheBlackDeathin1348causingsomanydeathsinEnglandthatitbecamedifficulttoreinforcethemanyEnglishgarrisonsinFrance,sothattherewasaninevitablelullinactivities.Therewasalsoatruceofsortssignedin1347whichobviouslywouldhavepreventedmajorconflicts,for
ashorttimeanyway.
Inspiteofthis,itistruetosaythatthroughoutthisperiodinquestiontherewasalmostconstantfightingtakingplaceinPicardy,inBrittanyandinGascony.NordidFranceceasetotrytoassuageherpridebyrecapturingCalais,thatfesteringwoundkeptopenbyEnglandforsolong.In1350,therewasanothernavalbattle
foughtoffWinchelsea,whenfiftysmallEnglishshipsbearingEdwardandthecreamofhiscommanderstotallydefeated–inthebestSluysmanner–aSpanishfleetofforty-fourmuchlargerandmorepowerfulshipsofwar.TheQueen,withherladies,satuponthecliffslookingdownatthebattleasifithadbeenajoustoratourney.Itwasasightworthseeing,forallthebestin
Englandwasoutonthewaterthatday–theywentforthinlittleshipsandcamebackingreatgalleys.OfthetallshipsofSpain,morethantwoscoreflewthecrossofSt.Georgebeforethesunhadset.
Whileitiscertainthatthoselandengagementsthattookplacewerefoughtinthesamepatternasthosethathadprecededthem(remindingoneofanotherwarbetween
thetwocountriestobefoughtsomefivehundredyearslater,whencircumstancescausedtheDukeofWellingtontoremarkthattheFrenchcontinuedtoattackincolumnandtheBritishtodefeattheminline!),thereisevidencethattheFrenchweretryingtodiscovertheweakpointsinthisfrighteninglysuccessfulEnglishtacticalmethod.Inthesummerof1349,EnglishandGasconallies,underthe
CaptaldeBuch,wereinvolvedinasmallbattleatLunalongeinPoitouwithaFrenchforceunderJeandeLisle.Bygoingroundtotherearoftheposition,theFrenchcapturedtheEnglishhorsesthathadbeenhalteredtherewhentheEnglishmen-at-armsdismountedasusualandtookupbattleformations.Havingshownsuchasparkofcommonsense,theelatedFrench,stillmounted,then
attackedtheEnglishpositionfromthefrontinthesameoldmannerandweretotallydefeated,theircommanderbeingcaptured!
Inthespringof1351aFrencharmyunderthecommandoftwomarshalsofFrance–GuydeNesle(Sired’Offrement)andArnaudd’Endreghem–drovebacktheweakEnglishgarrisonsintheprovinceofPoitouand
laidsiegetoSaintes.SeeingthattheFrenchKingevidentlyintendedtorecapturetheprovince,EdwardsentSirJohnBeauchamptocombatthethreat.Beauchamp’sarmyadvancednorthandtheFrenchcametomeetthem,thetwoarmiesapproachingeachothernearSt.Georges-la-Valade.Intheirusualmanner,theEnglishdismountedandformedline
ofbattle,theirhorsesbeingsenttotherearunderguardofpages.OnthisoccasiontheFrenchdidthesame,butretainedtwomountedbodies,oneoneachwing.Onfoot,liketheirenemies,theFrenchnowattackedfrontallyandwerebeatenback,sufferingamostdecisivedefeatandlosing600men,includingthetwomarshalswith140esquiresandgentlemen.Therearenodetailsavailable
ofthisbattle,althoughitindicatesthat,indesperation,theFrenchwereendeavouringtocountertheEnglishtacticsbysimilarlydismounting.Theireffortsborenofruitbecausetheyobviouslyfailedtoappreciatethefullimplicationsofthemove.
MarshaldeNesle,havingbeenransomedafterhiscaptureatSt.Georges-la-
Valade,ledaFrenchinvasionofBrittanyinearlyAugust1352,hisultimateobjectivebeingBrest.RennesfelltotheFrenchandtheEnglishcommander,SirWilliamBentley,decidedtoadvancenorthwardstowardstheBrestroadinordertomeettheenemy.Hedecideduponthiscourseofactionalthoughheknewhimselftobeheavilyoutnumbered,anindicationoftheconfidencewithwhichthe
Englishcommandersapproachedthebusinessinhand.
Bynoononthe14thofAugustbotharmieswereapproachingthesmalltownofMauronfromdifferentdirections;anencounterseemedcertain.ThedustcloudsrisinginthenortheastindicatedtoSirWilliamBentleythattheenemywereapproaching.Atoncehis
trainingandexperiencecameintoplayandhebegantoseekapositionwherehecoulddefensivelyfacetheenemyinthetraditionalEnglishdismountedmanner.Hewasfortunatethatsuchasiteexistedinhisvicinity–itwasnotidealbutgoodenoughtobetakenupwithreasonableconfidence.
ThetownofMauronwassituatedonaridge,from
whichaspurraneastwardswithasloperunningdowntoasmallrivulet,onthefarsideofwhichthegroundslopedupwardsingentlefashion,excepttothenorth-east,whereitbecameverysteep.TheEnglishformeduponthecommandinggroundofthespur,theircentremidwaybetweenanarrowbeltoftreesthatranacrossthetopofthespurandtherivulet;theirrightrestedonasmall
chateauwheretheslopewasmostgentle;therewassteeper,almostprecipitous,groundneartheRennesroadandinfrontoftheirleftflank.Foraforceofonlyabout3,000menitwasalongfrontage–nearly700yards–and,asatAgincourtinlateryears,theylackedsufficientmentoformareserve.Thecountryaroundwasopenandlackedhedges,ditchesorwoods;immediatelyinfront
oftheEnglishpositionlayaprofusionofrank,longundergrowthinfullsummerflower.
TheformationadoptedbytheEnglishwastheoneinvariablysuccessfulinthewar–men-at-armsinthecentre,andarchersin‘herces’orbastions,ontheflanks.Thecentreofthelinewasabout200yardsfromthebeltoftreesandtheflankscurved
backslightlytowardsthem,thusconformingtothecontoursoftheground.ThismeantthatthearcherscouldnotcoverthewholeoftheEnglishfrontagewiththeirfire.
Ontheoppositesideofthevalley,infullviewoftheEnglish,GuydeNesledeployedhisarmy;theyquiteobviouslyoutnumberedtheEnglishconsiderably.Hesent
acrossaheraldwithtermsforawithdrawal,termswhichwerescornfullyrejectedbySirWilliamBentley.SotheFrenchcarriedondismounting,NesleevidentlyretainingconfidenceinthemethodthathadbroughthimdefeatwhenlasthehadmettheEnglish,althoughheretainedamountedbodyofabout700men,undercommandoftheCountHangest,whoweretooperate
ontheleftwing.Thisbodybegantheactionatfouro’clock,whentheycameintobriskcontactwiththeEnglisharchersontherightflank,whoimmediatelygavewayandfled!Thisnotonlymeantthatthemen-at-armsontheirlefthadnocoveringfire,butitalsoexposedtheirrightflank,sothey,intheirturn,hadtofallbackuptheslopeuntiltheyreachedthebeltoftrees.
Thearchersontheleft,withnomountedattacktofacebecauseofthesteepergroundtotheirfront,stoodtheirgroundandusedtheirweaponstosuchgoodeffectthattheFrenchmen-at-armsdidnotevenreachthembutbrokeandfledunderthehailofarrows,scatteringpell-melldowntheslope.Thismeantthattherightflankoftheircentrecolumnlayexposed.Thencameanexampleofthe
greatinitiativeandoffensivespiritthathallmarkedtheEnglisharchersthroughouttheHundredYearsWar–theleftwingbowmendroppedtheirbows,drewtheirswordsandchargednimblydownthehillaftertheretreatingFrenchmen-at-arms.SomeofthemswungtotherightandattackedtheexposedflankoftheFrenchcentrecolumn,causingdisorderandpanic.
TheEnglishmen-at-armsontherightwing,whohadformedadefensivelinealongtheedgeofthebeltoftrees,hadbroughttoapartialhalttheFrenchhorsemenwhowerepursuingthefleeingarchers.Now,encouragedbytheEnglishsuccessontheleft,theytookheartand,fightingfiercelyeveryinchoftheway,graduallyadvancedtopushtheiropponentsdowntheslopebeforethem.Now
openlyretreating,theFrenchwereforcedbackuntiltheyreachedthebottomofthevalley;astheylumberedlaboriouslybackinthehotsummersun,theywerecaughtinamurderouscrossfireofEnglisharrowsandsufferedheavily.ThefleeingFrenchrightwingreachedthebottomofthevalleytofindthemselvesconfrontedwithsteep,rearingslopesthatformedtheonly
routetosafety.Franticallytheytriedtoclawtheirarmouredwayuptheseslopes.Likestrickenbeetles,theirmovementsbecameprogressivelysloweruntil,almostmotionlessexceptforfeeblemovementsoftheirarms,theywereshotdownunmercifullyfromshortrange.
WiththeexceptionofHangestandhiscavalry,the
Frencharmyhaddissolvedlikeapieceoficeleftinthehotsun.Theirleaderdeadalongwithmostofhisseniorcaptains,therestfledinalldirections,intentonsavingthemselves,leavingmorethan2,000deadonthefield.
YetanothervictoryhadbeengainedbytheEnglisharcherinthecontinuousseriesofcontestsbetweenhimselfandtheFrenchmen-
at-arms,asuccessmarredonlybytheexceptionalflightoftheright-flankbowmen.Thereasonsforthisflightcanonlylieintherealmsofconjecture–itmighthavebeenthatHangest’scavalrywereofvastlyexceptionalqualityor,morelikely,thatthearchersthemselveswereofalowerstandardthanusual.ThehugedeathrolloftheBlackDeathhadmeantthattheverybottomofthe
barrelhadhadtobescrapedtoreinforcetheEnglisharmiesinFrance.ItmustbetakenintoaccountthatHangesthimself,theFrenchcavalryleader,hadshownhimselftobeareasonablyablecommanderinthemannerinwhichhehadledhismenoverfavourablegroundtowardstheEnglishrightflank.BysuchamovehehadpreventedmorethanhalftheEnglisharchersfrom
bringingfiretobearuponhisapproachingcavalry–thisisassumingthattheywereinthe‘herce’formation.SufficienttosaythatBentleyhadthirtyofthearchersexecutedforcowardiceonthefollowingday!
AsalinkbetweenthebattlesofCrécyandPoitiers,theaffairatMauronformsaveryinterestingconnectioninthatitconfirmedthe
superiorityoftheEnglisharcherinafrontalattack.ItalsooddlyforeshadowedPoitiers,toacertainextent,inthatitcontainedamountedflankattackandadownhillcounterattack–bothsuccessfulineachcase.
Chapter15
Poitiers–1356TheBattleofPoitiers(spelt‘Peyters’bytheBlackPrince)wasthesecondofthegreattrinityofmemorablevictories,ofwhichCrécywas
thefirstandAgincourtthethird.Althoughitsdetailsaresomewhatcontroversial,itisfairtoclaimthatitiseasilythemostinterestingandinstructiveofthemallfromamilitarypointofview.KingEdwardhadleftBordeauxonthe6thofJuly1356,withtheintentionofcarryingfireandswordintotheenemy’sdomains,endeavouringtomeetanddestroytheFrencharmyintheprocessand,
finally,tojoinhandssomewhereonthelineoftheriverLoirewithhisbrother,theDukeofLancaster.But,byearlySeptember,thetrysthadfailedtomaterialiseandtheBlackPrincehadKingJohnofFranceonhisheelswithamuchlargerarmythanhisown.Nevertheless,hesoughtbattlewiththeFrenchbecausehecorrectlyreasonedthatonlybydispersingthenumericallysuperiorFrench
armycouldhegetbacktoBordeauxwiththesubstantialbootycollectedduringtheraidhehadmadeintotheheartofFrance.Hewasalsoawareofthehighstateofhisarmy’smoraleaftertenyearsofsuperiorityinFrance;heknewthattheyhadunboundedconfidenceinhim,infacttheyheldhiminholyawe;inreturnhehadnolessfaithinthem.
OnthenightofSaturday,17thofSeptember,theFrencharmyencampedjustoutsidethewallsofPoitiers;theEnglisharmylaythreemilestothewest,intheforestnearthelittlevillageofChabotrie.Mostofthefollowingdaywasspentinfruitlessdiscussionsbetweenemissariesofthetwoarmies,duringatruceperiodengineeredbytheCardinaldePérigord.Thetermsproposed
byKingJohnweretoohumiliatingforthePrincetoaccept;hefellbackonthepleathathewasnotauthorisedbyhisfathertosoarrangeatruce.Withnothingconcluded,darknessfellandbotharmieslayontheirarmswithinbowshotofeachother.DuringthisnighttheEnglishheldawarcounciltodecideuponacourseofactionshouldKingJohndeclineindefinitelytoattackthem.
Suchacoursewouldinevitablymeanthattheycouldbestarvedintosurrenderinafewdays,whilsttheFrencharmysteadilyincreasedinsizeasfreshreinforcementsarrived.PrinceEdward,althoughwishingforbattle,hadseriouslytoconsidertheadvisabilityofslippingaway,and,infact,movedthebooty-wagonsduringthenightovertheNouaillebridge.
Fromearliestdawnthecampwasalivewiththeneighingofhorsesandtheclankofarmourbeingdonned.Inhispavilion,theBlackPrincehimselfwasbeingarrayedforbattle;overhisheadwasdrawntheshirtofchainmail,reinforcedwithbreastplateandbackplatewithshoulder-andarm-guardsofburnishedsteelplates.Nexthedonnedwaist-pieceandloin-guard,and
thigh-pieces,knee-guards,greavesandshoesofjointedmail–thewholeaningeniouslyfittedcombinationofchainmailandsteelplates.Later,whenactionwasimminent,thegreatvisoredhelmwouldbeplacedoverhishead,withacoifofflexiblemailtoprotecttheneck,andtheirongauntletswouldbedrawnuponthehands.Piecebypiecethejointedplateswere
fixedtoshoulder,elbow,hip,kneeandinstep,soastopermitofthegreatestfreedomofmovementpossible;andallwassecurelymadefastwithbuckles,locksandrivets.Overallwasdrawnajuponorsleevelesstunicofcloth,emblazonedwiththeheraldicinsigniaoftheBlackPrince.
Onthemorningofthe19th,aftertheendofthetruce
at7.30,therestofthewagonsandtheirescortbegantomoveoff.FromtheirvantagepointontheNorthRidge,theFrenchvanguardspottedthemovementand,fearingthattheEnglishweregoingtoescape,thetwomarshalscommandingtheforcedecidedtoattackatonce.
TheEnglishpositionhadbeencarefullyselectedonaridgefacingtowardsPoitiers;
italsocoveredtheroadorroadsbywhichtheultimateretirementtoBordeauxwouldhavetobecarriedout–boththeseroadsarestillinexistence.Thereweretworidges,theforemostlying400yardstothenorth-westofMaupertuis,calledtheNorthRidge,therearonebeing400yardssouthofitandoccupiedbytheEnglisharmyforaboutathousandyards.Itwasanuncultivatedhill-top,thick
withscrubandundergrowthboundedbyahedge,thelowerleft-handendofwhichfellawaytoamarshthatrandowntojointheMoissonriver;theupperorright-handendrestedonopengroundontopoftheplateauandwasstrengthenedbyaleaguermadeupofthewagons.Thereweretwogapsinthehedge,wherethetracksranthroughit,theuppergapbeingleftopenandthelower
barricadedwithstakesinterlacedwithvinebranches.BetweenthisridgeandtheNorthRidge,occupiedbytheFrench,laycultivatedlandpartlyvinesandpartlyfallow.AtthehighestpointoftheEnglishridgeweretwotalltreesprobablymarkingtheapproximatesituationoftheBlackPrince’scommandpost,fromwhereagoodviewofthewholepositionandtheFrenchlineofattackcouldbe
obtained.Behindthepositionthegroundslopedupgentlyforsome500yardstoalargewood,theNouailleWood,whichinturndippeddowntothevalleyoftheMoisson,100feetbelow.
BattleofPoitiers19thSeptember1356
TheEnglisharmywasabout6,000strong,composedof3,000men-at-arms,2,000archersand1,000sergeants;theforcewaspositionedalongorclosetothehedge.Salisbury’sdivisionwasontheright,Warwick’sontheleft.Thearchers,dismounted,
wereforthemostpartdrawnupinthefamiliarCrécyformation–ontheflanksoftheirrespectivedivisions,inwedgesslightlyinadvanceofthemen-at-arms.ThePrince’sdivisionwereinreserveinrear,andhealsokeptbackasmallbodyofmountedmen.
TheFrencharmywasabout20,000strong,formedinfourbodies;inthevan
weretwosmallcontingentsofmountedmen-at-arms–about250each–underthecommandofthetwomarshals,ClermontandAudrehem.TheleadingdivisionwasunderthecommandoftheDukeofNormandy,theDauphin;thencamethatofhisuncle,theDukeofOrléans;and,lastofall,thatoftheKing,whohadgivenconsiderablethoughttothemannerinwhichhis
troopsweretogointothebattle.HehadresolvedtofollowthesuccessfulexpedientofKingEdwardatCrécy,andtriedbytheFrenchwithoutsuccessatSt.Georges-la-ValadeandMauron.Hewasgoingtodismounthismen-at-arms,theirhorsesbeingleftinthecityofPoitiers.Forconvenienceinmarchingtheyhadremovedtheirspursandcutoffthelongtoesoftheir
ridingboots;theyhadalsoshortenedtheirlancestoaboutfivefeetforclose-quarterfighting.
Itwasatransitionalperiodsofarasarmourwasconcerned;mailwasgraduallybeingreplacedbyplate-armour.TheBlackPrinceworeplateexceptforhismailgorget,buttheordinaryknightworeabiggerproportionofmail,esquires
hadevenlessplatethantheknights.Overthebreastplateorhauberkwaswornaspectacularlyemblazonedandloose-fittingsurcoat,bearingthearmsoftheknightwhoworeit;thisgavearecognisedrallyingpointforhisfollowersduringanycrisisoremergencyinthebattle.Asthestrengthofarmourincreased,sotheneedfortheshielddiminished–itssizedecreaseduntilitwas
eventuallydiscarded.Thearchers,bothfootandmounted,woreasteelcapandbreastplateorapaddedhauberk.Spearmenweresimilarlyattired,exceptthattheyrarelyeverworeabreastplate.
Althoughtakingtheprecautionofsendinghisbooty-wagonsoffinadvance,theBlackPrincewasinvitingbattlenowthatthearmistice
hadended.ThestirringwithintheFrenchlinesastheynotedthemovementofhistransporttoldthePrincethathisgauntlethadbeentakenup.Hepassedalongthelinesoftroops,makinganinspiringaddressthatsubordinatecommanderswerecarefullyorderedtopassontothosemenwhocouldnotactuallyhearit;thenhemadeasecondspeechtohisarchers.Hismenturnedtheirfaces
towardstheenemy.Theywerereadyforthemandconfidentthatvictorywouldbetheirs,asithadbeenatCrécytenyearsbefore.
ThetwomarshalsledthesmallmountedFrenchvanforwardtotheattackbydivergentpaths,threadingtheirwaythroughthevineyardsothattheybecameaseriesofsmallcolumnseachpursuingitsowntrack.
Clermont’scolumntendedtobunchleftwardsontheNouailleroad,whilstAudrehemfollowedtheGuédel’Hommetrack,eachpathbringingthetwocolumnsupagainstthetwingapsthroughwhichtherespectivetracksbreachedthehedge.Audrehem’smenfoundthemselvesfacingamannedbarricadethathelduptheiradvance,sothattheirleaderimpatientlythrusthimself
forward.Beingmountedonabetterhorsethanhisfollowers,hesucceededineitherjumpingorforcinghimselfthroughthebarricade;unfortunatelynoonefollowedhiminsupportsothathewasquicklycapturedanddisarmed.Clermont’scolumncameuptotheunguardedgapontheNouailleroad;theirleadingfilespassedthroughitandthenponderouslyswungright
tosupportAudrehem.Itwasawell-devisedmanoeuvrethatwasonlyfrustratedbyquickthinkingonthepartofSalisbury.Immediatelyweighingupthesituation,hemovedhislinequicklyforwardrightuptothehedge,thusclosingthegapandpreventingaflankattackonWarwick’sdivision.Thefightingthatnowensuedwassevereandsomeofthecavalryactuallymanagedto
breakthroughthecentre,butwereeventuallybroughtdown.
SeeingtheapproachoftheFrenchcavalry,theEnglisharchersontheleftofthepositionintelligentlymovedstillfurtherleftwards,intothemarsh.Inthewaterloggedgroundtheywerecomparativelysafefromtheheavilycladhorsemen,and,undisturbed,wereableto
keepupagallingshowerofarrowsintotheFrenchflanks.ThemoveintothemarshtookplaceasadirectresultofanorderfromtheEarlofOxford,whorandownfromthePrince’scommand-posttodirectthearcherstochangetheirposition.HehadnoticedthattheEnglisharrowswerericochetingofftheFrenchbreastplatesastheridersadvanceddirectlytowardsthearchers;thenewposition
enabledthemtofireobliquelyattheunprotectedhindquartersofthehorsesratherthanatthearmouredriders.
Theslopebecamelitteredwithdeadandwoundedmenandhorsesrollingovereachotherinheaps;onesurvivor,deMézerarysaying:‘…theEnglishmen’sbeardedarrowsmadethehorsesmad.’Recognisingthatonlythe
vanguardhadbeenengaged,theEnglishwererigidlyrestrainedfrompursuitwhenthesurvivorsbrokeandfled.
NowthebattlewastakenupbytheDauphin’sdivision,whoadvancedonfoot,theirshortenedbutstillclumsylancesprojectinginfrontofthemastheyslowlywaddledforward.Theywerefarfromhappyatwhatlaybeforethem,theirmoralehaving
beendetrimentallyaffectedbywhattheyhadjustseenhappentothemountedvanguard.Thesituationwasworsenedbytheconfusionanddisorderthatrippledthroughtheircloselypackedranksasthepanic-strickenhorsescrashedthroughthemintheirlumberingpassagetotherear,awayfromthebitingarrowsthattormentedthem.Itwasliterallyachargeofmadanimals,themost
terribleofallcharges;anditcausedthegreatestconfusionintheirranks.
TheEnglisharchersfiredasquicklyastheycould,keepingtheautumnskyblackwiththeirshaftsandcausingthebelabouredFrenchmen-at-armstolurchforward,headsdown,fallingoverthebodiesofthosewhofellbeforethem.Stilltheycameon,movingeverforwardina
courageousmanner,butcouragedoesnotalwayswinbattlesanditwasnottodosointhiscase.TheEnglishfirebegantoslackenasthearchersranoutofarrows;encouragedbythisnoticeablediminutionintherainofdeath,theFrenchmen-at-armstrampedforwardevenmoreresolutelytowardsthewaitingEnglish.Astheenemynearedtheirposition,thedismountedEnglishmen-
at-armsmovedforwardtothefrontofthenowbatteredandpartlyflattenedhedge,togivethemselvesmorespacetoswingtheirswordsinthemêléethatwasabouttocome.
Withshouts,battle-criesandtheclashofsteel,thetwoforcesmetandafiercehand-to-handstruggletookplace.Itsurgedbackandforth,brokeintoinnumerablepersonal
duelsandebbedtoandfro,givingpromiseofvictoryfirsttooneside,thentheother.Warwick’sportionofthelinewasparticularlystrainedandthePrincereinforceditwiththebulkofhisowndivision,keepingasmallmountedreserveinhand.Atlast,withbothsidesexhaustedandhardlyabletolifttheirheavyarms,theDauphin’smenwaveredandbegantodrawoff,butstillfightingvaliantly
andingoodorder.
Thehard-breathingEnglishstoodback,leaningheavilyontheirweapons;theyweretootiredforanyspontaneousexpressionsoftriumphbuttheyheavedsighsofreliefatwhattheybelievedtobethevictoriousendofthebattle.Thearchersscamperedforwardtoretrievearrowsthattheyhadalreadydischargedandwhich
carpetedthegroundinfrontofthem.Waterwasbroughtandwoundsweredressed,damagedweaponschangedforwholeones,afairselectionbeingpossiblefromthoselyingaroundabandonedbydeadandwoundedofbothsides.TheEnglishsavouredthelengtheninglull,takingtimetolookaroundthem;theyfailedtorealisethattherewerestilltwoFrenchcolumnssofaruncommitted,
atleastoneofwhichwasdoublethestrengthoftheentireEnglisharmy.Thisimpressionwassomarkedthatanumberofmen-at-armswereactuallysentoffinpursuitoftheDauphin’sretreatingmen.
TheoriginalplanoftheKingofFrancewasforthenextstageofthebattletobetakenupbythecolumnoftheyoungDukeofOrléans;butit
hadcompletelydispersedandwasfleeinginscatteredgroupstowardsChauvigny.Thedisastrouseffectsofthetwodistinctandseparategroupsofsurvivorsfrompreviousattacksfleeing,weaponlessanddistraught,throughtheirranks,causedapanicthattheirtwenty-one-year-oldcommanderwascompletelyunabletostem.
ForsomereasontheKing’s
columnwasbeingheldfarbackbehindthefighting,sothattheDauphin’sforcehadbeendispersedbeforeJohnevenknewthattheyhadbeenengaged.Hewasnowawarethatonlyhis10,000menremained,andhehadominousdoubtsastowhethertheycouldcopewitheventhe6,000orsobattle-wearyEnglishwhoremainedsecureintheirpositionontheridge.Themostprudentmove
wouldhavebeenastrategicalwithdrawalbuttherewereconsiderationsofchivalrytobetakenintoaccountand,asatypicalexampleofFrenchthinkingoftheday,high-mindeddreamsprevailedoverdiscretion.KingJohngavetheordertoadvance;slowly,stifflythecolumnrolledforwardtotheattack,lumberingarduouslytothetopoftheNorthRidgefacingtheEnglishposition.
Theserriedranksofthelarge,glitteringmasstoppedtheridgeingoodorder,bannersfluttering,weaponsgleaming;apparentlyunaffectedbywhathadgonebefore,theymovedpurposefullytotheattack.Whentheformidablespectaclewasunrolledbeforetheireyes,thewearyEnglishgapedinastonishment;theirpreviouselationsuddenlydisappearedandwasreplaced
byexhaustionandapprehension.Dismayedcursesandgrumblesroseonallsides.Manylookedwildlyaroundasthoughseekinganavenueofescape;losinghishead,oneofthePrince’sstaffcriedout:
‘Alas!Wearebeaten!’
Hismasterlookedathimcontemptuouslyandthenturnedaway.Raisinghishead
sothatallaroundhimcouldhear,thePrincestinginglyreplied:
‘Thouliest!Thouknave!IfthousayestthatwecanbeconqueredaslongasIlive!’
Nevertheless,itwasadecisivemomentinthelifeoftheBlackPrince.HedidnotknowofthedefectionoftheDukeofOrléans’columnandwasuncertainwhetherornot
itwasbackingupthisgreat,freshforcethatwassteadilylumberingtowardsthem.Hehadtomakearapiddecision;shouldhesacrificesomeofhisfootsoldiersandthewagons,besatisfiedwiththedamagehehaddoneuptonow,andwithdraw?Orshouldherepeattheactionthathadalreadytakenplacetwiceandstandonthedefensiveandletthemthrowthemselvesagainsthistired
men?No,hedidnotfancythat,realisingthat,forthemoment,hismoralsuperiorityhaddepartedandherecalledatacticalpointthathehadearliernoticed–thathisdefensivepositionwaslesseffectiveagainstdismountedmenthanagainstcavalry.
ThePrince’sactivebrainseizedontheoneandonlycoursethatwouldrestorehis
army’smorale–hewouldattack!Hereasonedswiftlytohimself–theFrenchwereoutintheopen,onthemoveanddismounted,andtheylackedarchers–allfactorsthataddeduptoamarkedinabilitytodefendthemselvesagainstamountedattack.ThePrinceblessedtheinspirationthathadcausedhimtokeephishorsesathandandorderspurstoberetainedbyhismen-at-arms.IfthePrince
hadanydoubtsabouthisplan,theywererapidlydispersedwhenSirJohnChandos,oneofhisablestcommanders,hastenedtohissideandurgentlyspoke:
‘Sir,rideforward,thedaysisyours!LetusassailtheKingofFrance,forwithhimliesallthestrengthoftheenterprise.
WellIknowhisvalourwill
notpermithimtoflee,therefore,pleaseGodandSaintGeorge,heshallremainwithus!’
Onallsides,commandersroaredoutorderstomount;themen-at-arms,theirpreviousexhaustionforgottenin-thenewexcitement,gatheredthemselvestogetherandstruggledintothesaddle,wheretheyslumpedawaitingthenextorder.Becoming
impatientthroughthedelaythatfollowed,theirhorsesrestlesslyliftedtheirfeetandnudgedintoeachother,whilsttheirridersglancedtobothsidesseekingthereasonforthepause.ThePrincewasarrangingadiversionintheformofaflankattackbythesmallmountedreservehestillheld,freshandready,undertheGasconleader,CaptaldeBuch.Hecarefullyinstructedthemtoleavethepositionby
thenorthernendoftheNouaillewood,swingleftandapproachtheNorthRidgeunobserved,sothattheyhittheFrenchleftflankastheircolumntrudgedforward.ThePrincereturnedtotheheadofhismen,glancedallaroundhim,noddedwithsatisfactionandraisedhisswordhighabovehishead.Tothestandard-bearershecried:‘Advance,banners!InthenameofGodandSt.
George!’WiththePrinceandChandosinfront,thenowmountedmen-at-armsrolled,downtheslopetowardsthedipthatlaybetweenthemandtheNorthRidge,graduallygatheringmomentumastheywent.Havingexhaustedtheirarrows,themountedarchersdrewtheirswordsandgrimlytackedthemselvesontotheflanksandrearofthenowchargingmass.TheadvancingFrenchdivision,
seeingthesuddenavalancheofmenandhorsescascadingdowntowardsthem,backedbythethunderofhoovesandtheshoutsofbattle-cries,involuntarilystopped,sothattherearrankspileduponthoseinfront.Forsomeitprovedtoomuch;aconsiderablenumberoftheFrenchmen-at-armsintherearandontheflankstookadvantageoftheirpositiontoturnandrun,shamblingfrom
thefieldasfastastheirheavyarmourallowed.Beforetheremaindercouldassumeanysortofdefensivepositionorformation,changetheirranksorpresentamoreunitedfront,theEnglishhorsemenwereuponthem.Theycrashedhomeintothewallofyielding,livingbodieswithafierceshockthattumbledmenofbothsides,togetherwithhorses,totheground.
Nowensuedahardandbloodyconflict;themountedEnglishwerestilloutnumberedbutmanagedtoforcetheirwayforwardyardbyyard.Itwastheclosestofclose-quarterfightingwheretheshortdaggerwasmoredeadlythanthefive-footlancethatcouldnotbeplungedhome,ortheswordthatlackedspaceinwhichtobewielded.
Thiswasthetimewhenconflictsoundedandlookedpossiblymoredeadlythanitactuallywas,ifoneisonlytoconsiderthosemen-at-armsactuallykilledbyopposingmen-at-arms.Inthosecasestheactualkillingwasseldomgreatbutmanywereunhorsedorthrowntotheground,wheretheylayhelplessuntilassistedtoriseagain;inhotweathermanyweresuffocatedorchokedin
bloodiftheirvisorswerenotunclasped.Thoseamongthemwhoperishedbysword-cutorlance-thrustwerefewincomparisontotheslaughtermadewhentheyfoundanopeninginaformationofinfantry,orcameuponunsupportedarcherswithouthavingtotaketoomanyarrows.
Themêléesurgedbackandforth,thegroundbecame
slipperyandbloody,mentumblednoisily,tobetrampledintoshapelesshulksbeneaththeshufflingfeetandhoovesofthecombatants;onallsidestheairwasfullofthetumultofbattle.
UndersuchconditionsitwasnotsurprisingthatnoonesawtheapproachofCaptaldeBuch’ssmallbodyofcavalryastheycameinontheFrenchleftflank.Theycrashedinto
thisunsuspectingpartoftheKing’sdivisionwithashockresult,bothphysicallyandmorally,farinexcessoftheirsizeandnumbers.Resolutelytheycommencedtohacktheirwayintothemêlée.FortheFrenchitwasthelaststraw;theirgreatcolumn,attackedontwosides,begantocrumblelikeasandcastleundertheonslaughtofremorselesswaves.Progressively,itslowly
disintegratedasmenstole,stumbledandlurchedfromthefield,seekingsafetyandwildlygazingineverydirectionforsanctuary.ThemorefaithfulfollowersoftheKingofFrancefoughtbravelyaroundhim;theBlackPrinceandhiscommanderskepttheirmensteadilyonhand,concentratingtheireffortsonthisconfusedmultitudewhostillfoughton,beingwhittled
downbysword,axe,lanceanddagger.TheKinghimselffoughtbravely,battle-axeinhandsalmosttoowearytowieldit;aroundhimpressedafuriousthrongofEnglishandGascons,crying:
‘Surrender!Giveway!’
AnxioustosavetheFrenchmonarch,manyEnglishknightsimploredhimtoyieldbuthewasunwillingtodoso
toanyoneofinferiorrank.Repeatedlyheasked:
‘Whereismycousin?WhereisthePrinceofWales?’
AyoungknightofSt.OmerspoketohiminFrench:
‘Sire,surrender!Iwillleadyoutohim.’
Struckbyhispureaccent,
thebreathless,wearyKingasked:
‘Whoareyou?’
‘Sire,IamDenisofNorbeque,aknightofArtois.IservetheKingofEnglandbecauseIhavelostmyallinFrance.’
TheKingsighed:
‘Then,toyouIsurrender.’
Hegavetheyoungknighthisrightgauntletandmovedslowlywithhimtowardstheedgeofthemêlée,wheresomeGasconsandEnglishclaimedhimandtriedtowresthimawayfromNorbeque.TheopportunearrivaloftheEarlofWarwickandSirJohnPelhamsavedwhatmightwellhavebeenadisastrousending.TheEnglishknightsapproachedtheroyalcaptivewithevery
showofrespectandconductedhimtothePrinceofWales.
Slowlythebattleburneditselfout;thetriumphantEnglishpursuedsomeofthefleeingFrenchasfarastheverywallsofPoitiers.Amidthedeadanddying,theBlackPrincehadhispavilionpitchedandthere,withdarknessdescending,satdowntodinewithhisroyal
prisonerofwar.
TheFrenchcasualtiesamountedtoapproximately2,500reportedkilledandsome2,000captured,plusabout4,000wounded;norecordseemstohavebeenkeptofthecasualtiestotheinfantrylevies,whosebatteredbodieswerepiledintoagreatcharnel-pit.Althoughnoaccuratefiguresareavailable,apparentlythe
Englishgotoffverylightly.
TherewereanumberofvalidreasonsfortheEnglishvictoryatPoitiers;asuccessprominentamongtheconsistentEnglishvictoriesovernumericallystrongerforcesthatmarkedthissixteen-yearperiodinthemiddleofthefourteenthcentury.Inaway,Poitierswasathrow-backtothepreviouscenturyinthatitwas
wonbymen-at-armswithasuccessfullateactionofmountedagainstdismountedtroops.AlthoughitbeganintheCrécytradition,thearchersdidnotreallyplaytheirusualprominentpart.
Theeventualresultofthebattlewasmuchaffectedbythemannerinwhichthetwoopposingcommandershandledtheirarmies.TheBlackPrinceneverletgohis
strongpersonalgrip;hemostadequatelyutilisedthelullafterbeatingofftheDauphin’sattackbybrilliantlydecidingtomountandattack,couplingtheonslaughtwithamountedflankattack.Hechosehisgroundwellinthatitwassuitableforthesizeofhisarmy:thehedgeserveditspurposeadmirably,thevineyardinfrontbrokeupthecavalryattacks,andthe
natureofthegroundontherightlentitselftotheflankmove.ThePrincegavehisforcemobilitybykeepinghishorseshandy–withoutthistherecouldhavebeennocombinedfrontalandflankattack,sounusualforbattlesoftheperiod.
Ontheotherhand,KingJohnofFrancelackedcombinedcontroloverhisforces,whowereformedinto
whatamountedtothreedistinctandseparatearmies.ThisisreflectedinthemannerinwhichheallowedhisowndivisiontobesofarbehindthebattlefieldatthetimewhentheDauphinwasbeingrepulsed;atthatmomentheshouldhavebeenhandyandreadytotakeitupagain.Insteadhismenhadalongandslowadvancetomake,givingtheBlackPrincetimetoformulatealternative,
winningtactics.ObsessedwithKingEdward’sdefenceatCrécy,KingJohndismountedhismen-at-arms,butfailedtoobservethatthecircumstanceswereabsolutelydifferentinthatherequiredavigorousimpactthroughshockandmobility,whereasEdwardsoughtdefensivestability.Coupledwiththiserrorandconnectedwithhislackofoverallcontrol,theFrenchKing
allowedhisarmytobeformedintoonegiganticwedgethat,divisionbydivision,dasheditselfagainstthestrongestpartoftheEnglishposition.
SoendedanotherFrenchking’sattempttodefeattheEnglisharmyinFrance,afailureattendedbyevengreaterignominythanthatofhispredecessoratCrécy.
Chapter16
HomildonHill–1402TheroyalcaptivefromPoitierswasmarchedintriumphthroughLondonand,eventually,atwoyears’trucewassigned.Soughtasa
healing-time,thisperiodbecameoneofinternalwarfarebetweenbandsofroutedsoldierywhoformedthemselvesintofreecompaniesofbandits;themiserablecountrythatwasFrancefoundnorestinherself.Next,ParisroseagainsttheCrowninarisingthatwashardlycrushedbeforeEdwardwasagainravagingthewastedland.ThedefeatatPoitiershadsucha
profoundeffectupontheFrenchmilitarymindthattheymadenofurtherattemptstomeettheEnglishinapitchedlandbattle.TheyallowedtheEnglishtowearthemselvesoutmarchingthelengthandbreadthoftheland,whilsttheysullenlyshutthemselvesintheircastles.FaminewasprovingFrance’sbestdefence,sothatthesetacticswerereasonablywellsuitedtothecircumstances;
buttheyinevitablydroveyetanothernailintothecoffinofchivalrybybeingopposedtoeverypreceptofthatfeudalstatewhichbadeeverygoodknighttoaccepteachandallchallenges.
Atlastbothcountriesseemedtobewornout.Edward’sarmyhadfallenbackontheLoirewhenproposalsofpeacereachedthem.BytheTreatyof
Bretigny,inMay1360,EdwardwaivedhisclaimsonthecrownofFranceandontheDuchyofNormandy;ontheotherhand,theDuchyofAquitaine,whichincludedGascony,Guienne,Poitou,Saintonge,Limousin,PérigordandRouergue,werelefttohim,nolongerasafiefbutinfullsovereignty,whilehisnewconquestofCalaisremainedapartofthepossessionsoftheEnglish
crown.EdwardalsoretainedthecountryofPonthieu(withAbbevilleandthesiteofCrécy)ontheChannelCoast.IfitwasnotallthatEdwardwanted,itwasstilltriumph;atriumphwellearnedbythedominantmonarchwhosepersonalityandpersistencehadbroughtvictory.Possessinganaturaltalentforwar,hisattitudeandmethodsinspiredconfidenceintherugged,experiencedand
giftedcommandershehadgatheredaroundhimself.Itwasaconfidencethatflowednaturallyfromthemdowntotherank-and-file,leadingtoavibrantmoraleandahighlevelofdiscipline.WhentheTreatyofBretignywassigned,therewaslittledoubtthattheEnglishsoldierand,therefore,theEnglisharmyformedaprofessionalbodyoffightingmenwithoutequalintheworld.Onlyinthisway
wasitablesoconsistentlytodefeatoneseveraltimeslargerthanitself,itscampaigningbringingapolishedexperiencethatrefusedtoaccepttheexistenceofanythinglessthanoverwhelmingvictory.
EnglandwasayoungnationanditsfiresofnationalconsciousnessweretobestokedupbythisseriesofContinentalsuccesses,
bringingwiththemapridethathasneverlefttheseshores.ItisprobablynomerecoincidencethatthesigningoftheTreatyofBretignypracticallycoincidedwiththeintroductionoftheEnglishtongueintoParliamentaryproceedings.TheincontestablemilitarysuperiorityoftheEnglishinthefourteenthcenturylay,aboveall,inthedexteritywithwhichtheyusedgood
weaponscombinedwiththehighproportionofarcherstootherarms.WiththismustbecoupledthehighstandardsofEnglishmorale;theyenteredtheHundredYearsWarwithareasonablyhighstateofmorale,duetothesuccessesagainsttheScots;byPoitiersthismentalstatewasatitsverypeakamongbothofficersandmen.
Althoughatreatyhadbeen
signed,themenwhofoughtstillhadabilityandhotbloodtoputatthedisposalofanyonewhoneededfirst-classfightingmenandcouldpaywellforthem.Onthe16thofMarch1364aFreeCompanyofEnglisharchers,numberingabout300,foughtfortheKingofNavarreagainsttheKingofFranceatCockerel.Itwasasmallbattle,onlyabout1,500oneachside,butmadenotable
byattemptsoftheFrenchtocombatthenowfamiliarEnglishtactics.Theydismountedtheirmen-at-arms,whofoughtonfoot,theirarmourbeingofsuchsuperiorqualitythatitturnedtheEnglisharrows.Coupledwithaslightsuperiorityinnumbers,thisfactorforcedtheKingofNavarre’smenfromthefield.Itwasonlyaveryslightsuccess,butthedefeatofevenasmallbody
ofEnglishwassuchararityinthosedaysthatitarousedgreathopesinFrenchbreastsforthefuture.
ThefollowingyearsawabattleatAuray,onthe29thofSeptember1365,whenEnglishtroopsaidedJohnofMontfortinhisquarrelwithCharlesofBlois.Theforcesweresmallagain,about4,000aside;bothdismountedandtheFrenchdiscardedtheir
lances,tofightwithbattle-axeandsword.TheEnglisharchersopenedtheengagement,but,asatCockerel,theirshaftscouldnotpenetratetheFrencharmour.Aftersomefutileshooting,withgreatdeliberation,theythrewdowntheirbowsandboldlyadvancedtowardstheFrenchmen-at-arms.Theirlightnessoffootandnimbletacticsaresaidtohaveenabledthem
literallyto‘runringsaround’thearmouredmen,whoseaxesandswordstheypluckedfromtheirhandsandusedagainsttheirformerowners!Inaseriesofdetachedstrugglesbetweenbrawny,activeEnglishmenindoubletandhoseagainstpantingFrenchmencasedstifflyinmailandplate-armour,staggeringandrattlingastheycursedfrombehindclosedvisors,thestruggleswayed
backandforth.Quickly,men-at-armscametotheassistanceofthearchers,and,afteradesperateengagement,theFrenchweredrivenfromthefieldofbattle.
Intheyear1377theFrenchlandedaconsiderablebodyoftroopsontheIsleofWight;theytookandrazedthecityofFrancheville,4andthen,splittingintotwocolumns,madeforthefortressof
Carisbrooke.Thefirstcolumn,ambushedbyEnglisharchers,wascompletelywipedout;thesecondwassosorelybeaten,againbybowmen,atthecastle,thattheFrenchwereforcedtoretreat.AtthistimeRichardIIwasKingofEngland;recordsindicatethathemaintainedastandingbodyguardofarchers,someauthoritiesplacingtheirnumbersashighas4,000.On
oneoccasion,whentroublearoseinLondon,thebodyguard,fearingforthelifeoftheirmaster,drewtheirarrowsandrankedthemselvesoutsideParliament,itissaid,‘totheterrorofthepeople’.
Towardstheendofthefourteenthcenturythearmouroftheperiodbecamemuchmoreelaborate,partakingofthemoreextravagantmodesoftheage.Platewasso
universallywornthatthegussetsofchainatthejointsandthechainapronwereallthatremainedoftheoldmailofthetenthcentury.Thejuponandmilitarygirdlewerestillworn,andvisoredbascinetsweresometimesused,withtheventaillefashionedlikethebeakofabird,whilethebascinetitselfwasoftenencircledbyabandorfilletofermine,oraborderofbeautifulworkmanship.
MilanwasnowthegrandemporiumforequippingthechivalryofEurope.HeraldiccrestsonthehelmetwereworninEnglandbyallmenofrank,butnotgenerallyusedinScotlandforalmostahundredyearsafterbeingcommoninEngland.ThearmouroftheEarlofDouglas,defeatedScotscommanderatHomildonHill,wassaidtohavetakenayeartotemperandmake.
Theoldenemy,theScots,everonthelookoutforanopportunitytoprofitbyEngland’soccupationinotherdirections,crossedtheborderinSeptember1402,andpenetratedasfarasNewcastle.UndertheleadershipofArchibald,fourthEarlofDouglas,theScotsforce,numberingperhaps8,000,laidwastethelandandthenturnedbacktowardstheborder.HenryIV
beingengagedatthetimeonaWelshexpedition,anEnglishforcetoopposetheScotswashastilycollectedundertheleadershipoftheEarlofNorthumberlandandhisson,thegallantHotspur.Theseexperiencedborderleaders,togetherwiththeEarlofMarch,decidedtointercepttheScotswhenontheirhomewardmarch,encumberedwithspoilandherdsofcattle.
TheEarlofDouglaswasatWoolerwhenhereceivedthenewsthathiswaytoScotlandwasbarredbyanEnglishforceatMillfield,ontheriverTill,aboutfivemilesnorth-westofWooler.Douglasimmediatelytookupapositiononaneminence,HomildonHill,abouttwomileswestbynorthofWooler.Thehillitselfwasterracedinthreesuccessivetiers,andhadanelevationof
nearly1,000feetabovesea-level;ithadaflattopandtracesofarudeearthworkweredetectable;onitslowerslopesburialmoundsexisted.
HeretheScotswerenoisilyformingthemselvesintotheirschiltrons–thedefensiveformationsofpikementhathadservedthemwellinthepast–whentheyweresuddenlyattackedbyabodyofabout500Englisharchers
whohadbeensentforwardonareconnaissance.ThebowmenopenedfireatlongrangeontheirhereditaryenemiesandcausedsomedamageamongthemassedScotsranks;thentheycamecloserandmenbegantofallfast–wellmightthearchersofEnglandboastthateachcarriedtwelveScotslivesathisbelt!WithDouglaswasasmallbodyofarchers,whoattemptedtoreplytothehail
ofEnglisharrowswithoutdoingmuchdamage;afactthatcanbeputdowntotheScottishbowbeingsmallerandweakerthanitsEnglishcounterpart,onlybeingpulledtothechestithadamuchshorterrange.Spasmodically,bodiesofScotsspearmenattemptedtochargedownthehill,butallwerethrownbackbyshowersofarrows.Underthegallinghail,thenationaltemperamentofthefiery
Scotsrosetoboilingpoint;theybegantomovefromtheirdefensivepositionandtosurgedownthehill.
Whenthesurgebecameaflood,theEnglisharcherscommencedtoretireinsections,dischargingvolleysinsuccession,causingthebaffledspearmentolosemenateverystepastheyimpulsivelypressedforward.AbodyofScotshorse
lumberedtothefrontbut,inthesameway,wereunabletogetintoclosequarters.Itwasmaddeningandridiculousthatthissmallbodyofmenshouldbecausingsuchheavycasualtieswithoutlosingasinglemanoftheirown.
Thechase,orluring,wenton,untiltheEnglisharchershaddrawntheentireScottishforcedownfromtheirhilltoafieldknownasRedRiggon
theothersideoftheriverTill.Here,theremainderoftheEnglishforcewaited,impatientforaction;infact,HotspurproposedanimmediatechargeonthedisorderedScotsbuttheEarlofMarchseizedhisbridleandsuggestedthatthearchersshouldfirstbeallowedtodischargealltheirshafts.TheScotsattemptedtore-formtheirnormallyclose-packedranksintoadefensive
formationwhentheysawthemassedranksoftheEnglishawaitingthem,butwerestillbeingruthlesslyassailedbythehissingclothyardshaftsofthearchers.TheseScottishpikemen,iftheyhadanyarmouratallitwasonlytheverylightest,sounprotectedandinclose-knitgroups,fellindozensuponeachother.Theirleaders,whostillusedtheoldEnglishchainmail,founditnodefenceagainst
thedeadlyarrows;horses,woundedandungovernable,theirbreastsandflanksbristlingwithbloodyarrows,gallopedmadlytoandfro,tramplingbothdeadandwoundedintoagorypulp.
SirJohnSwinton,anoldScotsknightofdistinguishedrecord,criedoutbitterly:
‘Whystandwethustobeshotdownlikedeer?Where
isourwontedcourage?Arewetobestillasifourhandswerenailedtoourlances?Followmeandletusatleastsellourlivesasdearlyaswecan!’
Attheheadofabout100men,hedesperatelychargedforward,completelyunsupportedbytherestoftheScotsarmy,tobequicklyoverthrownanddestroyedalmosttoaman.Then
Douglasmadeafinalefforttosavethedaybymakingadesperatechargeattheheadofhismen.Beforetheattackbrokedownunderthefireofthearchers,Douglashimselfhadlostaneyeandbeenwoundedinfourplaces.Whenthisonslaughtcameforward,thearchersretiredbeforeit,droppingbackontotheircavalry,butcontinuedtoshootuntiltheadvancingScotswaveredandbroke.
PercyandMarchnowsawthatthetimehadcometoact;theysentintheEnglishmountedmen.Withashout,thearchersdroppedtheirbowsandtooktotheirswordsandaxes,rushinginandminglingwiththehorsemen,toplaytheirfinalpartinthemêlée.Therewasnotagreatdealforthemen-at-armstodo.Theydrewtheirswordsandlaidtheirlancesinrest,buttheScotshadhadenough;
brokenbythearchers,theyturnedtoflee.TheywerepursuedasfarasColdstream,theoldcrossingplaceoftheTweed;itwassaidbythechroniclersthattheScots’lossesinthepursuitwereevengreaterthanthoseofthebattle!
In1403,attheBattleofShrewsbury,theEnglishhadatasteofthefearsomemedicinedealtoutforsolong
totheFrenchandtheScots.Positionedonaslope,theCheshirearchersoftherebelHotspur,filledtheairwithadeadlyhailofarrows,takingheavytollofHenryIV’smen.Thisfirstdischargeofarrowswas,byallaccounts,terrifying;Walsingham,acontemporarywriter,says:‘TheyfellupontheKing’stroopslikeleavesuponthegroundinautumn.Everyonestruckamortalman.’Henry
V,thenthefifteen-year-oldPrinceHenry,carriedtohisgravethescarofafacialwoundcausedbyanarrow–herefusedtoleavethefieldofcombat.
HadtheCheshirearchersbeenabletomaintaintheirshowerofshaftstheroyalarmywouldhavebeensweptfromthefield.Whenitslackened,thearcherswereovercomebythesuperior
numbersoftheKing’smensweepinguptheslope.Withinthreehours,1,600outof8,000menhadbeenkilled,themajorityfromarrowwounds.
Chapter7
Agincourt–1415TakingadvantageofthecivilwarwhichconvulsedFrance,theseinternalcalamitiesofferingatemptingopportunityforaggression,
HenryV,onhisaccession,revivedEdwardIII’sclaimtothethroneofFrance.Henry’swarwasarenewaloftheearlierstruggleontheexpirationofatrucemadebyRichard.Inmid-1415,HenrysailedwithhisarmyfromSouthampton,andinfiveweekshadreducedthestrongfortressofHarfleur.Dysenteryandsimilardiseasesmadehavocinhisranksduringthesiegeandit
waswithamerehandfulofmenthatHenrydecidedtoinsulttheenemywithadaringmarch,likethatofEdward,uponCalais.
Onthe8thofOctobertheEnglishmarchedoffinthreecolumns,withcavalryontheirflanks.ButHenryfoundthebridgesoftheriverSommebrokendownandthefordsrenderedperilousbylinesofpointedstakesinthe
riverbed.Aftersomedelay,anundefendedplacewasdiscoverednearSt.Quentin;hecrossedrapidlyandmarchedforCalais,onlyforhisweary,sickandhalf-starvedforcetofindamuchlargerFrenchforcecampedrightacrosstheirlineofmarch.TheEnglishKingknewthathehadnochoicebetweenfightingandunconditionalsurrender;histroopswerestarvingandthe
waytoCalaislaythroughtheFrencharmy.TheKing’scourageroseashisperilgrewand,hungry,sickandwearyastheywere,thehandfulofmenwhomheledsharedthespiritoftheirleader.
AmidthedarknessoftheOctobernightandthroughthesheetsofbiting,coldrain,theEnglishcouldseethewholelandscapeflickeringwiththeFrenchcamp-fires.Overthe
half-mileofsodden,muddygroundthatlaybetweenthearmies,thepassingwindcarriedthenoiseofshouting,singingandburstsofmerriment.ItcontrastedoddlywiththedisciplinedquietoftheEnglishcamp,wherewell-trainedsoldierssawtotheirweapons,confessedandwereshriven,chastenedbytheconvictionthatmostofthemwoulddieonthemorrow.KingHenry
tookUtilerest;hemovedquietlyamonghismen,talkingtothem.Once,whenabriefseasonofmoonlightoccurred,hesentofficersouttoexaminethegroundoverwhichtheywouldsoonfight.
Atthreeo’clockthemoonrose,andthewholearmyawokeandpreparedfortheday’swork.Tokeeptheirheartscheerful,theKingorderedthetrumpets,drums
andfifestoplayfamiliartunes.Thenightpassedawayandthedawnstoleon–thedawnoftheFeastofSt.Crispin,the25thofOctober1415.Ithadstoppedrainingbuttheskywasgreyandwater-laden;themenbegantobedeployedbytheirmarshalsintoorderofbattle.Iftheydidnotpresentatidy,colourfulappearance,theirtarnished,dentedandwell-usedarmourandequipment
gavethemaworkmanlikestatusthatheldahintofwhatwastocome.IthadbeenbrightandburnishedwhentheyhadleftSouthamptontwomonthsbefore;brightplumesintheapexofthehelmethadlongsincebedraggledanddrooped,buttheformofthehelmitselfwasstillquitebeautiful,withanorleorchapletaroundit.Thebreastplateshadbecomeglobularinrecentyearsand
thesteelgorgetwasreplacingtheancientcamailwhichhadhithertoprotectedthethroat.Hangingsleevesofrichclothhadbeenwornwiththearmour,nowhanginginthreadsandtatters.Thelance-restswerehooksjustbelowtherightbreast;two-handedswordswithheavybladeshadjustbeenintroducedandapole-axewasoftencarriedbycommandersinthefield.Monstrelet,inhisChronicles,
describestheEnglisharchersasbeingforthemostpartwithoutarmour,andinjacketswiththeirhoseloose,withouthatsorcapsandoftenbarefooted;theirhatchetsorswordshungattheirgirdle.St.Remysaysthattheywerenotbareheaded,andthatmanyofthemworecapsofcuirbouilli,orboiledleather,andothersofwicker-workcrossedoverwithbarsofiron.
TheKingheardthreeMasses,heldatvariouspartsofthecampsothatallcouldtakepart;hewascladinallhisarmoursavehishelmandemblazonedsurcoat.AfterthelastMasstheybroughtthemtohim–thehelmwasabascinetwithabaviere,uponwhichhehadacrownofgoldstuddedwithpearls,sapphiresandrubies;hissurcoatwasresplendentwiththeleopardsofEnglandandthefleur-de-
lysofFrance.Hemountedhisgreypalfreyandrodedownthelinesoftroops,callingoutwordsofencouragementtothemashereceivedtheircheers.Hespoketohisarchers,remindingthemthatwhenSoissonshadfallenafewmonthsbefore,theFrenchhadhunguplikedogsthe300Englisharchersofthegarrison.Thecommonsoldierknewthat,indefeat,hewouldbecutdowntothelastman;
notforhimwastherealife-savingransomasinthecaseoftheknights.
Asheproceeded,Henrychancedtohearsomeonewishthat‘…someofthegoodknightswhowereidleinEnglandmight,byamiracle,betransportedtothisfieldofbattle.’
Henrycriedloudly:
‘No!Iwouldnothaveasinglemanmore!IfGodgivesusvictory,itwillbeplainthatweoweittoHisgoodness.IfHedonot,thefewerwearewillbethelesslosstoEngland.ButfightwithyourusualcourageandGodandthejusticeofourcauseshallprotectus!’
AnotherhearteningexampleofspiritandcouragewasshownbyDavidGam,a
Welshcaptain,returningfromreconnoitringtheenemy,whoreportedthat‘…thereareenoughtobekilled,enoughtobetakenandenoughtorunaway!’
ThesmallEnglisharmywasdrawnupontheoldplanofCrécy,intheusualthree‘battles’ofdismountedmen-at-armswitharchersonthewingsofeachbattle,andafurthertwobodiesofarchers,
oneoneachwingofthearmy.Themen-at-armswereaboutfourdeepandthearchersaboutseventotheyard,beingformedintowedgesorbastion-likeformationsprojectinginfrontofthelineofmen-at-arms.ThecentrewascommandedbytheKing,therightwingbyEdward,DukeofYork,andLordCamoyscommandedtheleftwing.ThetotalEnglishstrengthwasunder6,000,
composedofabout1,000men-at-armsandknights,with5,000archers–aforcesosmallthattheKingcouldaffordnoreserveandonlythesmallestbaggage-guard.
TheFrencharmy,mainlycomposedofmen-at-arms,wasformedinthreelines,allbeingdismountedexcepttherearone;thereweretwobodiesofcavalryeach600strong,stationedoneach
wing.Thelineswereaboutfiveorsixdeep,althoughtheFrenchfrontofabout1,200yardswasmostcongestedfortheirforceofabout25,000men,sothattheyweredenselypackedwithlittlespacetoplyweapons.
Thetwoarmiesformedupatdawnonthatautumnmorningand,forfourhours,stoodmotionlesswatchingeachotherintently;the
FrenchhadtoomanybittermemoriesofCrécy,Poitiersandotherbattlestotaketheoffensive,sotheystoodfirmawaitinganEnglishadvance.ItwasananticlimaxthatwasencouragingtothesmallerEnglishforce,althoughverywearingonthenerves!
OnthemarchtoAgincourt,HenryhadbeeninformedthattheFrenchintendedtomakea‘dead-set’atthehated
archers.Tocombatthis,heorderedeacharchertoprovidehimselfwithastakesixfeetinlengthandpointedateachend.Incaseofmountedattack,orwheninpositionasonthisverymorning,thestakesweretobethrustintotheground,theupperendsslopingtowardstheenemy.Thechronicler,Holinshed,writingonthis,says:‘TheKingorderedhisbattlethus:hecausedstakes
boundwithironsharpeatbothendsofthelengthoffiveorsixfoottobepitchedbeforethearchersandoneachsideofthefootmenlikeahedge,totheintentthatifbarded[i.e.armoured]horsesrunrashlieuponthemtheymightshortliebegoredanddestroyed.Certainpersonswerealsoappointedtoremovethestakesas,bythemovementofthearchers,occasionandtimeshould
require,sothatthefootmenwerehedgedaboutwithstakes.Thisdeviceoffortyfieingthearmywasatthistimefirstinvented.’
Duringtheirlongwaitthemenhadthechancetoviewthearena;theysawthattheyfilledonesideofarectangle,theotherthreesidesbeingformedbythemassedFrencharmyinfrontofthem;bytheAgincourtwoodsontheirleft
andtheTramcourtwoodsontheirright.Thewholewasabout940yardswideatitsnarrowestpointandthetwoarmieswereabout1,000yardsapart,withaslightdipbetweenthemsothattheywereinfullviewofeachother.Thegroundbeneaththeirfeetwasploughed,anewlysownwheatfieldmadeverysoftandmuddybythetrampingoffeetafterdaysofheavyrain.Someaccountsof
thebattleclaimthatHenryhadstationedamountedforceofabout400lancesintheTram-courtwoodsontheFrenchleft,and200archersontheirrightintheAgincourtwoods–thisseemsunlikelyinviewofhissparsenumbers.
BattleofAgincourt25thOctober1415
ShrewdtacticianHenryrealisedthathisonlypossiblechanceofvictorylayinprovokingthemuchlargerFrencharmytoattackhim;soateleveno’clock,heorderedhislittlearmytoadvancetowithinlong-archeryrange.Thecryrangthroughthestill
air:
‘Advance,banner!’
Everyonekneltdown,madeacrossuponthegroundandkissedit.SirThomasErpingham,thecommanderofthearchers,repeatedtheorderandhislightlycladmenstruggledtopluckfromtheheavygroundthepointedwoodenstakesthateachhaddrivenbeforehim.Thenthe
wholeforceslowlybegantoadvanceinline,haltingoccasionallytoallowtheheavilyarmouredmen-at-armstoregaintheirbreath.Whenordered,thearchersagainplantedtheirstakesinfrontofthem,obliquelypointingtowardstheFrenchlikechevaux-de-frise;raisingtheirbows,theyopenedfireinanattempttostingtheFrenchintoadvancing.Astheyfiredtheirfirstvolleythe
archersraisedaloudshout,partlyofdefianceandpartlyofsheerpleasureattheprospectofaction.Thestandingabouthadcausedthemtochillandstiffen.Manyofthemhadstrippedtothewaistforfreedomofaction,butmanywerenakedfromthewaistdowninordertocopewiththedysenteryfromwhichmostofthemweresuffering.
TheFrenchwereunabletoreplytothefirethatquicklybecameagalling,damaginghail;theyhadbroughtwiththemasmallbodyofcrossbowmenbuttheyhadbeenpushedtotherearandcouldnotgetforwardwheretheywereneeded.Itwasapositiontheywereprobablynotsorrytobeoccupying,recallingthestoryofhowthecrossbowmenhadbeentrampleddownbytheirown
knightsatCrécy.AtlasttheFrenchcavalryonthewingsbegantomoveforward,thehorsesobviouslystiffandwearyfromsolongstanding,thetreacherous,muddygroundcombinedwiththeweightoftheirarmouredriderscausingthemtostaggerandstumble.Atthesamemoment,thedismountedmen-at-armsofthefrontlinebegantolurchforward,heavily,acrossthe
waterloggedground,sinkingtotheiranklesinthemud,allthetimetakingheavypunishmentfromtheEnglisharrows.
ThemailedcavalrycamenearertotheEnglishlines,flounderingthroughthewet,clayeysoilandbesetbyhailsofarrowsthattookgreatertollastherangebecameshorter.SoaccuratewastheaimoftheEnglisharchers
thatmostofthearrowsstrucktheknightsontheirhelmetsandvisorssothatmanyfellshotthroughthebrain;chroniclersreportthatsoterriblewastherainofarrowsthatallhadtobendtheirheadssoastosavetheirfaces.Otherarchersshotatthehorses,killingsomebutwoundingmore,makingthemswerve,halt,plungeandcavortinalldirectionstocauseconfusionintheFrench
ranks.Sofiercewasthefirecomingtowardsthemfromfrontandflankthat,ontheAgincourtwoodsside,thecavalryledbySirWilliamdeSavensepulledupandturnedback,leavingSirWilliamandonlytwofaithfulfollowerstoreachtheEnglishposition.Here,becauseofthesoftground,someofthearchers’stakesbecameuprooted,butotherscausedthehorsestofallsothatthethreeriders
werethrownheavilytothegroundamongthearchers,tobeinstantlykilledbyswordanddagger.
Theretreatingcavalry,amongstwhomweremanyriderlessandunmanageablehorses,causedgreatdisorderamongtheadvancingmen-at-arms,whoseploddingprogresswasfurtherdisorganisedbytheirbeingcrowdedinoneachother
owingtothe‘funnelling’ofthewoodsastheycamenearertotheEnglishlines.Thiswasfurtheraggravatedbythedismountedmen,goadedbytheshowersofarrows,tendingtoflinchawayfromthewedgesofbowmentowardsthethreedivisionsofmen-at-arms;thiscausedfurtherlossofspace.Evenso,theEnglishlinewasshakenbythefirstimpactoftheheavilyarmoured
formationsandawild,mingledmassofdesperatelyfightingmenofallarmsfilledthearea.Thearchers,droppingtheirbows,seizedtheirswordsandaxesandflungthemselvesintotheplaceswheregapsorbreacheshadbeenmadebytheFrench.Theenemymen-at-arms,almostcompletelyexhaustedbytheirstrugglethroughthemudandthesubsequentfighting,wereno
matchfortheirlighteropponents;almosthelplesslytheystooduntilbeatentothegroundbyrepeatedblowsfromthearchers’weapons.InashorttimetheFrenchlinewasthrownback,reelingupontheirsecond‘battle’asthey,intheirturn,heavilyploddeduptojointheaction.Itisnothardtoimaginethatthearchers,aprettyroughlotatthebestoftimesbutnowwiththeirbloodfiredbythe
successoftheirshooting,werehighlyeffectiveastheysmashedatthestruggling,weighted-downmen-at-armswithswords,axes,clubsandmauls;orjudiciouslyinsertedasharpdaggerintoajointinthearmourofahelpless,fallenman.
TheEnglishreformedtheirlineandsteppedforwardtomeetthenewthreat–ledbytheKing,dismountedand
fightingonfoot,madeconspicuousnotonlybyhisvalourbutbyhisglitteringarmour,emblazonedsurcoatandgleamingcrownonhishelm.Bynowawallofdeadanddyinghadbeguntoformacrossthenarrowgapbetweenthetwowoods.ItwasawallthatwasconstantlyaddedtobythecasualtiesfromtheFrenchsecondline;asitrosehigherandhigheritwasscaledby
theagileandlightlyarmedarchersintheireffortstoreachtheenemy.Someofthefrightfulpilesofdeadmenreachedashighasaman,bothsidesfightingaroundthemasthoughtheyweremasonryramparts.HenrydrovebacktheDued’Alençon,whohadbeatentheDukeofGloucestertothegroundwithhisbattle-axe;indoingsohereceivedablowthatclippedoffaportionof
thecrownonhishelm.D’AlençonandanumberofotherknightshadsworntokilltheKing–thistheytrieddesperatelytodoandthefightingaroundHenrywasdeadlyandwithoutquarter;finallythededicatedFrenchknightswereallkilledorlaywoundedandhelpless.
OnallsidestheFrenchwerebeingrapidlydespatchedandthebattlewas
graduallypeteringoutasfewerandfewerFrenchmenremainedalive.Forthemithadbeenanightmare.Pressingforwarddeterminedlyintothefight,theyfounditimpossibletoobtainsufficientroomtowieldtheirweapons;amanwouldbebroughtcrashingtothemuddyground,takingwithhimthoseoneithersideofhim,foralltowallowhelplesslyuntildespatchedby
thelong,keendaggersofthearchers.Defensivearmourhadbecomesoheavythattherewasnogettinguponceamanwasdown;infact,theweightymenfallinguponeachotherfrequentlycauseddeathbysuffocation.ThishappenedtotheDukeofYorkatAgincourt;whenhisbodywasfoundandpulledfromtheshambleshewasunwoundedbutdead.
Stillfreshandingoodorderandsofaruncommitted,theFrenchthirdlinemightwellhaverestoredthefailingfortunesoftheday.Buttheystood,inindecisionanddismay,realisingthattoadvancewasfruitlessandnotknowingwhatelsetodo,whilstonallsidesthefaint-heartedslippedawayintheconfusion.Whilsttheystoodirresolute,aheraldarrivedfromHenrywithamessage
thattheyweretoleavethefieldinstantly,orreceivenoquarter;soontheybegantomeltaway.
Thetwohoursthatfollowedwerefilledwiththetaskofsecuringprisoners,disentanglingthelivingfromthedead,marshallingthosewhocouldwalkandremovingthearmourofthewoundedandthecaptives.Inthemidstofthisindustry,
wordflewfrommouthtomouththattheenemyhadgotintothebaggage-campatMaisoncelles!ThismeantthattheFrenchwereintheEnglishrear,atpresentbusypillagingthecampafterdispersingthesmallbaggage-guard;atthesametime,theFrenchthirdlinereappearedmenacinglyontheoutskirtsofthefield!TheDukeofBrabanthadjoinedtheirleadersinentreating,
threateningandurgingthemtoreturntothebattleandhadbeenpartlysuccessfulinthattheforcehadslowly,reluctantly,beguntoedgebacktowardstheEnglish;theyformedaforcethat,byitself,outnumberedthewholeEnglisharmy.
Absorbedintheirworkofcollectingprisonersandbooty,theEnglishweretakencompletelyofftheirguard.If
theylefttheprisoners,manyofwhomwerestillintheirarmour,togoandrepelthenewthreat,thentheprisonerscouldpickupweaponsandjoinwiththeplundererstoattackthemintheirrear.Thereseemedlittlealternative;reluctantlyHenryorderedallprisonerstobeputtothesword;aftersomemur-muringsatgoodransomsgoingtowaste,themurderousworkbeganandawholesale
massacretookplace.WhenitwasseenthatthethreatofattackhaddiedawaywiththedisappearanceoftheremainingFrenchtroops,thethroat-cuttingceased.Froissart,speakingontheBattleofAljubarrota,whereasatAgincourtthehandfulofvictorswereobligedbyasuddenpanictoslaytheirprisoners,says:‘Lo,beholdthegreateviladventurethatfellthatSaturday.Forthey
slewasmanygoodprisonersaswouldwellhavebeenworth,onewithanother,400,000franks.’
ThemainfeatureofthebattlewastheextraordinarynumbersofFrenchdead,reportsindicatingthatthenumbersreached10,000.IncludedamongthecasualtieswerehalfthenobilityofFrance–theConstableofFranceandCommander-in-
Chief,Charlesd’Albret,theDukesofAlençon,BrabantandBar,theCountsofNevers,Vaudemont,Marie,RoussiandFalconberg.AmongtheprisonersweretheDukesofOrléansandBourbon,CountArthurofRichmontandMarshalBoucicaut–acleansweepwasmadeofthehighestcommandersofFrance.TheEnglishlosttheDukeofYork,theyoungEarlof
Suffolkandabout1,500menkilledandwounded.
KingHenrysentforMountjoy,aFrenchheraldwhocameforpermissiontoburythedead.Hesaidtohim:
‘Towhombelongsthisvictory?’
‘Toyou,sire.’
‘Andwhatcastleisthat
whichwecanperceiveinthedistance?’
‘ItiscalledthecastleofAgincourt,sire.’
‘ThenletthisbecalledtheBattleofAgincourt,’saidHenry.
small,fortheEnglisharmywastooexhaustedtopursue;itmadeitswaytoCalaisonlytoreturntoEngland.ForawhilethewarwaslimitedtoacontestforthecommandoftheChannelbysuchseabattlesastookplaceatHarfleuronthe15thofAugust1416,theyearfollowingAgincourt.
John,DukeofBedford,commandedafleetofabout
100shipswhichdroppedanchorinthemouthoftheSeineestuary,withinsightofthenumericallylargerfleetoftheFrench.About150innumberandwithsomeverylargevesselsamongthem,theywereanchoredinmidstream.DrawnupincloseorderinthecentreoftheestuarybetweenHonfleurandHarfleur,theyformedaserriedmasswithlittlewater-spacebetweeneachship.
Althoughheplannedtoattack,Bedfordintendedusinghisarcherstogainvictoryjustastheydidonland–bydrivinghostilemissile-throwersfromshroudsandbulwarkssothattheEnglishmen-at-armscouldboardandcometoclosequarters.TheEnglishshipssettheirsailsfullyanddrovestraightaheadtowardstheenemy,takingheavypunishmentfromthearrows,
crossbowbolts,cannon-ballsandballistamissileswhichshowereddownuponthemfromtheeighthugeGenoesecarrackswhichformedapartoftheFrenchfleet.Theselargevesselspossessedtowering,castle-likepoopsfromwhichtheserriedranksofmissile-mencouldraindowndarts,stonesandironboltsontotheunprotecteddecksofthesmallerEnglishships.
Despitethepunishment,theEnglishgrimlypersistedintheirattemptstograpple,orramtheenemy,shipforship.WiththevesselsfirmlylockedtogethertheEnglisharchers,atpoint-blankrange,firedfurioushailsofarrowsuntiltheyhadridtheenemyshipsofthemissile-menintheshroudsandfighting-topsorbehindthebulwarks.Then,withaloudbattle-cry,thearmouredmen-at-armssurged
forwardoverthebulwarks,apprehensivelyglancingdownwardsattheribbonofwaterthatlaybetweentheshipsandwhichhelddeathforthemanunluckyenoughtofallintoit.Onceontheenemydecks,thebattlewasmuchthesameasanyotherstrugglebetweenmen-at-armsonland;itsurgedandebbedtoandfrountilbysheerphysicalstrength–forwhichtheywerepre-eminent
atthatperiod–theEnglisheitherkilledtheiropponentsorpushedthemintothesea.Thefightlastedsevenhours,duringwhichtheEnglishlostatleasttwentyoftheirshipsbutwerefinallyleftmastersoftheseawithfourofthehugecarrackscapturedandoneaground.
MuchhasbeensaidthroughoutaboutthedeadlyeffectoftheEnglisharrows,
abouttheirpenetrativepowersandtheirlengthofkillingrange;littlehasbeenmentionedofthetreatmentofthemenwhosufferedthesedreadfulwounds–infact,littleisknownofthisfacetofmediaevalwarfare.OneJohnMorstedeappearstohavebeentheEnglishSurgeon-GeneralinthereignofHenryV,whoauthorisedhimtopressintothearmyasmanyofhisbrethrenashe
considerednecessaryfortheexpeditionagainstFrance.Yetonlyone,thesameJohnMorstede,landedthere;andalthoughheafterwardsselectedfifteenassistants,threeofthemservedasarchersunderSirJohnErpinghamatAgincourt,insteadofdressingthewounded.Probablyalldidmilitarydutyofsomekindandconsequentlywere,inlikemanner,exposedtoa
soldier’sfate.Thewounded,therefore,hadnoassistancebeyondnatureandtheirown,ortheircomrades’,exertions.OntheEnglishsidetheywerecertainlyfew,whilstthoseoftheenemy,aswelearnfromdetailsofthebattles,perishedwithouttheslightesteffortbeingmadefortheirrelief.
SirJohnSmythe,amilitarywriterofthesixteenthcentury,wrote:‘…frequently
heardFrenchCaptainsandgentlemenreportthattheydidthinktheEnglisharchersusedtopoisontheirarrow-heads;becauseofgreatnumbersoftheFrenchnationthatmanytimeshadbeenwoundedorhurtwitharrows,veryfewhadescapedwiththeirlives,byreasonthattheirwoundsdidsoimpostumethattheycouldnotbecured.Insuchconcertstheydidgreatlyerr,because,intruth,these
imposthumationsproceededofnothingelsebuttherustofthearrow-headsremainingranklingintheirwounds;andthereforebytheexperienceofourancientenemies,notonlythegreatbutthesmallwoundsofourarrowshavebeenalwaysfoundmoredangerousandhardtobecured,thanthefireofanyshotunpoisoned.Besidesallwhich,itistobenotedthathorsesinthefield,being
woundedorbutslightlyhurtwitharrows,dopresentlyfallyerking,flingingandleapingasiftheyweremad,throughthegreatpainthatuponeverymotiontheydofeelintheirflesh,veinsandsinews,bytheshakingofthearrowswiththeirbarbedheadshanginginthem.Insuchsort,asbeitinsquadronortroop,theydodisorderoneanother,andneverleaveuntiltheyhavecasttheirmasters.’
Aconsideredsurgicalopinionoftodaygivesitthatamanshotwithanarrowinmediaevalwarfarediedalmostinevitably;evenbymodernstandardsofsurgery,theextractionofabarbedarrowisadelicateandpossiblyfataloperation.Thebookof‘MessireAmbroiseParé,ConcilleuretPremierChirugeonduRoiFrancoisParé’(1515–47),whofollowedthearmiesofthat
monarch,treatsextensivelyofthewoundspeculiartomilitarymen,especiallythoseinflictedbyarrows.Inorderthathisprofessionalbrethrenmightmorefullycomprehendthemethodofcure,theprecautionstobeadopted,theincisionstheymightventureupon,andtheuseofthenecessaryinstruments,hehasdelineatedthese,aswellasmanydifferentkindsofarrowsinuseinhistime,and
particularlytheformoftheirheads,aproperacquaintancewithwhichhasagreatbearingonthetreatmentoftheirwounds.Amongthearrowshehasintroduced,somehadtheheadinsertedintothestele(woodenshaftofthearrow),othershadthesteleitselfenteringthehead.Ineithercase,thepointremainedbehindinthewoundandrendereditextremelydangerous.Paré
doesnotpretendtogivetheformsofeveryarrowusedinhisage,butonlythosewhichhehimselfhadatvarioustimesextracted.Paréthusdescribeshismodeofremovinganarrowfromthefleshypartsofthebody:
‘Sileferestoitbarbléainsi,quisouventestlesflèchesAngloises,etestoitàl’endroitd’unos,ouinsérédedans,cequisouvientadvientau
profonddemusclesdelacuisse,debras,dejambes,oud’autrespartiesde-quellesyauroitgrandedistance,lorsneleconvientpousser,maisplutôtdilaterlaplaye,enévitantlesnerfsetgrandsvaisseaux,ainsiquefaitlebonetexpertchirurgienanatomique.Aussifautappliquerundilatatoire,cavéensapartieintérieure,etfaireensorte,queTonpuisseprendelesdeuxailesdufer,
puisaveclebeedeGrüeletenirferme,ettirerlestroisensemble.’
‘IftheironwasthusbarbedwhichisoftenthecasewithEnglisharrows,andwassituatedinornearabone,whichoftenhappens,inthedepthofthemusclesofthethigh,armsorlegsorotherpartswhichwouldbefarremoved,youmustnotpushbutratherdilatethewound,
avoidingthenervesandvessels,asdoesthegoodandexpertanatomicalsurgeon.Alsoonemustapplyadilator[retractor?]toholdthewoundopen;doitinsuchawaythatyoucantakethetwowingsofthebarbwithpinchers[forceps?].Keepitfirmandpullordrawthethreetogether.’
Paréapparentlyunderwentmuchsufferingandpersonal
inconvenienceandwasunabletoconfinehispracticewhollywithinprofessionalbounds.Speakingofa‘SergeantofChas-tellat’–oneofhispatients–hesays:‘Iperformedtowardshimtheofficeofphysician,surgeon,apothecaryandcook,dressinghisdinneraswellashiswoundsuntilthetimehewascompletelycured.’Thedoctoradds:‘LeDieuleguerrissetoujours,’sothat
wemayinferthathispatient’sgratitude,fortheseaccumulatedbenefits,didnotevaporatewiththecauseswhichhadelicitedthem.
AdaysuchasAgincourtmighthavebeenexpectedtobreaktheFrenchloveofobsoletetactics,tohavechangedtheirfanaticalmethodsofhorsemenordismountedknightstryingtobreakanEnglishforceby
frontalattack,onlytobedrivenbackinutterroutbyEnglisharchers.Butthedayofenlightenmenthadyettodawnandmorebloodydefeatsweretofollow.Henryhadgone,dyingofdysenteryin1422;theEnglishwerenowledbytheRegent,John,DukeofBedford.HischieflieutenantwastheEarlofSalisbury,otherEnglishleadersbeingtheEarlofSuffolk,LordScales,SirJohn
FastolfandJohn,LordTalbot.TheFrenchwerenowemployingScottishtroopsintheireffortstodefeattheEnglishinvaders;acompletearmyof6,500,undertheEarlofDouglas,hadlandedinFranceduringAprilof1424andwereservingwiththeFrench,whowerealsoraisingmercenariesinLombardyandelsewhere.
Earlyin1424,thetownof
Ivry,thirtymileswestofParis,hadbeenrecapturedbytheFrenchinasuddenraid;inJune,BedfordsenttheEarlofSuffolktoretakethetown.Thiswasdonewithoutalotoftroublebutthegarrisonshutthemselvesupinthecastle,and,onJuly5th,agreedtosurrenderonAugust14thiftheyhadnotbeenrelievedbythatdate.Thethoughtsofbothsidesnowturnedconstantlyinthe
directionofIvry;theonewishingtorelieve,theothertosecurethecastleandbringtheFrenchtobattle.Butwisheswerenotgoodenough,certainlynotenoughtopreventBedfordfromjoiningSuffolkbeforethecastleonthe13thofAugust,amovewhichcausedthegarrison,aspromised,tomarchoutandsurrenderonthefollowingday.
ButtheFrenchhadmountedarelievingforce,whodirectedtheirstepstowardsVerneuilontheArvewhentheydiscoveredthatthecrossofSt.GeorgewasflyingoverthewallsofIvry.VerneuilwasanoldwalledtownwithasmallEnglishgarrison,unabletostandlongagainstthelargeFrencharmythatcameagainstit.Itisreportedthattheygainedpossessionoftheplaceby
sendingheraldstodeclarethattheEnglishhadbeendefeated,paradingScotstroopstiedtohorses’tailstorepresentEnglishprisonersbeforethewallsoftheoldtown.Onhearingthis,Bedfordmusteredallhisavailabletroopsandmarchedtowardsthetown.Hehadunderhiscommandsome8,000or9,000men,orabouthalfthenumbersofthecombinedFrenchand
Scottishforces.
TheEnglishmarchedtenmilesfromDamville,emergingfromtheforestontotheplainofVerneuiltoseetheFrenchdrawnupinfrontofthem,onthecrestofagentleslope.TheScotsoccupiedtherightofthepositionandtheFrenchtheleft;eachdivisionnominallyinthreelinesbutsoontobecomemergedintoone.The
EarlofBuchan,ConstableofFrance,hadmarchedtheforcetothisforming-upplace;thenhehadresignedcommandtohisfather-in-law,theEarlofDouglas.AsatAgincourt,thearmywaslargelydismounted,exceptforthewings.Ontherightwasabodyofabout900Lombardcrossbowmen,allonhorseback,andinarmour;theleftwingwascoveredby1,000mountedmen-at-arms,
completelymailedwithlance,battle-axeandbarbedhorses.Therewerealsosomemilitia,peasantlevies,intheranks–raw,untrained,ill-armedtroops.
TheEnglishmarcheddownintothedipanduptheverygentleslopetowardstheFrench,haltingjustoutsidemissilerange,whereBedforddeployedhisarmyparallelto,andonthesamefrontageas,
theenemy.HecloselyfollowedhisbrotherHenry’sformationatAgincourtinthateveryonewasdismounted,thefrontwasintwodivisions,onecommandedbyhimselfandtheotherbySalisbury.Thecentreofeachdivisionwasoccupiedbymen-at-armsandthearcherswerepositionedontheflanksofbothdivisions.Therewasalsoareserve,consistingofabout2,000archers,usedasa
baggage-guard,inaleagueraboutthree-quartersofamiletotherear.
So,ataboutfouro’clockontheafternoonofthe17thofAugust1424thetwoarmiesbeganslowlytoadvancetowardseachother.Bedfordgavethetraditionalsignal:
‘Avaunt,banners!’
Afterkneelingdownandreverentlykissingtheground,thetroopsresponded:
‘St.George!Bedford!’
Itwasagreatshoutand,asalways,itstruckalarmintheFrenchhearts.
Asusual,eacharchercarriedhisdouble-pointedstakewhichheattemptedtoplantinthegroundatabout
250yards’distancefromtheenemy.Butthegroundwashardsothatthestakeswouldnotplanteasilyandmuchtimewaswastedintryingtoforcethemintothesunbakedearth;moretimewasconsumedinpassingthestakesforwardfromhandtohanduntiltheyreachedthefrontrank.Beforethehedgeofstakeswashalfcompleted,theleft-flankbodyofFrenchmailedhorsechargedthe
archersandsmashedthroughtheirranks,forcingapassageoverandthroughthehalf-erectedstakes.Thesurvivorsoftheridden-downarchersgatheredtogether,formingaclose-knitbodyformutualprotection,butthehorsemendidnotdelaytodealwiththem,surgingontowardsthebaggage-leaguer.
Bedford’smen-at-armsmovedsteadilyforward,
althoughtheirrightflankhadbeenexposed,tocomeintoclosecontactwiththeFrenchmen-at-armsofComted’Aumale’sdivisionwithwhomtheyclashedinfiercecombat.Itwasclaimedbymenwhohadfoughtatbothplacesthatthehour-longstrugglethattookplaceatthispointwasfiercerthanAgincourt;theEnglish,outnumberedtwotoone,graduallyforcedtheir
opponentsback.Bedfordwasprominentinthismêlée,wieldinghistwo-handedaxevigorouslyallaroundhim,havingdismountedfromthebaychargerthathadcarriedhimtothebattle.
Salisbury’sdivisionencounteredanevenstifferresistancefromtheScots,whoresolutelybattledwithsword,maceandbattle-axeintheclosestconflictformore
thananhour,refusingtobedismayedevenwhentheirFrenchalliesontheirleftbrokeandfledfromthefield.ThemountedLombardcross-bowmenontherightflankoftheFrencharmy,drivenwidebythefireofSalisbury’sflankarchers,rodearoundtheEnglishleftandattackedthebaggage-leaguer.Thebaggage-guardbeingfiercelyengagedwiththeFrenchmailedcavalryoftheother
wing,theLombardswereatfirstcompletelysuccessful,cuttingdownthepoorlyarmedpagesandvarletswhotriedvaliantlytodefendthemselvesandtheirwagons.Thenthearchers,whohadcompletelyroutedtheFrenchmailedcavalry,camerushingacrosstofightofftheLombards,who,intheirturn,weredrivenhelter-skelterfromthefield.Havingamazinglydisposedofboth
bodiesofcavalry,theexhilaratedEnglisharcherssoughtfreshfieldstoconquer;theysawthebattlestillragingontheleftfrontanddeterminedtotakeahandinit.Formingup,theywheeledinaheadlongchargeintotheexposedrightflankofthesorelytriedScottishdivision,utteringtheirfearsomeshoutastheycame.
Underthisnewblow,the
Scotsreeled;butmorewastocome.Bedford’smen-at-arms,havingexhaustedlypursuedthefleeingFrenchmen-at-armsasfarasthetownditch,werenowre-formedanddoggedly,ifwearily,trudgedtheirheavilyarmouredwaybackintothefight–nomeanfeatintheheatofasummer’sday.TheystruckintotherearoftheScots,whowerenowbeinghackedrelentlesslydown
untilhardlyamanremained.Infact,theScottisharmyceasedtoexist.InadditiontoatleastfiftyScottishgentlemenofrankwhodied,therefelltheConstableofFrance,Buchan;hisfather-in-law,thevenerableEarlofDouglas,whohadalreadylostaneyeatHomildonHill;Hop-PringleofSwailholm,SirRobertStewart,SirJohnSwinton,SirAlexanderHome,twoSirJames
DouglasesandSirWalterLindsay.TheFrenchlostmostoftheirleaderswhostayedandfoughtwhendesertedbytherank-and-file–Aumale,thecommander,Narbonne,Ventadour,Tonnerre,theLordsGravilleandRambouilletandmanyknightsfromLanguedocandDauphine.Fivethousandmen,atleast,fell;mostofthemScots.Manywerewounded,amongthemthe
Dued’AlençonandtheMarshalLafayette,whobecametwoofthefewprisonerstakenonthisbloodyday.TheEnglishlosswasalsoheavy,butthefigureof1,000casualtieswasworthwhile,forthis‘SecondAgincourt’lefttheFrenchdisheartened,dispersedandwithoutleaders.
Thewardraggedon,withtheEnglishcontinuingtheir
victoriousway.In1428John,DukeofBedford,theRegent,wasstillincommandandcommittedthearmytolaysiegetoOrléans;anaffairlargelyconsistingofdesultoryartilleryfire,interspersedwithoccasionalsortiesandsallies,itdraggedwearilyonthroughthewinter.EarlyinFebruary,withLentapproachingandastapledietoffishrequired,itwasdecidedtosendfrom
Parisabigconvoyofsaltedherringstothebesiegers.UnderthecommandofSirJohnFastolf,anamemadefamiliar,underanotherspelling,byShakespeare,theconvoywasmadeupofabout300wagons,withanescortof1,000mountedarchersinadditiontowagonersandgrooms.
NewsofthisconvoyreachedtheFrench;the
ComtedeClermontmarchednorth-easttointerceptitontheOrléansroad.Hehadunderhiscommandabout3,000men,includingacontingentofScotsunderSirJohnStewartofDarnley,whowasConstableoftheScotsinFrance;alsopresentwerethelancesoftheComtedeDunois.Clermontalsohadwithhimalargenumberofsmall-calibrecannon.
Theconvoyspentthenightofthe11thofFebruaryinthesmallvillageofRouvray,beingonthepointofresumingtheirmarchnextmorningwhenpatrolscameinwithnewsoftheapproachingFrenchforce.OldsoldierFastolfimmediatelyrealisedthathiscumbersomewagonsintheirthree-mile-longconvoywereimpossibletoprotectadequatelywithhissmall
force,particularlyagainstsuperiornumbersofmountedenemy.Aboutamileoutsidethevillagetheroadranalongthetopofasmallridge,givinganunimpededviewinalldirections.HereFastolfhastilyformedhiswagonsintoaprotectiveleaguer,verysimilartothoseformedcenturieslaterbyWesternpioneersagainsttheattacksofIndians.
Clermontcameupwiththeconvoyatseveninthemorning,firstappearingonthesouth-westskylineinaglitteringofarmourandaforestoflance-points.HewassurprisedtofindhimselfconfrontedwiththisnovelhedgehoginsidewhichtheEnglishhadretired.But,inspiteofbeingsome450yearsearlier,ClermonthadsomethingthattheIndiansdidnotpossess–hehad
artillery!Cleverlyhefittedhistacticstosuitthesituation;insteadofmakingadirectattackontheleaguer,heorderedanartillerybombardment.TothisattacktheEnglishhadnoreplyandwereforcedtosittightandtakeit;casualtiesmountedandherringsspilledontheroadfromsplitbarrels.Itseemedasthough,forthefirsttimeinmilitaryhistory,gunsaloneweregoingto
bringvictoryinthefield,usheringinaneweraofavastnessbeyondfifteenth-centuryman’scomprehension.
However,themarchofprogresswastobethwartedbythecharacteristicimpetuosityoftheScottishcontingent,eagertoavengethedayofVerneuil.Theirleader,StewartofDarnley,contrarytoClermont’s
orders,dismountedhismen,whoadvancedprematurelyandimpulsivelytoattackthebarricadewithswordandbattle-axe,sufferinggreatlyfromthehailofEnglisharrowsthatgreetedtheiradvance.SeeingthattheScotswerewavering,Clermontwasforcedtosupportthembyanattackofmountedmen-at-arms,onlytoseeitbreakdownonthearchers’pointedstakes,just
assimilarattackshaddonesoofteninthepast.BothScotsandFrenchturnedandretreatedbacktotheirstarting-point,headsbowedagainsttheshowersofarrowsthatsawthemoff.Clermontresignedhimselftoresumingtheartillerybombardment.
Butitwasnottobe;Fastolfsawthatthetimehadcomeforthecounter-attack.Mountinghismen,hesent
twocolumnsofcavalrypouringfromthetwinopeningsintheleaguer,tofalluponthealreadyshakenenemy.Theconflictwasshortbutsharp,andtheFranco-Scottishforceweresoonroutedandfleeingfromthefield,leavingStewartofDarnleyandoneofhissonsdead,Dunoiswoundedand‘sixscoreofgreatlordsand500mentherefell’.
Thebattleended,thevillagerscameoutandregaledthemselvesonthesaltedherringsthatlayintheroadaroundthesplinteredbarrels–tothemitwasnottheBattleofRouvraybuttheDayoftheHerrings!Itwasnotreallyabattle,butasmallaffairinwhichtheEnglishproved,astheyhaddoneinthegreaterfieldsofthepast,thattheyweresuperiortotheFrenchinmorewaysthan
one.Nottheleastofthesewasthefactthatthearchers,theordinarysoldiers,wererespectedbythelordsandknightswholedthemintobattle.ItwasaverydifferentsituationfromthatprevailinginFrance,wherethenoblesarrogatedtothemselvesalonethehonourofbearingarms,despisingthecommonsoldiersothateveninthefifteenthcenturyFrenchinfantrywerecomposedofthemost
wretchedclassofpeople.Thiswasillustratedinthemannerinwhichtheywerechargedandriddendownbytheirownlordsandcommandersonthoseoccasionswhensomedistinguishedacthadarousedjealousyorscorn.TheFrenchfootsoldierhadreasontofeelthatforhimtoexhibitanytruemilitaryqualitieswassimplytoimperilhisownlife.
Chapter19
Patay–1429;andFormigny–1450ThesecondquarterofthefifteenthcenturyfoundFrance,forthefirsttime
perhaps,reallyfacinguptothefactthattheold,chivalrousmethodsofwarfarepaidnodividends;thatsomeeffectiveinnovationhadtobediscoveredtocombattheEnglishsystem.Throughbitternecessityandhardexperience,theprofessionalofficersofFrance–Xaintrailles,LaHireandDunois,forexample–stumbleduponamethodof
minimisingthesuperiorityoftheEnglisharchers.Itwassosimplethatithadprobablybeenconsideredanddiscardedmanytimes;inshort,whentheEnglishwerefounddrawnupinagooddefensiveposition,theFrenchrefusedtoattack.ForthefirsttimetheFrenchadmittedtothemselvesthattherewaslittleornochanceofbeatinganEnglisharmyinsuchaposition,thenlikewisethere
wasnopointinthrustingforwardlargebodiesoftroopsasatargettoberiddledwithEnglisharrows.TheFrenchcommandersknewthatthelongbowhadtheabilitytokeepheavier-armedmenatadistance–thereinlayitssuperiority;butoncethecavalryormen-at-armsgotamongthearchersandtheirsupportingmen-at-arms,weightofnumbersmightwelldecidethe
resultingmêlée–andtheFrenchcouldusuallyputmoremenintothefield.
WiththisenlightenmentcamesomeFrenchvictories;theusualtacticalcausesoftheEnglishdefeatslayintheFrenchattackingthemwhentheywereonthemarch,incamporintownswhereitwasimpossiblequicklytoformanorderofbattleongroundspecificallychosen
foritsdefensivequalities.ThistendencytowardsareversalinthealmostmonotonousrunofEnglishvictoriesinevitablyledtoanoticeablesheddingoftheoldconfidencebornofpersistentsuccessovermenusingfutiletactics.Therewasalittlemorecautiondisplayed,initiativebecamestifledandplanscouldnotbemadewiththeformercertaintyofsuccess.Bothcommanders
andmenintheEnglisharmiesweretooexperiencedandprofessionalintheiroutlookforthisnewsituationtodroptheirmoraletotoolowalevel;buttheywereperturbed,almostindignant.Naturally,withsuccessandtheknowledgethattheEnglishwerenotquitesosureofthemselves,theFrenchconfidenceswelledupenormouslyandtheybegantoseek,andwin,conflicts
wheretheywereable,inasuddenonslaught,tohittheEnglishbeforetheycouldformupdefensively.
TheEnglishcommanders,withthetraditionsofCrécy,Poitiers,Agincourtandahostofsimilarbutsmallerbattlesbehindthem,dislikedtakingtheoffensive.Whentheopposingcommandersrefusedtoattackthemintheircarefullychosenposition
wheretheystooddeliberatelypreparedbutheldoffuntilsuchtimeastheycouldassailwhenleastexpected,thentheEnglishbegantolosebattles.AsituationbegantoarisewheretheEnglishforceswerealwaysliabletoasuddenonslaught–Patay,foughtonthe18thofJune1429,isafairexampleofthesortofconflictthatnowtookplace.
PatayoccurredatatimewhentheFrench,inspiredbyJoanofArc,hadrecentlyraisedthesiegeofOrléansandwereendeavouringtocapturethoseLoiretownsstillinEnglishhands.AnEnglishforceunderLordJohnTalbotandSirJohnFastolf,numberingperhaps3,000men,wereretreatingtowardsPatayafteranunsuccessfulattackontheLoirebridgeatMeung,
eighteenmilessouth.HotontheirheelsinpursuitwerethemountedvanguardoftheDuked’Alençon,movingconsiderablyfasterthantheEnglish,whowereregulatedbythespeedoftheirbaggage-train.IntheirattemptstomakecontactwiththeEnglish,Alençonhadpatrolsscoutinginalldirections;theEnglishhadsimilargroupsintheirreartowarnthemofthearrivaloftheenemy.The
wordeventuallycame–theFrenchadvance-guardwascloseontheirheels;ataboutthesamemomenttheFrenchdiscoveredthewhereaboutsoftheEnglish,whorevealedtheirpositionbycharacteristicallyraucous‘Halloos!’asastagburstthroughtheirranks!
HaltingatapointwheretheirtrackdivergedfromtheoldRomanroadoverwhich
theyhadbeenmarching,theEnglishlookedinahurryforagooddefensiveposition.Thecountrywasdottedwithsmallclumpsoftreesandhedges,someofwhichborderedtheroadandwereidealforliningwitharchers;inaslightdipintheground,Talbotstoodwithabout500men.Fastolfdeployedthemainbodyonaridgesouth-eastofPatay,about200yardsbehindTalbot.
Toppingtheslightrise,themountedFrenchadvance-guardsawtheEnglishdrawnupinthedipinfrontofthem;thearcherswerehammeringtheirstakesintothegroundandpreparingtheirbows.Composedofspeciallyselectedmen,wellmountedandledbyLaHireandPotondeXantrailles,twoofthemostexperiencedcommandersintheFrencharmy,itwasaforcealight
withfervourimpartedtothewholearmybytheMaidofOrléans.Pausingonlytotakeinthesituation,thecavalrythundereddowntheslopeinawildtorrenttoburstuponthestartledarchersbeforeabowcouldbedrawnuponthem,hittingthemfrontallyandinflank.Thelightlyarmedinfantrystoodnochancewhatsoever;theywereoverwhelmedinamatterofsecondsandcutdownwhere
theystood,thefewwhodidmanagetoscrambleawayonlyaddingtotheconfusionanddismaythatcoveredFastolf’smenontheridge.
Wellmighttheybedismayed;theirdeploymentontheridgehadbeenslowandtheywerefarfromcompletingtheirformation.Theywerenotaparticularlywell-trainedorexperiencedbunchofmen,besidesbeing
dispiritedbytheretreatfromMeung.TheywereabletodopracticallynothingbeforetheFrenchwerethroughTalbot’sforceanduponthem.ThesituationwasmadeevenmoregravebytherapidarrivaloftheFrenchmainbody,rightontheheelsoftheiradvance-guard.Itwasalloververyquickly;Talbotandmostoftheotherleaderswerecaptured,butFastolfmanagedtogetaway,leaving
behindhisbaggageandguns.
Hisescapewasalittleepicinitself,consistingofmarchingsixtymilesinadayandanight,formedupinastoutbodyofarcherswhofoughtoffeveryattackwitharrowsandthen,whentheywereallgone,takingtotheswordbeforereachingsafety.Buttheirwearystepsweredoggedwithconfusionandbewilderment–neverbefore
hadtheyexperiencedanythingliketheFrenchcavalry’sheadlongcharge;theyfounditdifficulttofathomthisdramatictransitionfromtheusualFrenchprudencetingedwithapprehension.
Itwasabewildermentthatwastogrow.Formorethan100yearsthetacticalemploymentoftheEnglisharcherhadbroughtsuccess
andeachbattlecanbesaidtohavefavourablyinfluencedthebattlethatfollowed.CrécyhadbeenwonbecauseoftheexperiencegainedatHalidonHill;Agincourtwas,initsturn,influencedbyCrécyandPoitiers.Nowthewheelwasturning.Thesidethathadalwayswonwerepreventedfromcontinuingtheirvictoriouspathbecausetheiropponentsnolongerplayedthegametothe
heavilyloadedEnglishrules.Andthewheelturnedinanotherinversemanner–-justastheFrenchhadbeencontinuouslybeatenthroughaslavishadherencetooutmodedtactics,nowcameananomalousturn.EnglishcommanderswerebeingdefeatedbytheimprovedmilitaryskilloftheFrenchbecausetheypersistedinslavishlyapplyingthedefensivetacticsofEdward
IIIandHenryV.FormorethanacenturytheFrenchhadbeendesperatelytryingtodiscoveramethodoratacticthatwouldminimisethedeadlylongbow;nowtheEnglishwereforcedtothinkhard.TheyhadtocomeupwithsomenewsystemassuccessfulasthelongbowtodealwiththesuperiornumbersoftheFrench,otherwisetheEnglishwereforedoomedtodefeatbytheir
numericalinferiority.
In1450,onthe15thofApril,theEnglishlosttheBattleofFormignybecausetheircommanderswereunintelligentlyinfluencedbythetacticsofAgincourt,coupledwiththefactthattheFrenchnolongermadegrossblundersateveryengagement.ItwasthelastbattlebutonetobefoughtintheHundredYearsWar–a
small-scaleengagement,butonethatdecidedthefateofallNormandy.AtCaentheDukeofSomerset,commanderofalltheEnglisharmiesinFrance,wasthreatenedbyanoverwhelmingforce,ledbyKingCharlesofFranceinperson.Toopenthewaytohim,anEnglisharmyofabout4,000menhadbeenscrapedtogetherbystrippingNormanfortressesoftheir
garrisonsandbringingsome2,500reinforcementsfromEngland,underthecommandofSirThomasKyriell.Itwasaforcemadeupofafewhundredmen-at-arms,about1,500archersandtheremainderwerebillmen.
Atfirsttheforcehadsomesuccesses;bymid-ApriltheyhadcometotheareaaroundthevillageofFormigny,wheretheyfoundthemselves
confrontedbyaFrenchcorpsundertheyoungCountofClermont.ItwasoneofseveralFrenchdivisionsthathadbeensentouttoarresttheprogressoftheEnglishforce;itconsistedofabout3,000men,thusbeingnumericallyinferiortotheEnglishforce.Nevertheless,theEnglishcommanderrefusedtoassumetheinitiative;hegroupedhisforceinthelittlevalleycontainingthevillage,
withtheirbackstoasmallbrooklinedwithorchardsandplantationswellcalculatedtocovertheirrear.TheveteranEnglishcommander,experiencedinthedefensivebattlesthathadpreviouslybroughtsuccess,forgottheneedtopushforward;heawaitedClermont’sattackandmadeeverypreparationtodefeatitwhenitcame.Hisarchers,withplentyoftimeattheirdisposal,plantedtheir
stakes,dugditchesandpotholesinfrontoftheirlinetoimpedetheenemycavalry–itwasathrow-backofoveracentury.Kyriellformedhismenuponafrontageofabout1,000yardsinathinlineofdismountedmen-at-arms,withthreegroupsofarchersprojectingforwardinbastions;itwasHenryV’sformationatAgincourtthirty-fiveyearsbefore.
Ataboutthreeo’clockintheafternoon,theFrenchforcecamemarchingstraightuptheroad;theydeployedinthreelinestotherightandleftsothattheyfacedtheEnglish,whowereabout500yardsaway.Therebothsidesstood,eyeingoneanother.TheFrenchnotedwithsomeapprehensionthattheEnglishwerestillimprovingtheiralreadysubstantialdefences.TheFrenchcommanders
wentintoconference–intheolddaystheywouldhaverushedforwardinaheadlongattack,butthenew-styleFrencharmydidthingsdifferently.Actually,theyoungandinexperiencedClermontwasallfortheimmediateattack–heburnedwiththeimpetuosityofyouth.However,hewassufficientlymalleabletolistentohismoreexperiencedofficers,whowarnedhim,throughlong
experience,tobewaryoftheEnglishinapreparedposition.Anyway,whyhurry?WasnottheConstabledeRichemontnearathandwithreinforcements?
So,fortwoorthreehourssomeaimlessskirmishingwenton;itwasaperiodoffarmoreusetotheFrenchthantotheEnglish,fortheirreinforcementsdrewnearerbytheminute.SomeFrench
attacks,onfoot,wereputintofeelouttheflanks,butallwererepulsed,asweresomehalf-heartedmountedattacksalsoontheflanks.Fromtheirpositionbehindstakesandpot-holes,thearcherstookaheavytolloftheenemy.DeRichemontstillhadnotarrivedwhenClermontrecalledthathehadbroughtgunswithhim;heorderedGiraud,MasteroftheRoyalOrdnance,todraguphistwo
culverins.UndertheeyesofthepossiblyapprehensiveEnglish,willinghandsdraggedtheheavygunstoaspotoutsidebowrangefromwhichtheycouldenfiladetheEnglishline.
Aftertheusualfussy,technicalpreparationsbelovedofgunnersthroughouttheages,theyopenedfire.Itwasagalling,naggingbombardment,shots
regularlyarrivinginirritatingsuccessionuntilthearchersweresofrustratedthattheybroketheirranksandrushedoutfrombehindtheirstakes.Aidedbyawingofthebillmen,theychargedheadlongatthegunsandafiercebutbriefmêléetookplacearoundthemuntiltheFrenchwereroutedandreeledaway,leavingthepreciouspiecessilentandinthehandsoftheEnglish.
ThebattlewouldhavebeenwonhadKyrielladvancedhiswholeforceatthiscrucialmoment.TheFrench,dispiritedbytheirlosses,werebeginningtomeltawayfromthefieldandthearchersweretriumphantlytryingtodragtheheavygunsbacktotheirownlines,notknowinghowto‘spike’them.ButtheEnglishcommander,obsessedbyhisdefensivetactics,wouldnotmoveaninch;he
didnotevensendoutaidtothearcherswhohadseizedthegunsbutwerethemselvesnowundergreatpressure,havingbeenattackedbyoneoftheflank‘battles’ofFrenchdismountedmen-at-arms.Adesperatestrugglewastakingplacearoundtheartillerypieces,archersandbillmenbattlingtoholdofftheirattackerswhilstothersstrainedandsweatedintheireffortstogetthegunsaway.
Itwasanunevenstruggle;themorelightlyarmedEnglishwereslowlybutremorselesslypushedbackbytheirheavieropponents,whilsttheircomradeslookedonsullenlyafewhundredyardsaway.EventuallytheEnglishinfantryhadtoabandonthegunsaltogetherastheyfoughtfortheirverylives.
Theveryresistanceofthe
archersproveddisastroustotheEnglishintheirstrongposition,becausetheFrenchpushedthembackbeforetheminaslowandprogressiveadvancetowardsthestakes,sothatthearcherswereunabletousetheirbowstoharasstheenemyforfearofhittingtheirownmen.Soonthefightingwastakingplaceimmediatelyinfrontofthestakes,andtherestoftheFrenchforce,seeingthebattle
goingtheirway,hadmovedforwardallalongtheirlinesothatfiercefightingwastakingplaceatallpoints.ButtheEnglishsuperiorityinnumbersbegantotell,andtheFrenchwereshowingsignsofwaveringwhendeRichemontarrivedontheskylinewithhisreinforcements.TheycamefromadirectionthatimmediatelythreatenedtheEnglishleftflankandrear.
Kyriellwasnowindirestraits;hehadnoreserve,sowasforcedtobendhislinebackintoaright-angle,orroughsemicircle,tofightonthetwofronts.ThearrivalofthenewtroopsbroughthearttoClermont’swearymensothattheyfoundnewstrength;butthefatiguedanddiscouragedEnglishbegantocrumpleundertheshock.Fightinghard,theygavegrounduntiltheywereforced
intoseveralfiercelyfightingbutisolatedgroups,whichfoughtonstubbornlyanddiedhardwithnoquarterbeinggivenorasked.Onepartyof500archersaresaidtohavefoughttotheverylastman,inthebloody,muddygroundofagardenbythebrookside.Afewhundredarchersescaped,butKyriellandhisinfantryweresurroundedandannihilated,thecommanderhimselfbeingsparedand
captured.Four-fifthsoftheEnglishforcewerekilledinthismajordisastertoEnglisharms.Bytheuseofintelligentoffensivetacticsitwasabattlethatcouldhavebeenwonbeforeitevenbegan,andthenwonagainhalfwaythroughitscourse.
Chapter20
TheWarsoftheRoses–1461AtthetimeoftheexpulsionoftheEnglishfromtheirContinentalpossessions,no
blamewaslaidatthedoorofthelongbow,nordidthereseemtobeanypermanentdiscreditingofitspower.Nevertheless,asfutureeventsproved,inspiteofthetriplevictoriesofCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourt,tosaynothingofmanylessersuccesses,archeryasaweaponofwarwasonthedowngradeinthemid-fifteenthcentury.Thebowstillretaineditssupremacyasamissile
weaponovertheclumsyarbalest,withitscomplicatedarrayofwheelsandlevers.Infact,thetestimonyofallEuropewasgiveninfavourofthelongbow–CharlesofBurgundyconsideredacorpsof3,000Englishbowmentobetheflowerofhisinfantry;thirtyyearsbefore,CharlesofFrancehadmadethearcherthebasisofhisnewmilitiainavainattempttonaturalisetheweaponofhisenemies
beyondtheChannel.Afterasimilarendeavour,JamesofScotlandhadresignedhimselftoillsuccessandsoturnedthearcheryofhissubjectstoridicule.Beforethat,however,hehadorderedalawtobepassedbytheScottishParliamentin1424:
‘Thatallmenmightbuskthametobearchares,fratheybe12yearsofage;andthatatilktenpoundsworthofland,
thairbemadebowmakres,andspeciallenearparochekirks,quhairnuponhailiedaysmenmaycum,andattheleistschutethrusyeabout,andhaveusyeofarcharie;andwhassausisnotarcharie,thelairdofthelandsailraisofhimawedder,andgiffthelairdraisisnotthesamepane,thekingsshireforhisministerssailraisittotheKing.’
InEnglandEdwardIVproclaimedthateveryEnglishmanandIrishmanlivinginEnglandmusthaveofhisownabowofhisownheight‘tobemadeofyew,wych,orhazel,ashorauborneoranyotherreasonabletree,accordingtotheirpower’.Thesamelawprovidedthatbuttesormoundsofearthforuseasmarksmustbeerectedineverytownandvillage,and
listedaseriesofpenaltiesforthosewhodidnotpractisewiththelongbow.
RichardIIIwasoneofthekingswhorecognisedthevalueofthearcher;Shakespearemakeshimsay,justpriortotheBattleofBosworth:‘Drawarchers,drawyourarrowstothehead!’TherearealsorecordstellingthatRichardsentabodyof1,000archersto
FrancetoaidtheDukeofBrittany.HenryVIIalsoprovidedanti-crossbowlegislationandsentlargeleviesofEnglisharcherstofightfortheDukeofBrittany.DuringthisentireperiodEnglishlongbowmenservedinmanypartsofthethen-knownworld.
Theintroductionofgunpowderwasthebeginningoftheendforthearcher;
althoughover400yearsweretopassbeforethebowandarrowwerefinallyovercomebygun-fire,theseedsweresowninthefourteenthcenturyatCrécyandSluys.Themakingofaskilfularcherwasamatterofyears,butanadequategunnercouldbeproducedinafewmonths–itwasfartooeasytoattainacertainamountofproficiencywiththenewweaponsforthebowto
remainhighlypopular.Atfirstthelongbowwasvastlysuperiortothenewlyinventedhandgunsandarquebuses,whichdidnotattainanygreatdegreeofefficiencybeforetheendofthefifteenthcentury.Whentheydid,thebow–theweaponparexcellenceofEngland–fellintodisuse,althoughthearchercoulddischargetwelveorfifteenarrowswhilethemusketeer
wasgoingthroughthelengthyoperationofloadinghispiece.Thelongbowcouldbeaimedmoreaccuratelyanditseffectiverangeof200–240yardswasgreater;thehitting-powerofawar-arrow,weighingabouttwoounces,wasfargreaterthanthatofamusket-ball,weighingfromone-thirdtohalfanounce.Archerscouldbelinedupasmanyastendeepandshoottogetherovereachother’s
headstoputdownanalmostimpassablebarrage;anditwasaterrifyingbarragethatcouldbeseendescending.ItisnotoutsidetheboundsofpossibilitytoclaimthatthemusketusedatWaterlooin1815wasinferiortothelongbowusedatAgin-courtin1415,bothinrangeandaccuracy.
Earlyfirearmswerereasonablygoodweaponsof
defencewhentheycouldberesteduponrampartsandtheirpowderkeptdry,otherwisetheywerefarlessdeadlythanthelongbowincompetenthands.In1590SirJohnSmyth,aformidablemilitarywriterofthetime,inhisworkTheDiscoursepresentedawholesalecondemnationofthenewweapons,themosquet,thecaliverandtheharquebus.Thebookwashastily
suppressedbyEnglishmilitaryauthorities;thestern,lonevoice,cryingforareturntotheolderandmoreeffectivewaysofthelongbowdidnotcoincidewithcurrentmilitarythinking.Onealsohadtoconsiderthatthemeritofearlyfirearmslayintheprestigewhichtheybroughttotheprinceswhoarmedtheirmenwiththem.
InmanyofthebattlesoftheWarsoftheRoses,artillerywascombinedwitharchers,sothattheenemywasputinapositionwherehehadeithertofallbackortochargeinordertoescapemissilefire–justassimilartacticshadwonthefieldofHastingsforWilliamin1066.EdgecottFieldwasnotableasarenewedattemptofspearmentostandagainstamixedforceofarchersand
cavalry.HeretheYorkistswereentirelydestituteoflighttroops,theirbowmenhavingbeendrawnoffbytheircommander,LordStafford,inafitofpique.ThismeantthatPembrokeandhisNorthWelshtroopswereleftunsupported.Thenaturalresultfollowed;inspiteofthestrongpositionoftheKing’sson,therebels,byforceofarcheryfire,quicklycausedthemtodescendfromthehill
intothevalley,wheretheywereriddendownbytheNorthernhorseastheyretreatedindisorder.
Duringtheperiodofthiswar,armourhadpossiblyreacheditselaboratepeak,asanolddescriptionofaknightarmingfortheBattleofTewkesburyindicated:‘…andarmingwasanelaborateprocessthen,astheknightbeganwithhisfeet,and
clothedhimselfupwards.Heputonfirst,hissabatynesorsteelclogs;secondly,thegreavesorshin-pieces;thirdly,thecuisses,orthigh-pieces;fourthly,thebreechofmail;fifthly,thetuillettes;sixthly,thebreastplate;seventhly,thevambracesorarm-covers;eighthly,thererebraces,forcoveringtheremainingpartofthearmtotheshoulder;ninthly,thegauntlets;tenthly,thedagger
washung;eleventhly,theshortsword;twelfthly,thesurcoatwasputon;thirteenthly,thehelmet;fourteenthly,thelongswordwasassumed;and,fifteenthly,thepennoncel,whichhecarriedinhislefthand.’
Notwithstandingtheundoubtedstrengthofthisarray,thearcherstillappearedtoachievesufficient
penetrationwithhisshaftstobeconsideredaworthwhilepartoftheforces.
AtTowton,onPalmSunday,March29th,1461,LordFalconbridge,commandingpartofthearmyofEdwardIV,usedhisarchersinaninterestingtacticalexpedientwhichsufficedtodecidethedaywhenbotharmieswereemployingthesameweapon.
Thesnow,whichwasfallingveryheavily,wasbeingblownbyastrongwindfrombehindtheYorkistsandintothefacesoftheLancastrians;itrenderedtheopposinglinesonlypartiallyvisibletoeachother.Falconbridgeorderedhisarcherstothefront,toactmoreorlessasskirmishers.Itmustbeexplainedthattwotypesofarrowsweretheninuse–theflightarrowandthesheafarrow;theformerwas
lightlyfeathered,withasmallhead;thelatterwashigh-featheredandshortlyshaftedwithalargehead.Flightarrowswereshotatagreatdistanceand,atproperelevation,couldkillat240yards.Sheafarrowswereforcloserfighting,requiringbutaslightelevation,andwereoftenshotatpoint-blankrange.
Theadvancingarchershad
beencarefullyinstructedtoletflyashowerofsheafarrows,withagreaterelevationthanusual,andthentofallbacksomepacesandstand.Aidedbythegale,theYorkistarrowsfellamongtheLancastrianarchers,who,perceivingthattheyweresheafarrowsandbeingmisledbytheblindingsnowastotheiropponents’exactdistancefromthem,assumedthattheenemywerewithin
easyrange.Theycommencedfiringvolleyaftervolleyintothesnowstorm,allofwhichfellsixtyyardsshortoftheYorkistsuntilthesnowbristledwiththeuselesslyexpendedshaftslikeporcupinequills.WhentheLancastrianshademptiedtheirbelts,theYorkistsmovedforwardandbeganfiringinreturn,usingnotonlytheirownshaftsbutalsothosesoconvenientlysticking
outofthesnowattheirfeet.Theirshootinghadgreateffectandmenfellonallsidesasthewind-assistedshaftscamehissingintothem;inashorttimeitwaspossibleforthebillmenandmen-at-armsofWarwickandKingEdwardtoadvancecomfortablyforwardwithoutreceivinganyharassingfirefromtheLancastrianarchers.Needlesstosay,theYorkistarchersthenlaidasidetheir
bowsandwentinwiththemoreheavilyarmedinfantry.Itwasastrategemthatwonthebattle,andwasonethatcouldonlybeusedwhentheadversarieswereperfectlyconversantwitheachother’sarmamentsandmethodsofwar.
Eveninthelatefifteenthandearlysixteenthcenturiesthelongbowstillretaineditssupremacyoverthearquebus
andhadyetsomefamousfieldstowin,notablythatofFloddenin1513,where,aswillbeseenfromthenextchapter,theoldmanoeuvresofFalkirkwererepeatedbybothparties,thepikemenofthelowlandsonceagainbeingshottopiecesbythearchersofCheshireandLancashire.AslateasthereignofEdwardVIwefindKett’sInsurgentsbeating,bytherapidityoftheirarchery
fire,acorpsofGermanhackbuteerswhomthegovernmenthadsentagainstthem.NorwasthebowentirelyextinctasanationalweaponeveninthedaysofQueenElizabeth.ItwasinthereignoftheVirginQueenthatthefirstreallygreatarcherywriterappearedontheEnglishscene.RogerAscham,tutortoElizabethwhenshewasaprincess,wastheauthorofthebook
Toxophilus,whichremainstheclassicinthefield.Allowingforcertainminordifferences,thephraseologyandcertainadvanceswhichhavebeenmadeinequipment,Ascham’sbookisasvaluabletothearchertodayasitwaswhenitwaswrittenfourcenturiesago.His‘instructions’canbe,andare,usedtodayinteachingnovicearchers.Ascham’srelationtothebow
Chapter21
FloddenField–1513Thelongbowwastogooutofmilitaryfashioninablazeofglory,toachieveavictoryintheoldclassicalstylesothatitleftaglowintheheartsof
theyeomanofEngland,butnopangsofregretintheheartsofhisenemies.
TheeventswhichledtotheScottishinvasionofEnglandin1513neednotberecapitulated;sufficetosaythatKingJamesIVofScotlandhadcrossedtheborderinmid-Augustofthatyearwith,forthattime,anenormousarmyof40,000men.Theywerewell
furnishedwiththelatestartilleryoftheday.HisleaderswereallthoseofthehighestrankintheScottishkingdom;itmaybefairlysaidthatnogrown-upmemberofanyfamilyofpositionwasabsentfromtheexpedition.Aftersomeinitialskirmishing,theScotshadNorthumberlandattheirmercy;butaftertakingthecastleofFord,strongholdoftheHeronfamily,James
loiteredintheneighbourhoodwhilsthisarmydailygrewlessinnumbers.SaidtohavebeeninfatuatedbythecapturedLadyHeron,KingJamesappearedtoberegardlessoftheincreasingdesertionsofthosegorgedwithplunderinadditiontothosestarvedthroughthelandbeingforaged-out.Finally,hisarmynumberedlessthan30,000,butthosethatwereleftrepresentedthecreamof
thewholeandwereclaimedtohavebeenoneofthenoblestbodiesoffightingmenevergatheredtogether.Tobackthem,JameshadamostefficienttrainofthirtypiecesofartillerywhichhadbeencastforhimatEdinburghbythemastergunner,RobertBorthwick.
AgainsttheScotswassenttheveteranEarlofSurrey,overseventyyearsofage,
andforced,onaccountofhisrheumatism,totravelmostlybycoach.Chieflyfromthenortherncounties,hehastilygatheredtogetheranarmyofbetween20,000and26,000men.WhilstencampedatAlnwick,SurreysentaformalchallengetoKingJames,namingFriday,9thSeptember,asthedayofbattle;thechallengewasdulyacceptedinthemostformalmanner.Atthetimeof
acceptance,Jameswasencampedinthelowgroundand,accordingtotheoldrulesofchivalry,hisacceptancefromthisspotimpliedthathewouldgivebattleonthatsite.ButbeforelongJameshadmovedhiscampfromtheretoFloddenHill,aneminencelyingduesouthofFordCastle,runningeastandwestinalowridge.Here,onthesteepbrowofFloddenEdge,intheangle
betweentheTillanditssmalltributary,theGlen,James’sdefensivepositionwassostrongthatnosanefoewoulddaretoattackit.
Realisingthis,SurreysentJamesaletterofreproachinwhichhepointedoutthatthearrangementhadbeenmadeforapitchedbattle,andinsteadJameshadinstalledhimselfinafortifiedcamp.Heconcludedbychallenging
himtocomedownontheappointeddayandfightonMillfieldPlain,aleveltractsouthofFloddenHill.KingJamesrefusedeventoseetheheraldwhobroughtthemessage.
SurreythenmarchedhisarmyuptheriverTill;puthisvanguardwiththeartilleryandheavybaggageacrossattheTwizelbridge,whilsttheremainderofhisforce
crossedatSandyford,halfamilehigherup.NowwaspresentedtoJamesanexcellentopportunityofattackingtheEnglishwhilsttheyweresplitintotwoparts.Byfailingtograspit,JamesnowfoundhisfoesplacedbetweenhimselfandScotland;hewasleftwithlittlealternativebuttoreversehisorderofbattle.Settingfiretotherudehutsthathismenhadconstructedonthe
summitofthehill,hemovedhisforceontoBranxtonHill,immediatelybehindFloddenEdge;themovementwaspartiallyobscuredfromtheEnglishbythecloudsofsmokethattrailedoverthebrowofthehill.AstheyformedupontheridgeaboveBranxton,theScottisharmythathadfacedsouthwerenowdrawnupfacingnorth.
Thetwoarmiesfacedeach
other,bothformedintofourdivisionsandbothwithareserve.BeginningontheEnglishright,thefirstdivisionwascommandedbySirEdmundHoward,theyoungersonoftheEarlofSurrey;opposedtohimweretheGordonsundertheEarlofHuntleyandthemenoftheborderundertheEarlofHome.ThesecondEnglishdivisionwasledbyAdmiralHoward,whowasfacedby
theEarlsofCrawfordandMontrose.TheEarlofSurrey,withthethirddivision,wasopposedbyKingJameshimself;whileSirEdwardStanley,withthefourthdivision,hadtotryconclusionswiththeEarlsofLennoxandArgyle,whosetroopsweremainlyhighlanders.TheEnglishreserve,mainlycavalry,wascommandedbyLordDacre;thatoftheScottishunder
Bothwell.
Itwasnotuntilfouro’clockthatthebattlecommenced.Then,asanoldchroniclersays:‘Outbursttheordnancewithfire,flameandahideousnoise….’TheScottishartillerywasfarsuperiorinconstructiontotheEnglish,whichwasconstructedofhoopsandbars,whilsttheScotsmastergunnerhadcasthisweapons;
therewere,however,moreEnglishguns.ItseemsasthoughtheEnglishgunnersweresuperiortothoseservingtheScottishcannon,thelattercommittingtheerroroffiringattoogreatanelevationsothattheirshotspassedovertheheadsoftheEnglishandburiedthemselvesinthemarshygroundbeyond.Theoldwritergoesontosay:‘…andthemastergunneroftheEnglishslewthemaster
gunneroftheScots,andbeatallhismenfromtheirguns.’TheearlydeathofBorthwick,broughtdownbyaball,setupapanicinhismen,whoranfromtheirguns–butitwasnotbyartilleryfirethatFloddenwastobewonorlost.Jamesrealisedthisfactandorderedanattack;thebordertroopsoftheLordsHuntleyandHomeappeartohavebeenthefirsttocometoclosequarterswiththe
English.
InanunusualsilencetheScotsrushedforward,theirtwelve-foot-longpikeslevelledinfrontofthem;theinitialimpetusoftheironslaughtcarriedthemfarintotheEnglishlines,sothatatfirsttheyachievedabsolutesuccess.TheEnglishright,underSirEdmundHoward,wasthrustback,theirleaderthricebeatendownandhis
banneroverturned.TheEnglishfightinglinewasindisorderonthisflank.SomeCheshirearchers,whohadbeenseparatedfromtheircorpsandsentouttostrengthentherightwing,fledinalldirectionsandchaoscametoHoward’swing.JohnHeron,usuallyknownastheBastardHeron,attheheadofagroupofNorthumbrians,checkedtheroutlongenoughforDacretochargedown
withhisreserve.ThiscommittingofthereserveatsuchanearlystagedidnotsucceedinrestoringtheEnglishline,butitdidputHuntleytoflight,whilsttheundisciplinedborderersofHomehadnofurtherideaoffighting.Inaborderforay,nomorewasexpectedafterroutingone’sopponents;Home’smendidnotgraspthatFloddenwasnoordinaryforay–’Wehavefoughtand
won,lettherestdotheirpartaswellaswe!’wastheiranswertothosetryingtorallythem.
Whilstthiswasgoingon,CrawfordandMontrosewerefuriouslyattackingthedivisionofAdmiralHoward;somuchsothattheAdmiralsenttohisfather,theEarlofSurrey,forassistance.ButSurreywasfullyoccupiedinholdinghisownagainstthe
divisioncommandedbyKingJames,strengthenedbyBothwell,whohadbroughtupthereserveandflungthemintothestruggle.Thebattlewasnowatitsheightandwasbeinghardlycontestedallalongtheline;itseemed,hereandthere,asthoughtheEnglishhalberdswereprovingmoredeadlyweaponsatclosequartersthanthelongScottishpikes.
OntheEnglishleft,thearchersofCheshireandLancashire,underSirWilliamMolyneauxandSirHenryKickley,werepouringvolleysofarrowsintothetightlypackedranksoftheScottishright,highlandersundertheEarlsofLennoxandArgyle.Galledbythehailofshaftswhichspittedtheirunarmouredbodies,thewildclansmenfinallyfoundittobemorethantheycould
bear.Castingasidetheirtargetsandutteringwild,fierceyells,theyflungthemselvesforwardinaheadlongrush,claymoreandpole-axewavingfuriouslyinafrenzyofanxietytoburythemselvesintoEnglishfleshandbone.Thebowmenandpikemenwereshaken,sotremendouswastheinitialshock,theirbillsandswords,whichhadreplacedthebows,reelingandwaveringunder
theonslaught;butdisciplineprevailedandtheirformationremainedunbroken.Thearchersontheflanksofthemêléestoodbackandpouredinvolleyaftervolleyatclosequarters,whiletheinnerlineofpikemenandmen-at-armsheldoffthewildhighlanders.Theirarrowsgone,thearchersthrewdowntheirbows,drewtheirswordsandaxestoflingthemselvesintothefray,bothinfrontandon
theflanks.Itwasadeadlystrugglewhilstitlasted,butgraduallytheclansmengaveway,fightingatfirst,butthen,suddenly,incompleterout–bothearlsdiedtryingtostemthetide.
Stanleypressedforward,wonhiswayupandcrownedtheridge.HedidnotmaketheerrorofpursuingfromthefieldthethoroughlybrokenScotswhomhismenhadjust
beaten.Facingabout,hechargedobliquelydownhilltotaketheScotsdivisionsofKingJamesandBothwellinflank.Thisstruggleinthecentre,betweenSurreyandKingJames,hadbeenproceedingfiercely;theKingwasfightingonfootliketherestofhisdivision,conspicuousbytherichnessofhisarmsandarmour.Stanley’sflankattack,coincidingwithasimilar
attackontheotherflankbyDacreandEdmundHoward,proveddisastroustotheScots.Hemmedinonallsides,theybegantofallbyhundredsinthecloseanddeadlymêlée;noquarterwasaskedbyeithersideandnonewasgiven.Thebloodflowingfromthedreadfulgashesinflictedbyaxes,billsandtwo-handedswordsmadethegroundsoslipperythatmanyofthecombatantsweresaid
tohavetakenofftheirbootstogainasurerfooting.
Asabattle,allwasoverbynowandnothingremainedbuttheslaughter.Surroundedbyasolidringofhisknights,Jamesrefusedtoyielduntilhefinallyfell,dyingwiththeknightswhohadformedahumanshieldaroundhim.Hewassaidtohavebeenmortallywoundedbyaballfiredbyanunknownhand;he
hadseveralarrowsinhisbody,agashinhisneckandhislefthandwasalmostseveredfromhisarm.TenthousandmenfellontheScottishside;tolisttheslainisalmosttocataloguetheancientScottishnobility.Withtheexceptionoftheheadsoffamilieswhoweretoooldortooyoungtofight,therewashardlyafamilyoftoprankthatdidnotgrievouslysuffer.The
Englishlostabout5,000men.
OntheScotsside,thearchersofEttrick,knowninScotlandasthe‘FlowersoftheForest’,perishedalmosttoaman.Tothisdaythesweet,sad,wailingairknownbythatnameisinvariablytheDeadMarchusedbyScottishregiments.
Chapter22
TheEndoftheRoadExceptpossiblyinagreatclanbattlein1688,whenMacintoshfoughtMacdonald,thelastoccasiononwhichthelongbowwasusedforwarin
BritainissaidtohavebeenatTippermuirin1644.HeretheMarquisofMontrose,upholdingthecauseofCharlesI,routedtheCovenanters;hisarmy,havinglittleammunitionfortheirfewmuskets,usedhailsofstonesandancientbowstobringthemvictory.Sincethereweresomanymorebattlesduringthenextfewyearsofthatunhappyperiod,itisquitelikelythatthebow
wasusedtogoodeffectonotheroccasions–itseemsunlikelythatitshouldhavebeencompletelyabandonedinthemiddleofacivilwar.In1622thelongbowwasnolongermentionedinthelistofweaponswithwhichthemilitaryforcesweretobearmed.
Oneofthegreatpuzzlesofmilitaryhistoryiswhyartilleryandfirearmsreplaced
thelongbowsorapidlywhenthelatter,rightuptothetimeofWaterlooandbeyond,wascapableoffargreaterrange,rateoffire,andaccuracy.In1625,inhispamphletDouble-armedMan,W.Neadegavetheeffectiverangeofthebowassixteentotwentyscoreyardsandclaimedthatthearchercoulddischargesixarrowswhilethemusketeerloadedandfiredbutonce.In1792
Lieutenant-ColonelLee,ofthe44thRegiment,stronglyadvocatedtheuseofthelongbowinpreferencetotheflint-lockmusket.Tosupporthiscasehegavethefollowingreasons:
1.Becauseamanmayshootastrulywiththebowaswiththecommonmusket.
2.Hecandischargefourarrowsinthetimeofcharging
anddischargingonebullet.
3.Hisobjectisnottakenfromhisviewbythesmokeofhisownside.
4.Aflightofarrowscominguponthemterrifiesanddisturbstheenemy’sattentiontohisbusiness.
5.Anarrowstickinginanypartofamanputshimhorsdecombatuntilitis
extracted.
6.Bowsandarrowsaremoreeasilymadeanywherethanmusketsandammunition.
Aslateas1846theeffectiverangeofthemusketincommonuseintheBritisharmywas,forallpracticalpurposes,only100to150yards–thecommondictumbeingnottofireuntilyou
couldseethewhitesoftheenemy’seyes!Whythenwasthebowabandonedsoearlyinfavourofthecrudefirearmsoftheperiod?
Onthebattlefield,archeryhascertainunavoidabledrawbacksaffectingboththemanandhisweapon.Tousehislongboweffectively,thearcherneededspacearoundhim–hehadtostandtodeliverhisshaft.Notonlydid
thismakehimvulnerabletotheelements,italsoturnedhimintoagoodtarget;thewholecourseofwarfarewasalteredwhenthebreech-loadingrifleenabledthesoldiertore-loadhisarmwhilstlyingdown.Althoughrainhadanadverseeffectupontherateoffireofamusket,itcompletelyrenderedthelongbowuseless;windcouldalsorenderthearcherhelpless.However,the
crucialfactorwasthatthearcherhadtobeanathleteinthebestphysicalcondition,whereasthemanbehindtheguncouldfunctioneveninthestateofwearydebilityproducedbythecold,wetandhungerofextendedactiveservice.Mediaevalcommanderswerewellawareoftheimportanceofmaintainingboththehealthandthestatureoftheirarchers–theymountedthem
onhorseswheneverpossible,recruitedthemfromthefixedheraldicrankofyeoman(thehighestheldbymenoflowdegree)andeverencouragedpracticeatthebutts.
AlthoughthelongbowwonCrécy,PoitiersandAgincourt,togetherwithahostofsmallerengagements,theHundredYearsWarwaswonbytheFrench.Bybetteradaptingthemselvestothe
newlyinventedandprimitiveartilleryandbyusingthemwithasuperiortechnique,theFrenchwereabletorecapturethetownsandprovinceslosttotheEnglish,eventuallynullifyingtheeffectsofalltheEnglishvictoriesthroughouttheHundredYearsWar.
Perhapsregrettably,todayitisonlytheincurableromanticistwhowillclaim
specialvirtuesforthelongbowasagainstfirearms.But,intheend,hewillhavegrudginglytoadmitthatthefirearmhasprovedtobewhatthebowcouldnotbecome–aperfectibleweapon.Anygoodshotinanaveragemodernsmall-borerifleclubcangeta‘possible’outofeverytenshotsaimedatatwo-inchcircle100yardsaway;hewillbeabletodothisconsistentlyandwithout
hesitation.The‘gold’ofanarcherytargetisasbigasasaucer,yetHoraceA.Fordheldforyearstherecordof28hitsin75shotsat60yards.Noarcher,howeverskilful,canbeabsolutelycertainwithinseveralincheswhereasingleshaftwillland.ItisadegreeofuncertaintyemphasisedbyanincidentattheinaugurationoftheNationalRifleAssociationatWimbledononJuly2nd,
1860,whenQueenVictoriapulledasilkencordwhichfiredaWhitworthrifleonafixedrestandhitonly1¼inchesfromthecentreofthetarget!
EpilogueIn1939CaptainJackChurchilloftheManchesterRegimentwasamemberoftheBritishteamcompetingintheWorldArcheryChampionshipatOslo.Withwarintheoffing,thepartyarrivedbackinEnglandaftersomedifficultiesandhewent,
almostimmediately,withtheadvancepartyoftheBritishExpeditionaryForcetotheContinent.Beforeembarking,CaptainChurchillhadmadebyPurleofLondonahundred-poundyewbowtogetherwithhuntingarrows;healsoequippedhimselfwithtwosteelbowswhichwerelaterbrokenwhilststickingoutofthebackofalorrythatwasbackedagainstawall.
Duringthedaysofthe‘phoneywar’of1939,CaptainChurchilltookeveryopportunityofpractisingwithhisbowbyshootingattargets.InDecember1939the4thBrigadeofthe2ndDivisionoftheB.E.F.,consistingoftheNorfolkRegiment,theRoyalScots,theWarwickshireRegiment,andthemachine-gunsoftheManchesterRegiment,tookoverpartoftheMaginot
Line.Itwasabitterlycoldwinterandsnowlayonthefrozenground,sothatpatrolsformedofgroupsfromallbattalionsweresentoutinfrontoftheMaginotLinewearingwhitenightgownsandwithelephantinelegsencasedinlayersofstrawandsandbags.Frustratedandirritatedbytheofficialpolicyofnotprovokingtheenemy,CaptainChurchilldecideduponasymbolicgesture
whichhethoughtwouldnotonlygivehimgreatpersonalsatisfactionbutmightalsocreateacertainalarm,despondencyandbewildermentintheenemylines.Onthe31stofDecember1939,whilstoutwithapatrolamidtheundulating,snow-coveredcountrysideofno-man’s-land,hestealthilymadehiswaytobetweenfiftyandeightyyardsfromtheGermanlines
and,drawinghisbowstringbacktohischeek,letlooseanarrowwhichheheardbiteintoafrost-hardgroundwithanaudible‘clack’.Therewasnoreactionwhatsoever,soChurchillagaindrewhisbowandloosedasecondarrow–thistimeaGermanvoicecalledoutandtherewasobviouslysomeconsternationcausedintheenemydefences,althoughhedidnothavethesatisfactionof
knowingwhetherornothisarrowhadhitanyone.Althoughelatedbyhisgesture,thearcherregrettednotbeingabletoretrievehisarrows.Theshaftscosthim105.6d.eachandtheWarOfficehadnofinancialresponsibilityforsuchammunition!
Onthe27thofMay1940,whilstincommandofamixedforceholdingthe
villageofL’Epinette,nearBethune,duringtheretreattoDunkirk,CaptainChurchill,whohadbeenslightlywoundedonthe25th,becametheonlyEuropeanforcenturieswho,intheactionofwar,hadkilledanenemywiththelongbow.Climbingintotheloftofasmallgranary,throughaverticalopeninginonewall,normallyusedforhaulingupsacksofgrain,hesaw,somethirty
yardsaway,fiveGermansoldiersshelteringbehindthewallbutinclearviewofthegranary.QuicklyandquietlyCaptainChurchillfetcheduptwoinfantrymenandinstructedthemtoopenrapidfireontheenemybutnottopullthetriggeruntilhehadloosedanarrowatthecentreman.CaptainChurchillliftedhisbow,tookcarefulaimandloosedtheshaft.Atthesametimeasthebowstring
twanged,theairwasshatteredbytherapidfireofthetwoinfantrymen.CaptainChurchillwasdelightedtoseehisarrowstrikethecentreGermanintheleftofthechestandpenetratehisbody;theremainingGermansofthepartyslumpedtothedustyground.Withtheideaofretrievinghisarrowbypushingorpullingitthroughthewound,CaptainChurchillswiftlyrantothebodybut
wasunabletoextracttheshaft.Inhishastehebrokethearrow,leavingitsbarbedheadintheGerman’sbody.Atthismomentenemymachine-gunfirewasopeneddownthelineoftheroadandeveryonedivedforcover.
Sheet21oftheWarDiaryofthe4thInfantryBrigade,datedthe30thofMay1940,bearsthefollowingparagraph:
‘OneofthemostreassuringsightsoftheembarkationwasthesightofCaptainChurchillpassingdownthebeachwithhisbowsandarrows!HisactionsintheSaarwithhisarrowsareknowntomanyandhisdisappointmentatnothavinghadthechancetokeepinpracticehadtriedhimsorely.Hishighexampleandhisgreatworkwithhismachine-gunswereagreathelptothe
4thInfantryBrigade.’
Fiveyearsbeforethefirstatomicbombexplodedandnearly600yearsaftertheBattleofCrécyanEnglisharcherhadincongruouslyandbrieflyreturnedtotheancientbattlefieldsofFrance.
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Shakespeare,William,HenryIV
IndexACQUITAINE,DuchyofAgincourt,Battleof
FrenchmethodsHenryV’saddresstoarchers
Aljubarrota,BattleofAlnwick,Henry,BaronPercyofArc,JoanofArcher,comparisonwith
musketeer
contestwithcrossbowmendescribedinsixteenth-centuryversestanceandaim
Archers,appearanceandequipmentCheshireEttrickFreeCompanyofLancastrianmountedatPoitiersrateoffireScottishtacticalcombinationwithmen-at-arms
weaponsotherthanbowWelshYorkist
ArcherypracticeArchibald,4thEarlofDouglasArmour,andequipment;
EnglishatFalkirkBlackPrince’satPoitierschangesinEnglishatAgincourthorses’men-at-armsplatePoitiersScots,atHomildonHill
TewkesburyWarsofRoses
ArquebusesArrow,description
flightheadslengthmodernhuntingsheaf
Artillery,CrécyFloddenJamesIV’sarmyRouvray
Arundel,EarlofAscham,RogerAssizeofArms
Audrehem,FrenchMarshalAumale,CountofAuray,BattleofBALIOL,EdwardBannockburn,BattleofBar,DukeofBeauchamp,SirJohnBeaumont,BattleofBeaurepair,ScotsencampmentBedford,John,DukeofBentley,SirWilliamBergeracBerkhamstedCastle,bow-stavefromBerwick,siegeof
BlackDeathBlackPrinceBlanchetaqueBlois,CharlesofBlois,CountofBohemia,KingofBohun,SirHenryBorthwick,James,MasterGunnerBothwell,commandingScottishreserveatFloddenBoucicaut,MarshalBourbon,DukeofBowstaves,survivingspecimensBowstrings
Brabant,DukeofBranxtonHill,nearFloddenBretigny,TreatyofBreuville,BattleofBritishExpeditionaryForce,1939BritishMuseum,earlybowstavesinBrittanyBrittany,DukeofBruce,RobertBuchan,Earlof,ConstableofFranceBurgundy,CharlesofCADZANDCalais
CalthropsGamoys,LordCannonCanterburyTalesCarisbrookeCavalry,English
FeudalFrenchNormanScots
Chandos,SirJohnCharles,KingofFranceChaucer,Geoffrey,CanterburyTalesChivalryChristopher,capturedEnglish
shipChurchill,CaptainJackClerks,ValleyofClermont,CountofCockerell,BattleofConstableofFranceCopeland,SirJohnCovenantersatTippermuirCrawford,EarlofCrécy,BattleofCrossbowCrossbowmen
BrabantFrenchLombardSaracen
CulverinsDACRE,LordDagworth,SirThomasd’Albret,Charlesd’Alençon,Countd’Alençon,DukeDauphinDavidII,ofScotlandDeBuch,Captald’Endreghem,ArnaudDeLeyburn,RogerDeMézeraryDeMontfort’sArchersDeNesle,GuyDerby,EarlofDeRous,John,drawingof
archerDouglas,Archibald,LordofGallowayDouglas,EarlofDouglas,SirJamesDouglas,SirWilliam,ofLiddesdaleDoyle,A.Gonan,TheWhiteCompanyDunkirk,retreatto,1940Dunois,CountofDurham,BishopofEDGECOTTField,BattleofEdwardtheConfessorEdwardIEdwardII
EdwardIIIEdwardIVElizabethIErpingham,SirThomasFALCONBERG,CountofFalconbridge,LordFalkirk,BattleofFastolf,SirJohnFeudalArmiesFirearmsFloddenField,BattleofFlowersoftheForestFord,Castleof,NorthumberlandFord,HoraceA.Formigny,Battleof
Fortescue,SirJohnFourthInfantryBrigade,of2ndDivn.B.E.F.Francheville,IsleofWightFreeCompanyofArchersFroissartFyrd,theGAM,DavidGasconyGenoesecarracksatHarfleurGenoeseGrossbowmenGiraud,MasteroftheRoyalOrdnanceGloucester,DukeofGordonsatFloddenGraham,SirJohn
Graville,LordGuédel’HommetrackGunpowderGunsHACKBUTEERS,GermanHalberdsHalidonHill,BattleofHandgunsHangest,CountHarcourt,GodfreyHarfleur,BattleofHastings,BaronHenryIHenryIIHenryIVHenryV
HenryVII,anti-crossbowlegislationHerce,formationofarchersHeron,John(Bastard)Heron,LadyHerrings,Convoysof
DayofHeynault,SirJohnofHighStewardofScotlandHighlandersatFloddenHolinshed,RalphHome,EarlofHome,SirAlexanderHomildonHill,BattleofHop-PringleofSwailholmHotspur
Howard,AdmiralHoward,SirEdmundHundredYearsWarHuntley,EarlofINDENTURESgoverningEnglisharmiesIrishinfantryIvryJAMESIofScotland;lawconcerningarcheryJamesIVofScotlandJohnIIofFranceKETT’SInsurgentsKickley,SirHenryKnight’sequipmentKyriell,SirThomas
LAFAYETTE,MarshalLaHireLancaster,DukeofLance,troopformationLee,Lieutenant-ColonelLennox,EarlofL’Epinette,nearBethuneLindsay,SirWalterLisle,JeandeLongbowLunalonge,BattleofMACINTOSHv.Macdonald,clanbattleMaesMaydogMaginotLineMaisoncelles
ManchesterRegiment,1939Manny,SirWalterMarch,EarlofMarie,CountofMaryRoseMauron,BattleofMercenaries,GenoeseMessina,siegeofMeungMillfieldPlainMolyneaux,SirWilliamMonstreletMontfort,JohnofMontrose,EarlofMontrose,MarquisofMoray,Earlof
Morlaix,BattleofMorstede,John,EnglishSurgeon-GeneralMountjoyMusgrove,BaronMusketMusketeerNARBONNE,CountofNationalMilitia(theFyrd)NationalRifleAssociationNavarre,KingofNeade,W.,pamphletDouble-armedManNevers,CountofNeville’sCross,BattleofNorbeque,Denisof
NorfolkRegimentNormandy,DuchyofNormandy,DukeofNorthampton,EarlofNorthumberland,EarlofNouailleBridgeatPoitiersOREWINEBridgeOrléans,DukeofOrléans,siegeofOxford,EarlofPARÉ,AmbroisePatay,BattleofPelham,SirJohnPembroke,LordPérigord,CardinaldePhilip,KingofFrance
PicardyPoachingPoitiers,BattleofPonthieuPurleofLondonRABY,Ralph,BaronNevilleofRambouillet,LordRennesRhuddlanCastleRichardIRichardIIRichardIIIRichemont,ConstabledeRichmont,CountArthurofRobinHood
Roses,WarsofRoussi,CountofRouvray,BattleofRoyalScotsRegiment,1939RoyalStatutesgoverningbowmenST.CRISPIN,FeastofSt.Georges-la-Valade,BattleofSt.PoldeLéon,BattleofSaintes,siegeofSalisbury,EarlofSavense,SirWilliamScales,LordSchiltronsScotsBanners
InFrenchemployInvadeEnglandPikemen
Scrope,BaronShakespeare,WilliamShrewsbury,BattleofSluys,BattleofSmithe,Ralphe,EnglisharcherSmyth,SirJohnSomerset,DukeofSomme,RiverSouthamptonSpanishfleetStafford,LordStandard,Battleofthe
Stanley,SirEdwardStewart,SirJohn,ofDarnleyStewart,SirRobertStirlingBridge,BattleofStirlingCastle,siegeofSuffolk,EarlofSurgery,mediaevalSurrey,EarlofSwinton,SirJohnSwissPikemenTALBOT,LordJohnTewkesbury,Battleof,armourTill,RiverTinchebrai,BattleofTippermuir,Battleof
Tonnerre,CountofTowerofLondonTowton,BattleofToxophilusTramcourtWoodsVANNESVaudemont,CountofVentadour,CountofVerneuil,BattleofVerneuil,siegeofVictoria,QueenWADICOURTWales,PrinceofWallace,WilliamWarwick,EarlofWarwickshireRegiment,1939
Waterloo,BattleofWellington,DukeofWelshinfantryWelshWarsWhiteCompany,TheWhitworthrifleWight,IsleofWinchelsea,navalbattleofWinchester,StatuteofWounds,arrowXAINTRAILLES,PotondeYEWYork,Edward,Dukeof
1A.ConanDoyle,TheWhiteCompany,p.79.DuringthecourseofaconversationbetweenJohnofHordle,AlleyneEdricsonandAylward,theveteranbowman,whentheydiscussedtherespectivemeritsoftheScotsandtheFrenchasfoemenoftheEnglish.
2TheBlackDeath,aplaguewhichstruckBritainin1349,
sweptawaymorethanhalfofthethreeorfourmillionswhothenformedthepopulationofEngland.Sofiercewereitsassaultsthatthewholeorganisationoflabourwasthrownoutofgearandforatimeevencultivationceased.Nearly60,000peopleperishedinNorwich,whilstinBristolthelivingwerehardlyabletoburythedead.TherespectivenumericalstrengthsoftheFrenchand
Englisharmiesmustbeviewedinthelightofthissituation.
3Meaning‘barrow’inAnglo-Saxon.
4TheBoroughofFranchevilleisnowknownasNewtown,IsleofWight.Itisnowaminute,decayedvillagebutwasonceapopulousandthrivingtownwithaharbour.Initsdayit