THE JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINEVolume 13, Number 9, 2007, pp. 955–967© Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.DOI: 10.1089/acm.2007.7048

Can Electrons Act as Antioxidants? A Review and Commentary

JAMES L. OSCHMAN, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

A previous study demonstrated that connecting the human body to the earth during sleep (earthing) normal-izes the daily cortisol rhythm and improves sleep. A variety of other benefits were reported, including reduc-tions in pain and inflammation. Subsequent studies have confirmed these earlier findings and documented vir-tually immediate physiologic and clinical effects of grounding or earthing the body. It is well established, thoughnot widely known, that the surface of the earth possesses a limitless and continuously renewed supply of freeor mobile electrons as a consequence of a global atmospheric electron circuit. Wearing shoes with insulatingsoles and/or sleeping in beds that are isolated from the electrical ground plane of the earth have disconnectedmost people from the earth’s electrical rhythms and free electrons. The most reasonable hypothesis to explainthe beneficial effects of earthing is that a direct earth connection enables both diurnal electrical rhythms andfree electrons to flow from the earth to the body. It is proposed that the earth’s diurnal electrical rhythms setthe biological clocks for hormones that regulate sleep and activity. It is also suggested that free electrons fromthe earth neutralize the positively charged free radicals that are the hallmark of chronic inflammation. A rela-tionship between cortisol and inflammation was established in the pioneering work of H. Selye published inthe 1950s. Current biomedical research has led to an inflammation hypothesis that is establishing chronic in-flammation as the culprit behind almost every modern chronic illness. The research summarized here and insubsequent reports provides a basis for a number of earthing technologies that restore and maintain natural elec-trical contact between the human body and the earth throughout the day and night in situations where goingbarefoot on the earth is impractical. It is proposed that free or mobile electrons from the earth can resolvechronic inflammation by serving as natural antioxidants.

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INTRODUCTION

Aprevious report by Ghaly and Teplitz1 demonstratedthat connecting the human body to the earth during

sleep normalizes the daily rhythm of cortisol, widely rec-ognized as the “stress hormone.” The researchers also notedimprovements in sleep, reduction in pain and inflammation,and other beneficial effects. These findings confirmed ear-lier pilot studies of Ober2 and Ober and Coghill.3 Themethod involved the use of an electrically conductive mat-tress pad. Conductive carbon or silver fibers woven into the

pad coupled to a wire that connected to a foot-long metalrod inserted into the earth (Fig. 1).

In this paper, we refer to various methods of connectingthe body with the earth with the term, “earthing.” We dis-tinguish this process from “grounding” as is used in electri-cal distribution systems, the electrostatic discharge industry,and lightning rods. Such grounding systems are designed toconduct large currents or voltages to the earth to protectequipment and its users. The personal earthing systems de-scribed here have a series resistor of 1 million ohms or greaterthat limits current flow to and from the body. Measurements

Nature’s Own Research Association, Dover, NH.Preparation of the manuscript was aided in part by funding from Barefoot Sales Corporation, and the author acknowledges a finan-

cial interest in this company.

of the voltage drop across this resistor provide estimates ofthe current flowing from the earth to the body and vice versa,and this is typically in the range of 1 �A or less.4

The conductivity of the earth is variable and depends onsoil moisture levels, mineral content, proximity to bodies ofwater, atmospheric conditions, and other factors. In spite ofsuch variations, it is possible to demonstrate that a goodearthing connection has been established by using a volt-meter to determine the degree to which the earthing systemreduces induced currents on the body. The method is thor-oughly described in the report of Ghaly and Teplitz.1 Localvariations in the conductivity of the earth are probably notphysiologically significant, given the enormous size of theearth and the tiny currents needed to earth the body, as de-scribed in the previous paragraph.

THE CORTISOL RHYTHM

A plausible explanation for the normalization of the cor-tisol rhythm documented by Ghaly and Teplitz is that theknown diurnal rhythm in the earth’s electrical field5 servesas the Zeitgebar or “time setter” of the cortisol rhythm inthe body. If this is correct, it is logical that disconnectionfrom the electrical field of the earth, as by wearing shoeswith insulating soles, creates a situation in the body that isdisruptive to the diurnal cortisol rhythm and that thereby in-terferes with normal sleep patterns. The wearing of shoeswith rubber or plastic soles is a relatively recent develop-ment; throughout most of our evolutionary history humanshave walked and slept directly on the earth or have used nat-ural materials such as leather and straw for comfort. Thesenatural materials, when combined with natural perspirationfrom the body, are adequately conductive to allow the pas-sage of electrons from the earth to the body.

Since the pioneering work of Selye,6 cortisol has beenwidely regarded as the stress hormone7 and as a key factorin the body’s defenses against disease. In thousands of ex-periments on laboratory animals, Selye demonstrated thatprolonged stress activates the body’s defense mechanisms,which Selye referred to as the alarm reaction. This reactionis followed by a resistance stage, during which defense re-actions are maximized, and a final stage of exhaustion, inwhich defenses diminish and disappear. Selye referred tothis three-step response—alarm, resistance, and exhaus-tion—as the “general adaptation syndrome.” Importantly, henoted that during the course of the process, pathologicchanges take place that are indistinguishable from the vari-ous diseases such as hypertension, myocardial infarction,nephrosclerosis, peptic ulcers, and rheumatoid arthritis,which Selye referred to as diseases of adaptation.

Hence, the findings of Ghaly and Teplitz tie in with theearly findings of Selye regarding the role of cortisol in adap-tation to stress. It has also been documented that disruptionof circadian cortisol rhythms can contribute to a multitudeof adverse health conditions, including sleep disorders, hy-pertension, cardiovascular disease, stroke, decreased bonedensity, decreased immune response, mood disturbances,autoimmune disease, and abnormal glucose levels.8 Corti-sol has been implicated in the regulation of sleep,9 and 24-hour hypersecretion of cortisol has been linked to chronicinsomnia.10,11 Excess cortisol has also been connected withinflammatory pain, pain perception,3,12 and depression.13

This and subsequent reports summarize evidence thatconnecting the human body to the earth has an additionalrole in the stress response by allowing free (mobile) elec-trons from the earth to enter the body where they act as nat-ural antioxidants. This finding relates to the diseases of adap-tation described by Selye as well as to the recent medicalresearch implicating chronic inflammation with almostevery modern disease.

PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES WITH EARTHING

In 2006 Chevalier, Mori and Oschman published a dou-ble-blinded study documenting the effects of earthing on 58healthy adult subjects. Earthing produced statistically sig-nificant and nearly instantaneous reductions in overall stresslevels and tensions in the body as measured by electroen-cephalograms, electromyograms, and blood volume pulse.Taken together, the physiologic changes indicate reductionsin overall stress levels and tensions, and a shift in autonomicbalance upon earthing.14 As an example, Figure 2 showschanges in trapezius muscle tension in two subjects, mea-sured with electromyography. At the moment the earthinglead is connected, there is a virtually instantaneous normal-ization in tension. Muscles that are tense relax, and musclesthat are hypotoned develop normal tension. The hypertonedmuscle (upper trace in Fig. 2) was obtained from an indi-

OSCHMAN956

FIG. 1. Earthing sleep system. The mattress at the foot of thebed is covered with a pad containing conductive fibers (carbon orsilver). Conductive fibers are electrically connected to the earth viaa grounding rod.

vidual experiencing acute pain from an injury the day be-fore the test, and the hypotoned muscle (lower trace) wasobtained from an individual with normal fatigue.

HEALING AND RECOVERY

The effectiveness of connecting the body to the earth forenhancement of performance, facilitating more rapid recov-ery and the reduction of injury repair time was observed byDr. Jeffrey Spencer during the most recent three Tour deFrance victories of the US Cycle Team lead by Lance Arm-strong. Dr. Spencer’s obligation during the Tour was tomaintain the health and optimum performance of the team.The Tour was not a scientific expedition, and there was notime to document thoroughly the effects of the therapeutictools that were used during what is arguably the most phys-ically demanding athletic event in the world. However, Dr.Spencer has specialized in working with elite athletes func-tioning at the cutting edge of performance. He worked withthe cycle team for the first 4 years of the Tour, before uti-lizing earthing techniques. The following observations areoffered in the context of Dr. Spencer’s experience and ex-pertise. In contrast to the first 4 years of working with thecycle team during the Tour, Spencer noted that the use ofthe earthing techniques correlated with:

• Reduction of pain• Less pain medication• Better sleep• Faster healing• Less sickness• Better oral health• Better ability to handle stress• More stable psychologic disposition• More energy• Feeling more rested• Improved range of motion

• Less tension• Less scarring• Greater strength and endurance• No jet lag• Less stiffness and soreness.

Dr. Spencer also carried out preliminary studies usingmedical infrared imaging. He was able to demonstrate thatconnecting the body to the earth facilitated rapid reductionof inflammation. These unpublished findings have been con-firmed, as described next.

CLINICAL TRIALS

Two clinical trials used medical infrared imaging andclinical outcomes to assess changes taking place when thebody was connected to the earth (additional cases are de-scribed in Appendix I).

Inflammation is the earliest stage of almost all majorhealth challenges. Because it measures heat, medical in-frared imaging easily detects acute or chronic inflammatoryconditions. The value of the technique has been documentedby countless research studies.15 The method can measurechanges as small as 1/100th of a degree C, providing “bio-markers, biofingerprints” or “risk indicators” that reveal thebeginnings of tumors, toxic accumulations, and disease,months or even years earlier than other imaging procedures.In spite of the great accuracy, to 1/100th of a degree C, ex-perts who use medical infrared imaging are less interestedin the absolute temperature of a part of the body than theyare in locating “hot spots” and left–right imbalances thatcorrespond to areas of discomfort and that are indicative ofinflammation. In some cases, the temperature scale (colorbar) had to be shifted to encompass the warmer thermal pro-files after earthing. See the legends for each illustration fordetails of the most important observations.

Figure 3 shows medical infrared imaging of a 65-year-old woman with chronic thigh and knee pain on the rightside, ankle and foot pain, and swelling of the left foot. Thepain in her legs interfered with sleep; she woke stiff andsore and was tired all day. Prolonged medical treatment hadnot helped. After using the earthing sleep system (Fig. 1)for 4 nights, she reported 91% reduction in pain, 50% im-provement in restful sleep, 50% reduction in insomnia, 50%reduction in sleepiness during the day, 81% reduction in paininterfering with sleep, 50% reduction in leg achiness duringsleep, and 50% reduction in waking stiff and sore. The pa-tient reported steady continued improvement at a 40-day fol-low-up. Similar results were obtained with dozens of otherpatients (Appendix I).

Infrared images taken before use of the earthing system(at the top in Fig. 3) show the most significant areas of in-flammation (arrows) that corresponded precisely with herareas of complaint. The bottom images, taken after 4 nights

ELECTRONS AS ANTIOXIDANTS 957

Right trapezius rms SEMG

Time (seconds)0

0.00

35.00

70.00

105.00

140.00

550 1100 1600 2200 2750 3300

Am

plit

ud

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Vrm

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FIG. 2. Changes in trapezius electromyogram recordings withearthing patch connected (arrow). The hypertoned muscle (uppertrace) was monitored on an individual experiencing acute pain froman injury the day before the test. The hypotoned muscle (lowertrace) was from an individual with normal fatigue. SEMG, surfaceelectromyogram.

of sleeping on the earthing sleep system, show significantreduction in inflammation and restoration of normal thermalsymmetry.

A second clinical study employed the earthing patchshown in Figure 4. The patch includes a peel-away strip overa conductive adhesive layer and can be applied to any areaof the body. As with the earthing sleep system, the patchconnects to a grounding rod in the earth. More than 20 pa-tients were studied; all showed immediate and permanentreductions in pain, improved overall health and return to anormal lifestyle. Conditions treated included chronic my-ofascial pain syndrome, muscular strains, ligamentoussprains, peripheral neuropathies, carpal tunnel syndrome, in-flammatory joint conditions, Lyme disease, and chronic si-nusitis. Within 2–4 weeks (receiving half-hour treatments2–3 times per week), up to 80% improvement took place inover 60% of the cases.

Figure 5 shows results with a 33-year-old woman whohad a gymnastics injury at the age of 15. She had an 18-year history of chronic right knee pain, tenderness, swelling,and instability. She was unable to stand for long periods andsimple actions such as driving increased the symptoms. Shehad been undergoing medical treatment and physical ther-apy on and off for many years with minimal results. Figure5 shows infrared images (walking position, with views ofthe insides of both knees) before and after using the earth-ing patch. The arrow points to the exact location of the pa-tient’s pain and inflammation. Note the considerable reduc-tion in inflammation in the bottom images taken after only30 minutes of earthing treatment. Over a 12-week period,she continued to improve to the point that she was able tocompete in a half-marathon.

Another patient had an acute right ankle sprain with signifi-cant swelling. A 30-minute treatment with the earthing patchsignificantly reduced the heat radiating from the ankle andimproved circulation to the foot and toes. There was a rapid“quieting” of the sympathetic nervous system, and a rapid re-duction in the acute phase of the inflammatory process.

These observations and others like them described in Ap-pendix I reveal extremely rapid resolution of both acute andchronic inflammation and its consequences using earthingtechniques. In view of recent research identifying low-levelchronic inflammation (also called “silent inflammation”)16

as the underlying cause of a wide range of diseases and dis-orders not previously thought of as inflammatory, the abovefindings are highly significant.

Finally, note in particular that after the first subject de-scribed in Appendix I used the earthing sleep system, herhands and feet appear warmer than the arms and legs, re-spectively (Figs. A-1 and A-2, in Appendix I). This is ex-plained by a phenomenon called “distal vasodilation.”17 Thedistal skin regions of the body (hands and feet) are the ma-jor sites for vasomotor heat loss, whereas the proximal skinregions (arms, trunk, and legs) play a lesser role in ther-moregulation.18 Distal vasodilation involves arteriovenousanastomoses that are particularly abundant in the hands and

feet19 and can shunt blood directly from arterioles to veins.According to Guyton,20 “the rate of blood flow into this ve-nous plexus can vary tremendously—from barely above zeroto as great as 30 per cent of the total cardiac output. A highrate of blood flow causes heat to be conducted from the in-ternal portions of the body to the skin with great efficiency. . . . ” At the same time, the glabrous (hairless) epidermisof both hands and feet is rich in eccrine sweat glands thatcan provide for localized sweating.21 While sweat glandsare distributed over the entire body surface, they are partic-ularly abundant on the palms of the hands and soles of thefeet. Under appropriate conditions, the sympathetic nervoussystem can increase circulation to the skin of the hands andfeet and activate the sweat glands, increasing radiative andevaporative cooling from the hands and feet. The improvedcirculation to the hands and feet documented by Figures A-1 and A-2 (in Appendix I) may correlate with the improve-ments in sleep noted by the subject in Case Study #1. Specif-ically, Kräuchi and colleagues17 have demonstrated that thedistal-to-proximal skin temperature gradient is the best pre-dictor variable for sleep-onset latency (compared with corebody temperature or its rate of change, heart rate, melatoninonset, and subjective sleepiness ratings). Their study pro-vides evidence that selective vasodilation of distal skin re-gions (and hence heat loss) promotes the rapid onset of sleep.

THE INFLAMMATION HYPOTHESIS

Study of the relationship between chronic inflammationand disease has attracted the attention of investigatorsaround the world. The extent of this interest is documentedin Table 1, which shows the results of a PubMed search forstudies of various diseases combined with inflammation asa second key word. The 14 categories searched resulted inover 70,000 citations, with the largest number being cita-tions for cancer. A relationship between cancer and inflam-mation due to chronic infection has been suspected, but notproven, for many years. In a 1986 study, for example, oneresearcher compared the inflammatory response to thewound healing response, saying tumors were wounds thatdo not heal.

Research connecting inflammation with chronic diseasewas given a dramatic impetus as a result of a series of stud-ies by Ridker and colleagues at Harvard Medical School.Suspecting that inflammation is involved in the pathogene-sis of cardiovascular events, these researchers measured thelevels of inflammatory markers in a prospective controlledstudy among 28,263 apparently healthy postmenopausalwomen over a mean follow-up period of 3 years. They as-sessed the risk of cardiovascular events associated with avariety of established inflammatory markers. Of 12 mark-ers studied, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)proved to be the best risk predictor for cardiovascularevents.22 A group in Taipei, Taiwan confirmed these resultsin a study published in 2004.23

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FIG. 5. Medical infrared imaging re-sults with a 33-year-old woman whohad a gymnastics injury at the age of 15.She had an 18-year history of chronicright knee pain, swelling, and instabil-ity. Top row of images taken in walk-ing position to show inside of bothknees. Arrow points to exact location ofpatient’s pain and shows significant in-flammation. Lower images were takenafter 30 minutes of exposure to clinicalearthing using patch system shown inFigure 4. Note significant reduction ofinflammation in knee area. After 6 daysof clinical earthing, patient reported a50% reduction in pain. After 4 weeks oftreatment, patient was able to play soc-cer, and by 12 weeks she went water-skiing.

FIG. 4. Clinical earthing patch system. Patch includes a peel-away strip over a con-ductive adhesive layer, and can be applied to any area of the body. As with the earth-ing sleep system, the patch is connected with the earth via a grounding rod.

FIG. 3. Medical infrared images ofa 65-year-old woman with chronicthigh and knee pain on the right side,ankle and foot pain, and swelling ofthe left foot. Top row images showlower extremities taken before usingthe earthing sleep system. Arrows de-note most significant areas of inflam-mation and correspond precisely withsubject’s areas of complaint. Bottomimages taken after 4 nights sleepingon earthing sleep system. Note con-siderable reduction in inflammationand return toward normal thermalsymmetry. Patient reported steadycontinued improvement at a 40-dayfollow-up.

In 2001, Ridker and colleagues studied the risk factorsfor systemic atherosclerosis in 14,916 initially healthy U.S.male physicians. Total high-density lipoprotein cholesterolratio and hs-CRP were the strongest independent predictorsof development of peripheral arterial disease.24

In 2002, Ridker and colleagues reported measurementsof hs-CRP and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in 27,939apparently healthy American women who were then fol-lowed for a mean of 8 years for the occurrence of myocar-dial infarction, ischemic stroke, coronary revascularization,or death from cardiovascular causes. They found that base-line levels of each marker had a strong linear relation withthe incidence of cardiovascular events. Screening for bothbiologic markers provided better prognostic informationthan screening for either alone.25

Another study from the Harvard group published in 2002examined the relationship between use of hormone replace-ment therapy and coronary heart disease among 75,343women. Hormone replacement therapy was associated withsignificantly elevated median hs-CRP levels and it increasedthe odds ratio for coronary heart disease.26 Further study byRidker and colleagues revealed a correlation betweenchronic inflammation and sudden cardiac death.27

As a result of these studies, and many others like them,the American Heart Association and the Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention recommended in 2003 that doctorsinclude a test for free radicals in their medical check-ups todetermine a patient’s risk for heart disease.28 Subsequentlythere has been a veritable explosion of research into the as-sociation of inflammation and inflammatory markers with awide range of chronic illnesses. Today, nearly every branchof medicine and surgery includes the study of inflamma-tion.29 Inflammation is now thought to be the underlyingmechanism of more than 80 chronic illnesses involving al-most every human organ system, including diseases of thenervous, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and respiratory systemsas well as the skin and connective tissues. In all of these dis-eases, the underlying problem is similar—the body’s im-mune system is causing harm to the organs it was designedto protect.

Ongoing research has confirmed a role for inflammationin aging,30 Alzheimer’s disease,31 asthma,32 atherosclero-sis,33 bowel disorder,34 cancer,35 cystic fibrosis,36 dia-betes,37 meningitis,38 multiple sclerosis,39 osteoporosis,40

prostate cancer,41 psoriasis,42 and rheumatoid arthritis.43

The above references are examples from the 2006 literaturealone—an indication that this is now one of the most activeareas in clinical research.

THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE

Inflammation is defined as “a localized protective re-sponse in trauma or microbial invasion that destroys, di-lutes, or walls-off the injurious agent and the injured tis-sue.” Acute inflammation is characterized by the classic

signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.Microscopically, it involves a complex series of events, in-cluding dilation of arterioles, capillaries, and venules, withincreased permeability and blood flow; exudation of flu-ids, including plasma proteins; leukocyte migration intothe inflammatory focus; and secretion of free radicals intothe area.44

Part of the inflammatory response involves immune cells,including neutrophils and various types of phagocytes thatsecrete powerful oxidizing agents (free radicals) in a processknown as the respiratory burst. A complex mix of reactivemolecules such as hydrogen peroxide, oxidized halogens,chloramines, and oxidizing radicals such as hydroxyl radi-cal, •OH, accumulate at the site of inflammation where theyaid in the destruction of invading microorganisms and tis-sue debris.45 To restore their electrical neutrality, theseagents tear electrons from the structures of invading organ-isms and damaged cells, rapidly destroying them.

Ideally, the inflammatory process winds down when allof the damaged cells and bacteria have been cleared away.Sometimes, however, for reasons that are the subject ofcurrent research, as well as the factors discussed in this pa-per, the inflammatory process does not fully resolve. Somefree radicals may diffuse into regions adjacent to the orig-inal site of injury or infection and begin to damage healthycells. Cells have some capacity to regenerate and recoverfrom free radical damage and there are enzymes that canrepair broken strands of DNA. However, if the process con-tinues long enough, the repair processes are unable to keepup and cells become damaged beyond repair. Additionalsignals are sent to the immune system, which responds bydelivering more neutrophils and free radicals. The result isa vicious cycle of low-level inflammation that can eventu-ally compromise important functions and lead to chronicdisease, including disorders of organs distant from the orig-inal trauma.

The inflammatory process is taking place to some degreewithin every human body. It is a continuing struggle to main-

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TABLE 1. PUBMED CITATIONS FOR DISEASES SEARCHED

WITH inflammation AS A SECOND SEARCH TERM, AS OF

SEPTEMBER 12, 2007

• Aging: 2098• Alzheimer’s disease: 1238• Asthma: 9135• Atherosclerosis: 4578• Bowel disorders: 14,723• Cancer: 24,170• Cystic fibrosis: 1338• Diabetes: 6102• Meningitis: 4812• Multiple sclerosis: 1974• Osteoporosis: 503• Prostate cancer: 514• Psoriasis: 1402• Rheumatoid arthritis: 7087Total: 79,854 citations

ELECTRONS AS ANTIOXIDANTS 961

tain normal functioning and survival in the face of small andlarge insults. The swelling and inflammation (cut, boil,sprain, abscess, or bruise) are intelligent responses of thebody. Often they constitute a sort of quarantine, a barricadeof inflammatory tissue that prevents microbes or poisonsfrom spreading further throughout the body.

CORTISOL AND THE INFLAMMATORY POUCH

In 1950, Reichstein, Kendall, and Hench were jointlyawarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine fortheir work on the hormones of the adrenal cortex. Their ef-forts culminated in the isolation of cortisone and the dis-covery of its therapeutic value in the treatment of rheuma-toid arthritis.46 A few years later, the famous stressresearcher, Hans Selye, discovered that it was possible toinject air under the skin of a rat and cause the formation ofa walled-off sack.6 These “inflammatory pouches” providedSelye and others with a reproducible model for studying theinflammatory process and the ways it is influenced by anti-inflammatory corticoid hormones.

When Selye injected microbes or corrosive chemicals intothese air sacks, the tissue lining the sacs developed inflam-matory barricades that protected the adjacent tissues. How-ever, when rats were pretreated with corticoids, the inflam-matory barricade did not form. Instead, the irritants introducedinto the air sac spread into adjacent tissues. This led to theconclusion that the so-called anti-inflammatory hormones actnonspecifically by inhibiting the immediate inflammatory de-fense reactions to toxic agents. Selye concluded that this wasadvantageous when the irritant was mild and unlikely to causemuch damage, but could be detrimental if the irritant was se-vere and could damage surrounding tissues.

In his later writings, Selye referred to “syntoxic” and“catatoxic” responses. Syntoxic stimuli tone down inflam-matory reactions through the release of corticoid hormones.Under these circumstances, the invading stressor is relativelyinnocuous and is easily tolerated (e.g., the mild inflamma-tion experienced as a disease symptom or allergy). In con-trast, catatoxic stimuli lead to the production of destructiveenzymes that attack the pathogen and degrade it.47

FOCAL INFECTION AND DISEASE

A focal infection is a circumscribed area that may or maynot give rise to clinical manifestations. During the 17th cen-tury, it was discovered that dental infections could producea wide variety of ailments throughout the body that couldbe treated by removing the infected teeth. In the 20th cen-tury, American physicians became aware that focal infec-tions could produce symptoms in other parts of the bodywith or without the transfer of pathogens via the blood. Avariety of theories arose to explain how this could happen.

In his book, The Stress of Life, Selye discussed the rela-tionship between focal infection and chronic or systemic dis-ease. He favored the logical explanation that the architec-ture of the inflammatory barricade might be a key factor.He conceived conditions where poisons leaked slowly intothe circulatory system, creating problems such as heart dis-ease or nephritis in organs distant from the focus of the in-fection. Selye performed experiments showing that an in-fection in one part of the body could produce inflammationof the heart valves, as often happens in children sufferingfrom rheumatic fever.

Focal infection has continued to be a valuable concept indentistry. In 1951, the problem of focal infection was dis-cussed at length in the Journal of the American Dental As-sociation.48 Gammal49 lists 389 MEDLINE® references tofocal infection in relation to dentistry between 1960 and1998. PubMed lists 3848 references to focal infection, withmore than 100 published in 2007. To summarize this research:Necrotic tissue breakdown products in a small inflammatorypouch can leak into the blood and lymphatic circulation, pro-ducing a slow but progressive atrophy in various organs a dis-tance from the original site of trauma. Barnett provides an up-to-date review of this topic.50 This progressive organ atrophy,then, is the most probable link between focal chronic in-flammation and the various chronic diseases listed earlier.

ELECTRONS AS ANTIOXIDANTS

The inflammation theory, which has attracted consider-able interest among medical researchers in recent years,connects chronic disease with a situation that is describablein electronic or energetic terms. A free radical is a moleculethat is missing an electron. Its destructive effects are ex-plained in terms of the rapid and violent reactions takingplace as electrical charges are redistributed between the re-acting molecules. The “violent reactions” are the breakingof chemical bonds responsible for the integrity of the cellwalls of bacteria, cell membranes, DNA, damaged connec-tive tissue, and other structures. We observe this violent re-action when we watch a fire, since burning is the processby which oxygen tears electrons from the bonds holdingmatter together, liberating heat and light. Oxygen is the ul-timate “oxidizing agent” and the electron is the ultimate “re-ducing agent.” We are all familiar with a similar but some-what slower “burning” process that takes place when weexperience the heat, redness, swelling, pain, and loss ofrange of motion that can accompany an inflammatory con-dition. Note that we have qualified the previous statementby saying that these symptoms can accompany an inflam-matory condition. Experience with the earthing techniquesdescribed here has shown that these characteristic inflam-matory conditions may be reduced or even prevented if thebody is connected to the earth immediately after an injury.Dr. Spencer repeatedly confirmed this in his work with ath-letes during the Tour de France.

Since inflammation is a consequence of deficiency in neg-ative charge, any mechanism that delivers electrons to a siteof injury will lessen the likelihood of a persistent viciouscycle of inflammation. Hence, medical research is indicat-ing that people who regularly take drugs to reduce levels ofinflammatory markers tend to experience fewer of thechronic diseases and disorders associated with aging.51 Con-sequently many people add to their diets dark chocolate,52

turmeric,53,54 bamboo,55 and other nutritional supplementsthat are rich in free-radical scavengers. Anti-inflammatorydrugs and antioxidants are electrically charged moleculesthat carry excess electrons to sites of inflammation wherethey reduce free radicals. Our hypothesis is that free or mo-bile electrons can act directly on free radicals, and that thishappens naturally when the body is in contact with the earth,which is a natural source of free electrons.

Anti-inflammatory molecules can become free radicalsthemselves, once they have donated electrons to neutralizefree radicals. Moreover, metabolic processes must removethe antioxidant that has given up its electron. This poses ad-ditional demands on the energy system of the organism. Incontrast, free electrons act directly on free radicals and donot have the disadvantages of chemical antioxidants. Ittherefore appears that free (mobile) electrons from the earthcan serve a simple and direct “anti-inflammatory” role byneutralizing free radicals.

THE EARTH AS A SOURCE OF ELECTRONS

It is well established, though not widely appreciated, thatthe surface of the earth possesses a limitless and continu-ously renewed supply of free or mobile electrons. Theearth’s surface is electrically conductive and is maintainedat a negative potential by an atmospheric electrical cir-cuit.56,57 There are three main generators in the global elec-tric circuit: the solar wind entering the magnetosphere, theionospheric wind, and meteorological activities.56,58

The conductivity of the earth varies somewhat from placeto place, depending on water and mineral content, the levelof the water table, vegetation, and other factors. However,these factors have relatively little effect on the ability of anearth connection to allow electrons to flow from the earthto the body and vice versa. This can be stated with certaintybecause of previous measurements.1–4

CONDUCTION OF FREE (MOBILE)ELECTRONS WITHIN THE BODY

The results of various investigations summarized hereshow that there are rapid and profound anti-inflammatoryeffects from restoring and maintaining a natural electricalcontact between the earth and the human body. The hy-pothesis presented proposes that these anti-inflammatory ef-

fects are due to the flow of free electrons from the earth tothe body, which is achieved by standing barefoot on theearth, by use of the earthing sleep system shown in Figure1, or via clinical applications using the earthing patch shownin Figure 3. This hypothesis raises the question of how elec-trons can be conducted from the skin surface to pockets ofinflammation in various tissues.

Electrically conducting pathways between the skin sur-face and internal tissues and organs are utilized in a varietyof diagnostic tools such as the electrocardiogram and elec-troencephalogram. These techniques utilize electrodes onthe skin surface to detect electrical fields generated by theheart and brain, respectively. Obviously, if there is a con-duction path from an internal organ to the skin surface, thecircuit will work in the reverse direction, from the skin tothe organ. Conduction from the skin to the interior of thebody is also demonstrated by the success of various thera-pies utilizing microcurrent* and frequency-specific mi-crocurrent.59 Additional documentation comes from exten-sive research on acupuncture and electroacupuncture.60

Electrical aspects of organ function measured at acupunc-ture points on the skin surface can be used for diagnosis;electrical signals introduced into the same skin points canenhance functions of corresponding organs.61

It is generally accepted that dissolved electrolytes are thecharge carriers in living systems. It is also assumed that thebody is a “volume conductor,” meaning that the skin housesa homogeneous solution of electrolytes and proteins.62 How-ever, the volume conductor assumption disregards some sig-nificant areas of biomedicine: anatomy, histology, cell bi-ology, and membrane biology. Moreover, the physics ofearthing makes it extremely unlikely that the electrons fromthe earth are causing ion fluxes to sites of inflammation. Fi-nally, sites of inflammation can be walled-off in inflamma-tory pouches, as originally described by Selye. This fact ar-gues against using the volume conductor assumption whenconsidering the access of anti-inflammatory molecules orelectrons to pockets of free radicals.

Significant concentrations of negatively charged ions,particularly chloride, are present virtually everywhere inbody fluids; these ions are obviously not acting as antioxi-dants. Even if electrolytes were somehow acting as antiox-idants, we would have to explain how contact with the earthincreases their availability at sites of inflammation. It ishighly unlikely that the ubiquitous electrolytes, with theirlarge hydration shells, can act as antioxidants by neutraliz-ing free radicals.

The phenomena described in this paper raise questionsabout the very nature of the inflammatory response and therole of free or mobile electrons in physiologic processes.These issues will be discussed further in subsequent publi-cations63 (Oschman, unpublished observations).

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*The database for the National Library of Medicine lists 450references to microcurrent therapy.

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CONCLUSIONS

A recent editorial in this journal64 pointed out that study ofthe earthing phenomenon sheds new light on the classical ques-tion raised by the noted biologist, T.H. Huxley: “The questionof all questions for humanity, the problem which lies behindall others and is more interesting than any of them, is that ofthe determination of our place in nature and our relation to thecosmos.”65 The research summarized here and in the other pa-pers in this series indicates that there are profoundly thera-peutic effects from restoring and maintaining, as much as ispractical, a natural electrical contact between the body and theearth. Understanding the significance of this earth connectionis a step in comprehending our place in nature.

The evidence suggests that free (mobile) electrons fromthe earth are natural antioxidants. This requires us to reviseour thinking about the inflammatory process at a funda-mental level. Specifically, Selye showed that different kindsof irritants produce different degrees of inflammatory re-sponses (syntoxic and catatoxic), and that hormones fromthe adrenal cortex mediate and modulate these responses.The effects of earthing described here introduce anothervariable to the inflammation equation: the degree of con-ductive contact with the earth. Stated differently, loss of di-rect contact with the earth appears to introduce another kindof adaptive stress, an “electron deficiency,” which compro-mises the immune system by slowing the resolution of in-flammatory responses.

The Ghaly and Teplitz study showed that contact with theearth can influence cortisol rhythms. The results summa-rized here show another influence of earth contact: provid-ing free (mobile) electrons. This has significance for a widerange of therapeutic modalities that introduce electricity intothe body, or that may cause electrons to move about withinthe body. It is possible that the benefits of many bodywork,energetic and movement therapies, as well as of various en-ergy medicine devices, are partly due to their ability to en-able mobile electrons to penetrate into the inflammatorypockets where they neutralize the free radicals that con-tribute to so many different chronic diseases.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks go to Clinton C. Ober, inventor of the earthingsystems described in this report, for many valuable discus-sions of his observations on thousands of people who haveused the system he developed and patented. The author isindebted to Jeff Spencer, M.A., D.C., CCSP, for reportingthe results of applying the earthing sleep system during foursuccessful competitions of the U.S. Cycling Team in theTour de France. The author thanks William Amalu, D.C.,D.A.B.C.T., D.I.A.C.T., FIACT for conducting the clinicaltrials with medical infrared imaging and clinical outcomemeasures. Dr. Amalu is president of the International Acad-

emy of Clinical Thermology. Valuable comments on themanuscript were provided by Nora Oschman, Dale Teplitz,M.A., and M.J. Pangman.

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Address reprint requests to:James L. Oschman, Ph.D.

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Dover, NH 03821–1935

E-mail: joschman@aol.com

APPENDIX I

These cases were selected from randomized controlledclinical studies. Each subject was either provided with anearthing sleep system (ESS) (Fig. 1 in main text) or wasconnected for 30 minutes to the earthing patch (Fig. 4 inmain text) and observed during periodic clinical visits.Progress was monitored with High-Resolution Medical In-frared Imaging and standardized clinical outcome assess-ment questionnaires (quadruple visual analogue scales forpain severity and quality of sleep).

Case Study #1. 49-year-old woman. Improvement in cir-culation and decreased pain after 4 nights sleeping on theESS. The patient presented on April 11, 2005 complainingof chronic neck and upper back pain, pain interfering withsleep, lack of sleep interfering with daily functioning, legachiness/restless legs during sleep, and waking stiff and sore.The patient had previously tried a variety of treatments withlittle improvement. On April 15, 2005 after 4 nights of sleep-ing on the ESS, the patient reported a 67% reduction in pain,a 43% reduction in a lack of sleep interfering with dailyfunctioning, a 29% reduction in pain interfering with sleep,a 75% reduction in leg achiness/restless legs during sleep,and an 80% reduction in waking stiff and sore. The patientreported steady continued improvement on a May 31, 2005follow-up. Her infrared images documented a pronouncedimprovement in circulation in the left upper extremity andboth lower extremities. The images (Figs. A-1 and A-2)show the significant changes from the baseline images takenon April 11, 2005 (before using the ESS) to the final im-ages taken on April 15, 2005 after 4 nights of sleeping onthe ESS.

Case Study #2. 85-year-old man. Reduction in inflam-mation that resulted in significant pain resolution after 2nights sleeping on the ESS. Patient in this study presentedon August 9, 2004 with significant chronic left low backpain, chronic recurring right shoulder pain, pain interferingwith sleep, and waking stiff and sore over a 4-month period.The patient had been on prolonged medical treatment withlittle improvement. Subject was provided with an ESS onAugust 9, 2004 and observed for changes with occasionalfollow-up clinical visits over an 8-week period. On August11, 2004, after 2 nights of sleeping on the ESS, the patientreported a 50% reduction in pain, an 80% reduction in paininterfering with sleep, and a 75% reduction in waking stiffand sore. After using the ESS for 4 weeks, the patient re-ported total resolution of his back and shoulder pain withonly occasional mild stiffness. At this time the patient com-mented, “I have my life back.” The images in Figure A-3document the significant improvement in inflammation inthe left lower back region from the baseline images takenon August 9, 2004 (before using the ESS) to the final im-ages taken on August 11, 2004 after 2 nights of sleeping onthe ESS.

FIG. A-1. Top row images are of the upper extremities taken as a baseline on 4-11-05 (prior to using the earthing sleep system). Ar-rows denote the areas of poor circulation. The temperature of the left hand is so low that the fingers are at the same temperature as theroom and cannot be seen (this is referred to as thermal amputation). The bottom row images were taken on 4-15-05 after 4 nights ofsleeping on the earthing sleep system. Note the significant improvement in circulation with a return of normal thermal symmetry inboth upper extremities. Temperature scale (color bar) had to be shifted to encompass much warmer thermal profile after earthing. Fin-gers of left hand were at about 25 degrees C before earthing and about 34 degrees C after earthing.

FIG. A-2. Same case study as shown in Figure A-1, showing lower extremities. Left illustration shows baseline on April 11, 2005,prior to use of earthing sleep system. Arrows denote the areas of poor circulation. Temperature of both feet is so low, especially theleft, that the toes are at the same temperature as the room and cannot be seen (thermal amputation). Image on right was taken on April15, 2005, after 4 nights of sleeping on the earthing sleep system. Note significant improvement in circulation with a return of normalthermal symmetry in both feet. Temperature scale (color bar) had to be shifted to encompass much warmer thermal profile after earth-ing. Before earthing toe temperature was about 24°C, and after earthing toes were at about 32°C.

FIG. A-4. Images of the knees taken before and after 30 minutes exposure to clinical earthing on September 16, 2004. The arrowsdenote the most significant areas of inflammation. Note the considerable reduction in inflammation in the right image taken after 30minutes of exposure to clinical earthing. Note return of normal thermal symmetry with significant reduction in inflammation. The samecolor bars were used pre- and postearthing.

FIG. A-3. Image on left is of the low back taken as a baseline on August 9, 2004 (prior to using earthing sleep system). The arrowsdenote the most significant areas of inflammation. The image on the right was taken on August 11, 2004 after 2 nights of sleeping onthe earthing sleep system. Note the complete resolution of inflammation with a return to normal thermal symmetry. The same colorbars were used pre- and postearthing.

Case Study #3. 48-year-old woman, totally disabled after6 years of chronic inflammation. Significant reduction in in-flammation after 30 minutes exposure to earthing patch sys-tem shown in Figure 4 (in main text). This patient presentedon September 16, 2004 with significant chronic bilateralknee pain (increased on the right), swollen knees, and fa-tigue over the past 6 years. Her condition began as a resultof an injury sustained while using a ladder. She had receivedthree knee surgeries, prolonged medical treatment, and phys-ical therapy with little improvement. Patient presented withknee wrap supports, a pronounced limp, and ambulated witha walker. Patient was exposed to clinical earthing patch sys-tem on September 16, 2004 and observed for changes 30minutes later and followed up with clinical visits over a 12-week period. On September 16, 2004, after 30 minutes of

exposure to clinical earthing, the patient reported a 20% re-duction in pain that lasted for 24 hours. After 5 days of clin-ical earthing, the patient reported a 30% reduction in painwith an increase in energy that she described as “almost backto my normal self.” After 2 weeks of treatment, patient feltgood enough to try dancing and reported no increase insymptoms afterward. By 3 weeks, patient no longer neededher walker. After 6 weeks of treatment, patient’s limp re-solved. At week 12, subject reported an overall 90% reduc-tion in pain and swelling and noted that, “I can’t believe Ihave my life back.” Infrared images (Fig. A-4) show a sig-nificant change with a pronounced improvement in inflam-mation in both knees. The top pre-earthing image is consis-tent with the patient’s statement that her symptoms are worseon the right.