““Can you pass the salt?”Can you pass the salt?”

Why Conversation Why Conversation

WorksWorks

according to theorists…according to theorists…Grice, Goffman, Brown, Levinson and LeechGrice, Goffman, Brown, Levinson and Leech

AS English LanguageAS English Language

Grice’s Grice’s ‘Logic of Conversation’‘Logic of Conversation’

Conversation works - even when we don’t say what Conversation works - even when we don’t say what we mean.we mean.

Why it works so well fascinated philosopher Paul Why it works so well fascinated philosopher Paul Grice. He wondered about conversations such as this:Grice. He wondered about conversations such as this:

JackJack: : You’ve got a mountain to climb!You’ve got a mountain to climb!LilyLily:: It’s better than a slap in the face. It’s better than a slap in the face.

Grice wondered just Grice wondered just howhow we make meaning out of we make meaning out of such conversation.such conversation.

Grice’s Grice’s ‘Logic of Conversation’‘Logic of Conversation’

Grice concluded that conversation must follow Grice concluded that conversation must follow its own set of logical principles or ‘rules’. its own set of logical principles or ‘rules’.

He worked out how, even when we don’t He worked out how, even when we don’t meanmean what we what we saysay – that the full ‘– that the full ‘pragmaticpragmatic forceforce’ of our ’ of our utteranceutterance is easily understood, is easily understood, as in this third example:as in this third example:

LilyLily:: This bottle’s half empty already!This bottle’s half empty already!

JackJack:: Gosh - is that the time already?Gosh - is that the time already?

Grice’s InsightsGrice’s Insights

Communication is a co-operative activityCommunication is a co-operative activity: : when two people communicate, it’s in their when two people communicate, it’s in their interests to make the communication go as interests to make the communication go as smoothly as possible in order to achieve their smoothly as possible in order to achieve their aims. aims.

Speakers behave in certain predictable ways. Speakers behave in certain predictable ways.

When we, as hearers, try to work out what When we, as hearers, try to work out what someone means, we do it by assuming they’re someone means, we do it by assuming they’re being co-operative.being co-operative.

Grice’s Grice’s ‘Co-operative Principle’‘Co-operative Principle’

““Make your conversational contribution such as is Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose and direction of the exchange in accepted purpose and direction of the exchange in which you are engaged.”which you are engaged.”

Conversation works only with the Conversation works only with the co-operationco-operation of its of its participants.participants.

Co-operation is built around a series of ‘Co-operation is built around a series of ‘GriceanGricean maximsmaxims’:’:

• QualityQuality• QuantityQuantity

• MannerManner• RelationRelation

Gricean MaximsGricean Maxims1. Quality1. Quality

““Do not say what you believe to be false.”Do not say what you believe to be false.” ““Do not say that for which you lack evidence.”Do not say that for which you lack evidence.”

So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:So… when someone speaks to us, we assume: that what they say is not knowingly untruthful;that what they say is not knowingly untruthful; that the truthfulness of what they say does not that the truthfulness of what they say does not

need to be made stated.need to be made stated.

Gricean MaximsGricean Maxims2. Quantity2. Quantity

““Make your contribution as informative as is Make your contribution as informative as is required.”required.”

““Do not make your contribution more Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.”informative than is required.”

So… when someone speaks to us, we assume:So… when someone speaks to us, we assume: they do not purposefully hold back anything they do not purposefully hold back anything

that is important;that is important; they do not give more information than is they do not give more information than is

asked.asked.

Gricean MaximsGricean Maxims3. Manner3. Manner

““Be perspicuous.”Be perspicuous.” ““Avoid obscurity of expression.”Avoid obscurity of expression.” ““Avoid ambiguity.”Avoid ambiguity.” ““Be brief.”Be brief.” ““Be orderly.”Be orderly.”

So… So… when someone speaks to us, we when someone speaks to us, we assume:assume: that what they say is being said as that what they say is being said as

straightforwardly as they can say it.straightforwardly as they can say it.

Gricean MaximsGricean Maxims4. Relevance4. Relevance

““Be relevant.”Be relevant.”

So… So… when someone speaks to us , we when someone speaks to us , we assume:assume: that what they say is relevant to that what they say is relevant to

the conversation.the conversation.

‘‘The Gricean Maxims’The Gricean Maxims’

1.1. Be trueBe true

2.2. Be briefBe brief3.3. Be clearBe clear

4.4. Be relevantBe relevant

‘In short, these maxims specify what the participants have to do in order to converse in a maximally efficient, rational, co-operative way: they should speak sincerely, relevantly and clearly whilst providing sufficient information.’

Levinson (1983)

The maxims in action…The maxims in action…

A.A. ““How do I get to Sainsbury’s, mate?”How do I get to Sainsbury’s, mate?”B.B. ““Go straight ahead, turn right at the school, Go straight ahead, turn right at the school,

then left at the bus stop on the hill.”then left at the bus stop on the hill.”

Speaker A assumes that:Speaker A assumes that: B believes his directions to be genuine – the maxim B believes his directions to be genuine – the maxim

of of qualityquality;; B believes the information to be sufficient – the B believes the information to be sufficient – the

maxim of maxim of quantityquantity;; B believes the information to be clear – the maxim of B believes the information to be clear – the maxim of

mannermanner;; B believes his directions are to Sainsbury’s – the B believes his directions are to Sainsbury’s – the

maxim of maxim of relationrelation..

Not following the Not following the maxims…maxims…

Grice recognised that whilst we could Grice recognised that whilst we could choosechoose not not to follow a maxim, such a choice would be to follow a maxim, such a choice would be consciousconscious and and consequentialconsequential. .

A speaker can choose to…A speaker can choose to…

‘‘violate’violate’ a maxim a maxim and be intentionally and be intentionally misleading.misleading.

‘‘opt out’opt out’ of a maxim of a maxim and refuse to co-operateand refuse to co-operate.. deal with a deal with a ‘clash’‘clash’ of maxims, of maxims, for instance, for instance,

between saying enough and saying all that we between saying enough and saying all that we know to be true.know to be true.

‘‘flout’flout’ a maxim a maxim and be intentionally ironic.and be intentionally ironic.

‘‘Violating’ a MaximViolating’ a Maxim

In this BBC interview between Jeremy Paxman In this BBC interview between Jeremy Paxman and Michael Howard, the leader of the and Michael Howard, the leader of the opposition opposition violates violates the maxim of relation by the maxim of relation by not not giving an answer that relates to the questiongiving an answer that relates to the question::

PaxmanPaxman:: Did you threaten to overrule?Did you threaten to overrule?

HowardHoward:: I was not entitled to instruct I was not entitled to instruct Derek Derek Lewis and I did not Lewis and I did not instruct him.instruct him.

PaxmanPaxman: : Did you threaten to overrule him?Did you threaten to overrule him?

HowardHoward:: The truth of the matter is that.The truth of the matter is that.

‘‘Opting out’Opting out’

Here, Paxman asks the Prime Minister a Here, Paxman asks the Prime Minister a question; the minister question; the minister optsopts outout of the maxim of the maxim of relation:of relation:

PaxmanPaxman: : “When will war become “When will war become inevitable?”inevitable?”

PMPM:: “Well I know you have to ask that “Well I know you have to ask that question question but it’s the kind of but it’s the kind of question I cannot answer.”question I cannot answer.”

‘‘Flouting’Flouting’

This is the most important ‘use’ of Grice’s This is the most important ‘use’ of Grice’s maxims.maxims.

Unlike ‘violating’, ‘flouting’ a maxim allows a Unlike ‘violating’, ‘flouting’ a maxim allows a speaker to signal that although they seem to be speaker to signal that although they seem to be ‘violating’ a maxim, ‘violating’ a maxim, they are still co-operatingthey are still co-operating..

Which leads us very nicely on to Grice’s key idea of “Implicature”…

“Mmm… Do’nuts…”“Homie, those pants look awful tight to me.”

‘‘Conversational Conversational Implicature’Implicature’

‘Gricean Pragmatics’ – knowing what isn’t ‘Gricean Pragmatics’ – knowing what isn’t said said

What Grice called ‘implicature’ occurs What Grice called ‘implicature’ occurs when a when a speaker chooses to speaker chooses to floutflout a maxim. a maxim.

The listener, The listener, assuming that the speaker still assuming that the speaker still intends being cooperativeintends being cooperative, looks for meaning , looks for meaning other than that which is said.other than that which is said.

The intended meaning will be arrived at through The intended meaning will be arrived at through the speaker working out the the speaker working out the pragmaticpragmatic forceforce of of the utterance rather than its the utterance rather than its semanticsemantic sensesense..

ImplicatureFlouting the maxim of quantity…

A: I hear you went to the theatre last night; what play did you see?

B: Well, I watched a number of people stand on the stage in Elizabethan costumes uttering series of sentences which corresponded closely with the script of Twelfth Night.

Here, B’s verbose answer, although it doesn’t say anything more than “I saw a performance of Twelfth Night,” invites A to infer that the performers were doing a miserably bad job of acting.

Implicature Flouting the maxim of quality

A: What are you baking?B: Be i are tee aitch dee ay wye see ay kay ee.

By answering obscurely, B conveys to A the implicature that the information is to be kept secret from the young child who is in the room with them.

ImplicatureImplicatureFlouting the maxim of manner Flouting the maxim of manner

When discussing an essay with a student, it When discussing an essay with a student, it is customary for a teacher to be polite and to is customary for a teacher to be polite and to find things to praise…find things to praise…

““So let me say straight away, James, that So let me say straight away, James, that your essay is beautifully printed, the font has your essay is beautifully printed, the font has been immaculately well chosen and the been immaculately well chosen and the positioning of those staples is a work of sheer positioning of those staples is a work of sheer genius...”genius...”

How the implicature How the implicature works…works…

To James, such a comment is apparently To James, such a comment is apparently not relevantnot relevant to to what he wants to hear – so he assumes his teacher has what he wants to hear – so he assumes his teacher has ‘‘flouted the maximflouted the maxim’ of relevance. ’ of relevance.

BUT… BUT… JamesJames assumes the teacher is still co-operating in assumes the teacher is still co-operating in the conversation by taking his ‘conversational turn’ leaving the conversation by taking his ‘conversational turn’ leaving James to assume he is trying to convey something relevant James to assume he is trying to convey something relevant about the quality of the essay.about the quality of the essay.

SO… If JamesSO… If James assumes the essay is other than worthless assumes the essay is other than worthless, , then the teacher then the teacher isis observing the co-operative Principleobserving the co-operative Principle..

The listener The listener assumesassumes that the speaker that the speaker assumesassumes that the that the listener can work it out.listener can work it out.

Grice’s MaximsGrice’s MaximsIn Writing?In Writing?

Many kinds of communication operate as ‘interactions’ – a sort of ‘one sided’ conversation – letters, advertisements, and so on. Applying Grice’s maxims to written texts can allow you to develop subtle insights.

Flouting Grice’s maxims is more difficult in writing because it’s less easy to make sure that your reader understands what is happening.

This can be especially important in the ‘Language and Technology’ topic where much writing is ‘conversational’… but lacks the prosody and body-language of face-to-face interaction.

Grice’s Maxims and Grice’s Maxims and Implicature can be Implicature can be applied well beyond applied well beyond

conversation…conversation…

What maxims are What maxims are being flouted being flouted here?here?

What implicatures What implicatures are being created?are being created?

To what effect?To what effect? For what purpose?For what purpose?

POLITENESSPOLITENESSIf we If we reallyreally want co-operation… want co-operation…

… … we also need to be we also need to be politepolite

Goffman’s FaceGoffman’s Face

Erving Goffman was intrigued by what lay behind everyday Erving Goffman was intrigued by what lay behind everyday expressions such as ‘losing face’, ‘saving face’ and ‘being expressions such as ‘losing face’, ‘saving face’ and ‘being shamefaced’.shamefaced’.

He saw that without politeness, conversation didn’t work and that He saw that without politeness, conversation didn’t work and that the need for politeness was rooted in ‘the need for politeness was rooted in ‘savingsaving faceface’:’:

‘[face is…] the positive social value a person effectively claims ‘[face is…] the positive social value a person effectively claims forfor

himself by the line others assume he has taken during a himself by the line others assume he has taken during a personal personal

contact’contact’

Goffman recognised that whenever we talk, we need to feel ‘liked’. Goffman recognised that whenever we talk, we need to feel ‘liked’.

As a consequence, conversations are sites for potential ‘As a consequence, conversations are sites for potential ‘loss of faceloss of face’ ’ and that ‘and that ‘face workface work’ must, therefore, be a part of talk if ‘’ must, therefore, be a part of talk if ‘loss of faceloss of face’ ’ is to be avoided and co-operation is to be maintained.is to be avoided and co-operation is to be maintained.

Co-operation is vital to conversation, but without

politeness, all is lost.

‘‘Negative’ and ‘Positive’ Negative’ and ‘Positive’ FaceFace

‘‘Negative’ FaceNegative’ Face

The desire to feel The desire to feel unimpededunimpeded, i.e. the , i.e. the freedom from feeling imposed upon by the freedom from feeling imposed upon by the interaction.interaction.

‘‘Positive’ FacePositive’ Face

The desire to feel The desire to feel approved ofapproved of , i.e. to , i.e. to maintain a positive and consistent self-image maintain a positive and consistent self-image during the interaction.during the interaction.

Brown and Levinson developed Goffman’s ideas into the concepts of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ face.

‘‘Negative and Positive Negative and Positive Face’Face’

‘‘Face Threatening ActsFace Threatening Acts’ (’ (FTAsFTAs) ) conversational turns thatconversational turns that risk a ‘loss of face’. risk a ‘loss of face’.

Positive politeness ‘face workPositive politeness ‘face work’’ addresses ‘positive face’ concerns, addresses ‘positive face’ concerns, by showing by showing

concern for the other’s faceconcern for the other’s face. .

Negative politeness ‘face work’Negative politeness ‘face work’ addresses ‘negative face’ concerns, addresses ‘negative face’ concerns, by by

acknowledging the other’s face is threatened.acknowledging the other’s face is threatened.

‘‘Face Threatening Face Threatening Acts’Acts’

‘‘Close your mouth when you eat, you fat swine’.Close your mouth when you eat, you fat swine’.~ A A baldbald FTA FTA

‘‘You have such beautiful teeth. I wish I didn’t see You have such beautiful teeth. I wish I didn’t see them when you eat.’ them when you eat.’ ~ An FTA using An FTA using positive politenesspositive politeness

‘‘I know you’re very hungry and that steak is a bit I know you’re very hungry and that steak is a bit tough, but I would appreciate it if you would tough, but I would appreciate it if you would chew with your mouth closed.’ chew with your mouth closed.’ ~ An FTA using An FTA using negative politenessnegative politeness

‘‘I wonder how far a person’s lips can stretch yet I wonder how far a person’s lips can stretch yet remain closed when eating?’ remain closed when eating?’ ~ An ‘An ‘off recordoff record’ or ‘’ or ‘indirect’ indirect’ FTAFTA

The ‘Politeness Principle’The ‘Politeness Principle’ Geoffrey Leech proposed the need for Geoffrey Leech proposed the need for ‘politeness ‘politeness

maxims’maxims’ as a prerequisite for conversational co- as a prerequisite for conversational co-operation. operation.

In the absence of politenessIn the absence of politeness,, Leech suggested, Leech suggested, it it will be assumed that an attitude of politeness is will be assumed that an attitude of politeness is absent.absent.

Each maxim has two forms: positive and negative.Each maxim has two forms: positive and negative.

Each maxim has a lesser ‘sub-maxim’ that Each maxim has a lesser ‘sub-maxim’ that recognises the general law that recognises the general law that negative politenessnegative politeness – – that we seek to minimise discordthat we seek to minimise discord – is more – is more important than important than positive politenesspositive politeness – – that we seek that we seek concordconcord..

Leech’s Politeness Leech’s Politeness Maxims (1)Maxims (1)

1.1. TactTact: minimise the cost to others : minimise the cost to others [‘sub-maxim’: maximise benefit to [‘sub-maxim’: maximise benefit to others]others]

2.2. GenerosityGenerosity: minimise benefit to : minimise benefit to self [maximise cost to self]self [maximise cost to self]

3.3. ApprobationApprobation: minimise dispraise : minimise dispraise of others [maximise praise of of others [maximise praise of other]other]

Leech’s Politeness Leech’s Politeness Maxims (2)Maxims (2)

4.4. ModestyModesty: minimise praise of self : minimise praise of self [maximise dispraise of self][maximise dispraise of self]

5.5. AgreementAgreement: minimise : minimise disagreement between self and disagreement between self and others [maximise agreement others [maximise agreement between self and other]between self and other]

6.6. SympathySympathy: minimise antipathy : minimise antipathy between self and others [maximise between self and others [maximise sympathy between self and other]sympathy between self and other]

Cn u fnd Cn u fnd sm sm

mxms, mxms, face n face n

plitns in plitns in ths txt ths txt msg?msg?

B. B. Heya! Im @ a party! Wikd 2 Heya! Im @ a party! Wikd 2 ere frm ere frm u! u! Aint gt mch batri Aint gt mch batri so mayb txt u so mayb txt u 2mz? D kj xxxx2mz? D kj xxxx

A. A. Hii KJ Hows u doin? Avnt cht Hii KJ Hows u doin? Avnt cht 2 U 4 2 U 4 ages yano! We shud ages yano! We shud catch up catch up sometime!! TB xxxxxsometime!! TB xxxxx

A. A. [next day] U av a Gud time at [next day] U av a Gud time at da da party? Il b online L8R!! lol! party? Il b online L8R!! lol! Tb xxxTb xxx

Co-operation & Politeness

PolitenessPoliteness

Analyse this conversation at the level of co-operation and politeness.