cells part 2: cell structures. by the end of this class you should understand: the major organelles...
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Cells Part 2: Cell Structures
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By the end of this class you should understand:
• The major organelles common to all human cells• The nature of exceptions to the general rules of
organelles• The concept of energy use to maintain
homeostasis• The major molecules used for cellular energy• The complete three-step process of ATP
production
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Important Note:• Organelles are important parts of all cells in the
human body– Special exceptions noted
• These parts keep the cell alive• All human cells also contribute additional functions to
the overall body– Muscle cells have fibers that contract– Glands secrete hormones– Bone cells produce bone matrix– Etc etc etc
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Parts of the Cell(organelles)
Nucleus Cell membrane Cytoskeleton Cytoplasm Mitochondria Ribosome Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Apparatus
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Nucleus: The Library
The nucleus stores all the cell's genetic information in massive molecules of DNA
The DNA molecules are packed into many pairs of chromosomes
When a protein is needed, signals enter the nucleus and cause copies of the appropriate genes to be made with RNA
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Key Nucleus Facts:
Every complete human cell has one nucleus Exception: red blood cells have no nucleus (also
have no other membrane-bound organelles) Exception: muscle cells are many cell fused
together and so have many nuclei Every nucleus has the complete human genome The nucleus has its own envelope to keep
unwanted things out
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Cytoskeleton: The City Streets Every cell has long strands
of different kinds of proteins running through it
When organelles are moved they move along the cytoskeleton
If the cell moves under its own power it uses the cytoskeleton as well
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Key Cytoskeleton Facts:
There are several different types of fibers and they have different functions
All cells must produce each of these fibers These fibers are made of different kinds of
proteins (keratin, collagen, actin, myosin, etc) If the genes for any of these fibers are no
good, no cells can form and the organism will never develop, grow or be born
This makes these genes essential for life
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Cytoplasm: The Marketplace The liquid of the cell is called
cytosol Cytosol plus the organelles are
called cytoplasm All the cell's chemical reactions
and growth take place here Many exchanges are made Many chemicals are stored
in vesicles in the cytoplasm
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Key Cytoplasm Facts:
Cytosol is a clear liquid but it is filled with salts and sugars
Cytoplasm is held within the cell membrane If the cell membrane develops a hole,
cytoplasm can leak out and the cell can die If the cell membrane bursts all at once, this is
called lysis and is instant cell death
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Ribosome: The Machine Shop
Site of protein synthesis Some are free floating in
cytoplasm Some are attached to
membranes called the endoplasmic reticulum
Made with a combination of protein and RNA
Probably the first structure in the original cells
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Key Ribosome Facts Ribosome is the site for proteins to be synthesized
That process will be discussed next week Cytoplasmic ribosomes make the cytoskeleton and
cell enzymes Rough endoplasmic reticulum produces proteins
that will enter the membrane or leave the cell Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is for synthesis of
other macromolecules such as lipids
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Golgi Apparatus: The Shipping Center
• Vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum are organized here
• Different vesicles have different destinations– The chemical reactions
that determine where these vesicles go occur here
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Key Golgi Facts
• The Golgi manipulates cell membrane material into many types of vesicles– Peroxisomes contain peroxides– Lysosomes contain destructive enzymes (that can
lyse chemicals or even other cells)– Secretory vesicles are designed for exocytosis
(they will secrete their contents)
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Mitochondria: The Power Plant
• Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) produce the cell's supply of energy molecules– Cells use a molecule called
ATP– Made using the energy from
blood sugar
• Must have oxygen to work– Process that requires oxygen
is called aerobic
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Key Mitochondria Facts: Mitochondria were once bacteria
Captured/adopted by animal cells billions of years ago and now we work together
Mitochondria must have oxygen to burn sugar Produce CO2 as a waste product This is why we breathe in oxygen and breathe
out carbon dioxide Mitochondria sustain our high metabolic rate
Cyanide blocks mitochondrial activity, which is why it is a lethal poison to us
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Cellular Homeostasis• Every cell must perform
the following tasks:– Take in materials– Build proteins– Excrete wastes
• All these processes require energy!
• Chemical energy is delivered in the form of ATP
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ATP• Primary energy molecule• Starts as an adenosine
with two phosphates• Gets “charged up” by
having a third phosphate added to the tail
• Can “release” that energy for other chemical reactions
• Third phosphate bond is high-energy but unstable– Compare to C-C bond
which is also high energy but very stable and can be stored
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Other uses of ATP:
• Used to make muscles contract• Kidney reabsorbs nutrients from urine• Neuron ion pumps to make electrical signals• Absorb nutrients from small intestine• Make new cells (mitosis/meiosis)• Basically everything you do
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What is needed to make ATP?
• ADP (nucleic acid) and phosphate– There is plenty of this in the cell
already since it gets reused a lot• Energy source (carbohydrate,
protein, lipid)• Oxygen (for aerobic
respiration only)• How do these reach the cells?
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How do these get to cells?
• Blood!– Glucose is the sugar dissolved in our blood– Oxygen is carried by red blood cells– Nucleic acids and amino acids are also carried in
the blood to cells– Fat is moved via lipoproteins (LDLs move fat to
cells, HDLs move fat to liver) via bloodstream
• Heart failure = death because your cells starve
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Which cells do this?
• All cells need energy• All cells with mitochondria
perform complete cellular respiration
• Cells with no mitochondria or nucleus (i.e. Red Blood Cells) can only perform anaerobic respiration (glycolysis)
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Complete Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
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Technically a Combustion Reaction:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Heat
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Complete Simple Diagram
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Cellular Respiration
• Three steps to complete cellular respiration:– Glycolysis– Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle)– Electron Transport Chain
• “Lysis” = “breaking”– Glycolysis: breaking in half of glucose– Produces some energy
• Krebs Cycle + ETC are aerobic– Only work when oxygen is present
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Glycolysis
• Enzyme-catalyzed• Anaerobic– What your muscles use when you are exerting
yourself more than you can breathe
• Has 10 steps– We will NOT be going over this
• Reactant: 1 glucose (6-carbon)• Product: 2 pyruvate (3-carbon) and 2ATP
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Glycolysis
• Performed in the cytoplasm
• Occurs automatically when glucose is brought into the cell
• Fructose and galactose can also be broken with glycolysis
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Fermentation
• If no oxygen is present, pyruvate buildup in cell can become toxic
• Pyruvate is instead converted to lactic acid
• Lactic acid enters bloodstream and creates the “burning” feeling in your muscles
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Krebs Cycle
• The Krebs Cycle is an enzymatic process• Aerobic: requires oxygen to keep running– If no oxygen, no electron carriers available
• Reactant: 1 Acetyl CoA– Pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA
• Product: 3 CO2
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Krebs Cycle• Performed in the
mitochondria• Produces ATP and
high-energy electrons
• Produces the CO2 that we breathe out– CO2 exits cell and
dissolves into blood until we breathe it out at the lungs
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Electron Transport Chain
• Electrons are pushed one by one through a transport chain
• As the electron moves, its energy is used to pump hydrogen ions into a special reservoir– Sort of like using energy to pump water to a lake
above a dam
• As the hydrogen ions are released back, they turn a “water wheel” that makes ATP
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Electron Transport Chain• Each of these
structures pulls a little more tightly on the electron
• The final recipient of the electron is oxygen, which makes water
• This means the entire chain is aerobic
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Electron Transport Chain
• The energy in the electron does work to create a gradient of hydrogen ions
• The hydrogen ions move down their gradient through an ATP Synthase enzyme
• This enzyme creates ATP when turned by hydrogen ions– This is called chemiosmosis– This step makes a LOT of ATP
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ATP Synthase
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Cellular Respiration Summary
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Cellular Respiration Summary:• Glucose– is broken down by glycolysis to
• Pyruvate– which enters the Krebs cycle and becomes
• CO2
– which leaves, but the released electrons power the
• Electron Transport Chain– which makes fat stacks of ATP – oxygen absorbs the electrons to become water