Chapter 14

Research about Enforcement of Sanctions

From the headlines Which measurements represent real

people? Experts on body shapes and sizes Analyze data of the human body for use

In clothing sizing Furniture Technology Buildings

Collect data from 3-dimensional body scans

Survey of 5000 people Shopping for clothing is difficult Finding clothes that fit was biggest

problem Differing sizes by style and brand Shopping is time-consuming Have to try on everything Data have potential to help development

of clothing sizes that match trends in body sizes

Shopping for clothing is difficult

Attempts to enforce sanctions in everyday life are revealed in: Feelings of pressure to conform

Peer pressure Internalization

Efforts by violators to comply with the norm

Complaints about enforcement or non-enforcement

Active efforts to resist enforcement Complacency

Feelings of pressure to conform

Questions to answer How does the enforcement of sanctions relate to

the process of social control? What is the nature of research related to the

enforcement of sanctions? What research methods are used to investigate

the enforcement of sanctions? What tools are used to collect data for research

about the enforcement of sanctions?

Body modifications Alterations to the body itself

Temporary (e.g., weight loss, age) Semi-permanent (e.g., hair color) Permanent (e.g., breast augmentation)

Efforts to enforce sanctions related to the normative body can encourage people to undertake temporary, semi-permanent, or permanent body modifications

Temporary body modification: Weight Obesity is a norm violation Obesity—weighing a certain % more than

“normal” (e.g., 20% above normal weight) Obese are negatively defined by weight Judged as responsible for the obesity Deterred from social interaction Experience sanctions, e.g., finger-pointing,

shame, ridicule

Judged as responsible for the obesity

Interviews of 15 obese women Negative sanctions during childhood

Derision Castigation Ostracism Alienation Name-calling Nicknames Teasing

Emotional reactions to sanctions Hurt Anger Resentment Frustration Loneliness Stigmatization

Cultural appearance norms Had been internalized + Sanctions of significant others

Saliency of norm violation Excess weight – most salient physical

characteristic of obese women Violation of norm is immediately apparent

to others Not consciously aware of how large they

were until Reflection in mirror Picture

Reflection in mirror

Low self-esteem Described themselves as “Overweight” Ugly Guilty Depressed Stupid Still dieted and tried to lose weight

Feeling guilty and out of control

High self-esteem Felt good about themselves Described themselves as “Obese” Educational and professional

accomplishments

Highself-esteem

Result of attempts to enforce sanctions Acquiescence (conformity) to appearance

norms Negative self-image Low self-esteem

Resistance to (refusal to accept) appearance norms Positive self-images High self-esteem

Temporary body modification: Age 22 women aged 61 to 92 interviewed Beauty synonymous with youthfulness and

slimness Ageist beauty norm How do older women cope with effects of aging on

body image embodied experiences relationship between identity and body image

Embodied—giving tangible or visible form to something abstract, e.g., personal or social identity

Double standard—Physical signs of aging are worse for women than men

Body image Perceptions and feelings about the body Perceptual component

How we perceive our bodies Attitudinal component

How we feel about our bodies Body image is a mental picture created by

the interaction of many factors

Body image—perceptions and feelings about the body

Weight concerns women of all ages Normal for women to gain weight as they

age Longitudinal study of older people

Over a number of years Women’s greatest concern was memory loss 2nd greatest concern—weight changes Men were not concerned about weight

Normal for women to gain weight as they age

Weight concerns women of all ages

Descriptions of older women’s bodies Ugly Sagging Yuck Disaster Awful

Evidence of internalization of cultural beauty norms

“As we age,the waist and abdomen losetheir shape”

Loss of physical beauty Unavoidable Part of a natural aging process Outside of their control

Attitudes Negative attitudes toward their

appearance Importance of being healthy and

independent Triviality of emphases on appearance Primacy of good health over physical

attractiveness Sense of loss about what they could do Loss of health, mobility, energy

Triviality of emphases on appearance

Current fashions & fashion models Represent extreme and unattractive role

models for young women Not an influence for these older women

Weight gain the cause of self-criticism and monitoring

Extreme and unattractive role models

Weight gain Moral failure Lack of discipline Due to personal choices Personal responsibility Expressed concern about weight gain Negative sentiments about their weight Dieted

Resistance to enforcement of sanctions--shift in priorities Health

Freedom from disease Freedom from chronic illness Freedom from declining energy

Function More important than physical

attractiveness Healthy people are attractive people

Contradiction Women acknowledged inevitability of the

natural life cycle and changes that accompany aging

Rejected cultural beauty norms But they had negative body images If older women do not aspire to cultural

beauty norms, why are their body images not more positive?

Semi-permanent body modification: Hair color Naturally blonde women interviewed 16% of U.S. females born blonde 5% remain naturally blonde as adults Brown hair is the norm Blonde women are both positive and

negative deviants

Positive deviance Behaviors or conditions that both

Over conform to the norms and Are positively appraised

Violation of a norm

Positive deviance

Negative deviance Behaviors or conditions that

under conform, or fail to conform, to normative expectations

subsequently receive negative evaluations Violation of a norm

Blonde women Positive deviants—receive positive

evaluations for exceeding normative appearance expectations

Negative deviants—receive negative evaluations and negative treatment

Numerous stereotypes about blondes Blondes are treated differently than

women with other hair colors

Positive andnegative deviance

Twenty blonde women Experiences of being blonde as a

Child Adolescent Adult

Blonde stereotypes Positives & negatives of being blonde Cultural definition of hair attractiveness Reactions of others to blonde hair

Cultural advantages for blondes Blonde is a beauty

standard Disproportionately

represented in appearance-based occupations

Positive responses were common

Cultural stereotypes

Innocence–depicted as angels, saints, etc. Sexy/fun—”blondes have more fun” Easy—”sex kitten” Dumb—”dumb blonde” “ditzy blonde”

Dumb blondestereotype

Coping Strategies Ignore remarks or return joke Self-fulfilling prophecy Overcompensate Fight back Become a member of the dominant group

Relationships with other women negatively affected by their attractiveness & hair color

Permanent body modification: Elective mammoplasty – Gagne & McGaughey In-depth interviews with 15 women who

had elective mammoplasty Breast augmentation, breast reduction, or

corrective surgery on the breasts All wanted to achieve normalcy

Plastic surgeryPermanent bodymodification

Sources of the norm Ideals generated by the media Observations of other women Perceptions of men’s observations of

themselves and other women

Cosmetic surgery Seen as a means of developing an

embodied self with which they were comfortable

Congruency between mind and body Prompted people to treat them in the way

they perceived themselves Self-confidence increased

Hegemony Control or influence by one group (e.g.,

men) over another (e.g., women) Changing one’s body to fit hegemonic (i.e.,

male) ideals of attractiveness has potential to Improve social opportunities Improve life at work

command greater respect better able to compete

Hegemonic ideals

Permanent body modification More fashion options Greater control over clothing choices

Social factors influenced decision The media

Women’s magazines Movies Television programs

The fashion industry Clothing mass-produced for “normal” sizes Norm is thin and proportionate

Before surgery

Used bras to maximize, minimize, or modify Techniques to draw attention to or away from

their breasts Techniques to draw attention toward more

attractive parts of their body Wore oversize blouses, T-shirts, and

sweatshirts to disguise their breasts Clothing did not offer a solution to their

problem

Baggy clothes, oversized T-shirts and sweatshirts

After surgery Changed their wardrobes

Accommodate changed body proportions Include items they had longed to wear

Hegemonic gaze—sense that individual women have that everyone is looking at them

Feel discomfort if they fail to meet the cultural beauty norm

Hegemonic gaze

Body supplements—items placed on the body by: Wrapping item around the body Suspending item from the body Wearing pre-shaped items Inserting items into the body Clipping item to the body Adhering item to the body Holding or carrying the item

Dress has ambiguous meanings A message that can be understood in

more than one way It is not clear which meaning is intended Incorrect interpretation of the message is

always possible Aesthetic rules Social rules Cultural customs

What doesthis dress mean?

Uncertainty caused by ambiguous dress meanings is revealed in Efforts to keep school regulations current with

changing styles Inconsistency in enforcing rules Conformity with letter but not spirit of the rules Use of dress to deliberately cause a reaction Use of dress to demonstrate group affiliation Deliberate failure to understand meaning Presumption that meanings are unambiguous Context-dependency of dress meanings

Ridicule in a school context Peer pressure as expressed in ridicule

Used to belittle and exclude Those who did not fit in with the group

Adolescents responded to ridicule by

Doing nothing Concealing stigmatized objects More closely watching what their peers wore Seeking safe havens Defending unpopular choices Adopting popular objects

Ridicule Observing or experiencing ridicule Influenced

Purchase Use Discard Of possessions

Ridicule affected purchase decisions

Learned which items were associated with: Avoidance groups—groups to stay away

from Aspirational groups—groups in which one

would like to become a member Conformed because of

Feelings of inadequacy Concerns about belonging

Symbolic meanings of athletic shoes 30 children, aged 8 to 12, from poor

homes Stereotypes about owners of athletic

shoes Expensive brand name—owner young and rich Inexpensive unbranded—owner old and poor

Child who wore branded athletic shoes Popular Fit in with peers Preferred to talk to

Symbolic meanings of athletic shoes

Attempts to enforce sanctions revealed In peer pressure To wear athletic shoes their friends wore

To make friends and fit in To avoid teasing

Strongest influence on children is their peer group Influence starts as early as age 6 Becomes more important during

adolescence Become aware of peers’ favorite products Consider these preferences when making

their own consumer choices, esp. symbolic consumer products such as dress

Peer group influence

Enforcement of sanctions Children feared their peers

Would refuse to be friends with them Would bully them

If they did not fit in by wearing right brand

Enforcement of sanctions Harassment Threats of being beaten up Bullying Picking on Not talking to someone Embarrassed to be seen with someone

Children’s awareness of brand names Brand awareness—ability to identify the

brand under different conditions. Includes Brand recognition—correctly identify a brand

as being previously seen or heard Brand recall—ability to remember the brand

when provided with a cue 5 and 6 year olds were aware of brands 9 to 11 year olds had more sophisticated

level of awareness

Enforcement of sanctions for violation of dress codes—Garot & Katz’ study Prohibit an embodied way of being Appearance is a central concern of youth

Devote resources Significance of subtle details Variety and innovativeness of appearance

Creative appearance derives from youth culture Self-regulating logic independent of school

concerns

Significance ofsubtle details

Enforcement of dress code Common topic of conversation School employees do not understand

meanings of student dress Look for something tangible to regulate Issues of power and obedience Many people involved—administrators,

teachers, students, parents, other adults

Issues of power and obedience

Enforcement implies character traits of the enforcer Feelings or sensibility Kindness or meanness Sympathetic or not

Non-enforcement noted by peers and other students

Dress codes affect school culture When rules are enforced When exceptions are granted When uncertainties are debated

Evolution of youth styles Rules change frequently Rules are frequently overlooked

Evolution of youth styles

Students use details of dress to: Elicit a response from others Create a self that responds to others’

responses Create a unique appearance Students choose their dress with their

peers in mind, not school authorities

Students use dress to create a unique appearance

Enforcement of dress norms among refugee women Agency—action, medium, or means by

which something is accomplished

Data collected as part of ethnographic case study of a Bosnian Muslim settlement

Extensive participant observations and interviews with 14 women

In Bosnia Muslim women wore elaborate styles

Hair Dress Makeup Emphasized femininity

Bosnian woman in Sarajevo

In Vermont Adopted some local dress practices

Jeans Less elaborate makeup More casual clothing for everyday wear

Ambivalent and critical of norms for women’s dress in U.S.

Refugee women Had new audiences Increased range of permissible dress Changes in structure of everyday life

Resistance to U.S. dress norms Means to communicate a group identity Means to create that group identity for

themselves

Dress communicates nonverbally Meanings change over time and space Meanings do not always translate easily

from one location to another May interpret in new location according to

Dress language of previous location Dress language of recent past

Repeated interactions result in challenges to or modifications of dress norms from the past

Dress practices Rooted in history and culture Actively enforced in social interaction Social sanctions used to enforce and

perpetrate women’s dress codes Dress code enforcers—older women who

used social disapproval, shame, gossip Encouraged and monitored feminine dress

Internalized mechanisms Self-discipline Self-surveillance Panoptic view—all-inclusive view Disciplinary gaze directed upon the self

Women’s dress practices attributed to: Habit Repetition Enforcement by dress code enforcers

Changes to dress practices Brought about by a changed context New exigencies (urgent necessities) New routines New meanings of dress Wider range of dress options New dress code enforcers