Chapter 4Chapter 4

Social Interaction and Social Structure

What Is Society?What Is Society?

A system of social interaction that includes culture and social organization. Members of a society have a common culture though there may be great diversity

within it. Within society, social interaction is behavior between two or more people that is

given meaning by them.

Technology and InteractionTechnology and Interaction

The introduction of new technologies is transforming how people interact with each other.

Macro- and Macro- and MicroanalysisMicroanalysis

Macroanalysis is a sociological approach that takes the broadest view of society by studying patterns of social interaction that are complex and highly differentiated.

In the microanalynic approach, sociologists study patterns of social interactions that are less complex and less differentiated.

Social OrganizationSocial Organization

Describes the order established in social groups at any level. Social organization brings regularity and predictability to human behavior and is

present at every level of interaction, from the whole society to the smallest groups.

Social InstitutionsSocial Institutions

An established and organized system of social behavior with a recognized purpose. The term refers to the broad systems that organize specific functions in society. Examples:

◦ Family provides for the care of the young and the transmission of culture. ◦ Religion organizes sacred beliefs.

Purpose of Social InstitutionsPurpose of Social Institutions

Socialization of new members. Production and distribution of goods and services. Maintain stability and existence. Provide members with a sense of purpose.

Social InstitutionsSocial Institutions Birth occurs within social institutions

that vary in different societies. Here you see the contrast in how birth

is defined as a medical event in the United States, contrasted with a health assistant attending a birth in rural Mexico.

Social StructureSocial Structure

Refers to the organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that compose society.

Example: Social class distinctions◦ Class shapes the access different groups have to the resources of society, and

many interactions people have with each other.

Durkheim and Collective Durkheim and Collective ConsciousnessConsciousness

Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, argued that people in society had a collective consciousness.

He defined this as the beliefs common to a society that give people a sense of belonging and a feeling of moral obligation.

According to Durkheim, collective consciousness gives groups solidarity because members feel they are part of one society.

Durkheim: Social SolidarityDurkheim: Social Solidarity

Mechanical solidarity arises when individuals feel bonded by their similarity. Organic solidarity arises when individuals are bonded through their division of

labor.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft SocietiesSocieties

Gemeinschafts are characterized by a sense of “we”, a moderate division of labor, strong personal ties, strong family relationships, and a sense of personal loyalty.

Gesellschafts are characterized by less prominence of personal ties, a somewhat diminished role of the nuclear family, and a lessened sense of personal loyalty to society.

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies

Foraging Pastoral Horticultural Agricultural Industrial Postindustrial

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies Different types of societies produce

different kinds of social relationships. Some may involve more direct and

personal relationships, whereas others produce more fragmented and impersonal relationships.

Examples of Types of SocietiesExamples of Types of Societies

Foraging Pygmies of Central Africa

Pastoral Bedouins of Africa and Middle East

Horticultural Incan empire of Peru

Examples of Types of SocietiesExamples of Types of Societies

Agricultural American South, pre-Civil War

Industrial19th and 20th century United States and Western

Europe

Postindustrial Contemporary United States

Characteristics of GroupsCharacteristics of Groups

A collection of individuals who◦ interact and communicate with each other◦ share goals and norms◦ are aware of themselves as a distinct social unit

Social GroupsSocial Groups

Social groups are organized around different kinds of relationships, but involve a “we” feeling.

StatusesStatuses

A status is a rank in society. ◦ Vice president of the United States

Statuses occur within institutions. ◦ “High school teacher” is a status within the education institution.

Typically, an individual occupies many statuses simultaneously.

StatusStatus

A status set is the complete set of statuses occupied by a person at a given time. Status inconsistency exists where statuses occupied by a person bring different

amounts of prestige and differing expectations. Achieved statuses are those attained by individual effort. Ascribed statuses are those occupied from the moment a person is born.

Debunking Society’s MythsDebunking Society’s Myths

Myth:◦ Gender is an ascribed status where one’s gender identity is established at birth.

Sociological perspective◦ Gender is a social construct and thus is also an achieved status.

RolesRoles

A role is the expected behavior associated with a particular status. Statuses are occupied; roles are acted or “played.” A person’s role set includes all the roles occupied by the person at a given time.

Role ModelingRole Modeling

In role modeling, a person imitates the behavior of an admired other.

A College Student’s Role SetA College Student’s Role Set

Role StrainRole Strain Changes in the roles for women who

are mothers can create role strain.

Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication

Touch Pitch, loudness and rhythm of the voice. Gestures, facial expressions Use of personal space.

TouchTouch

Patterns of touch reflect differences in the power that is part of many social relationships

Proxemic CommunicationProxemic Communication

Meaning is conveyed by the amount of space between individuals. The more friendly people feel toward each other, the closer they will stand. According to anthropologist E. T. Hall we carry around us a proxemic bubble that

represents our personal, three-dimensional space. When people we don’t know enter our proxemic bubble, we feel threatened.

Factors in AttractionFactors in Attraction

Close proximity Exposure Physical attractiveness Similarity in status, race, ethnicity, religion, personality, attitudes and opinions.

ImprintingImprinting Konrad Lorenz, the animal

behaviorist, shows that adult ducks that have imprinted on him the moment they were hatched will follow him anywhere, as though he were their mother duck.

Interpersonal AttractionInterpersonal Attraction Romantic love is idealized in this

society as something that “just happens,” but research shows that interpersonal attraction follows rather predictable patterns

Debunking Society’s MythsDebunking Society’s Myths

Myth: ◦ Love is an emotional experience that you cannot predict or control.

Sociological perspective: ◦ Love can be predicted by such factors as proximity, how often you see the

person, how attractive you perceive the person to be, and whether you are similar in social class, race–ethnicity, religion, age, educational aspirations, and general attitudes.

Social Construction of RealitySocial Construction of Reality

Perception of what is real is determined by the subjective meaning we attribute to an experience.

There is no objective reality.

EthnomethodologyEthnomethodology

Disrupting social norms and observing how individuals attempt to restore normalcy. Human interaction takes place within a consensus and interaction is not possible

without this consensus.

Theories of Social InteractionTheories of Social Interaction

The Social Construction of Reality

Interpretssociety as:

organized around the subjectivemeaning that people give to social behavior

Analyzes socialinteraction as:

based on the meaning people give to actions in society

Theories of Social InteractionTheories of Social InteractionEthnomethodology

Interpretssociety as:

held together through the consensus that people share around social norms; you can discover these norms by violating them

Analyzes socialinteraction as:

a series of encounters in which people manage their impressions in front of others

Theories of Social InteractionTheories of Social InteractionDramaturgy

Interpretssociety as:

a stage on which actors play their social roles and give impression to those in their “audience”

Analyzes socialinteraction as:

enactment of social roles played before a social audience

Theories of Social InteractionTheories of Social InteractionSocial Exchange Theory

Interpretssociety as:

a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments

Analyzes socialinteraction as:

a rational balancing act involving perceived costs and benefits of a given behavior

Theories of Social InteractionTheories of Social InteractionGame Theory

Interpretssociety as:

a system in which people strategize “winning” and “losing” in their interactions with each other

Analyzes socialinteraction as:

calculated risks to balance rewards and punishments

Goffman: Impression Management Goffman: Impression Management and Dramaturgyand Dramaturgy

Dramaturgy is a way of analyzing interaction that assumes participants are actors in the drama of everyday social life.

People present different faces (give different impressions) on different stages (in different situations) with different others.

Impression ManagementImpression Management Impression management is the

display of how you want others to define you.

It can be especially obvious when you feel strong attachments to a particular group or identity.

Internet Network SitesInternet Network Sites Internet-based network sites, such as

Facebook and MySpace, are transforming how people form and sustain relationships with others.