chapter 5 chapter 7 cognition and mental abilities
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 5
Chapter 7
Cognition and Mental Abilities
Chapter 5
Outline
Building Blocks of ThoughtProblem SolvingDecision MakingIntelligence and Mental AbilitiesHeredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Chapter 5
Outline
Building Blocks of ThoughtProblem SolvingDecision MakingIntelligence and Mental AbilitiesHeredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Chapter 5
Building Blocks of Thought
The three most important building blocks of thought– Language – Images– Concepts
Cognition– The process whereby we acquire and use knowledge
Chapter 5
Language
Language– A flexible system of communication that uses sounds,
rules, gestures, or symbols to convey information
Phonemes– The basic sounds that make up any language
Morphemes– The smallest meaningful unit of speech, such as simple
words, prefixes, and suffixes– Play a key role in human thought– Combine morphemes to create words that represent
complex ideas– *
Chapter 5
Language
Grammar– The language rules that determine how sounds and words
can be combined and used to communicate meaning within a language
Syntax– Systems of rules that govern how we combine words to form
meaningful phrases and sentences
Semantics– How we assign meaning to morphemes, words, phrases and
sentences – the content of language
Surface Structure– The particular words and phrases of a sentence
Deep Structure– The underlying meaning of the sentence– *
Chapter 5
Language
Syntax and semantics enable speakers and listeners to perform transformations between surface and deep structure
Chapter 5
Direction of Movement in Speech
Chapter 5
Images
Images – Mental representations of sensory experiences– Allow us to think about things and solve problems in
nonverbal ways
Chapter 5
Concepts
Concepts– Mental categories for classifying objects, people, or
experiences– Used to create and organize hierarchies or groups of
subordinate categories– Help us to think efficiently about things and how they
relate to one another– Give meaning to new experiences
Prototype– A mental model containing the most typical features of a
concept
Chapter 5
Language, Thought, and Culture
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis– Patterns of thinking are determined by the specific
language one speaks
Critics contend that Whorf overstated his caseThought, they say, can shape and change a language as much as a language can shape and change thought
Chapter 5
Outline
Building Blocks of ThoughtProblem SolvingDecision MakingIntelligence and Mental AbilitiesHeredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Chapter 5
Problem Solving
Three aspects of problem solving– Interpretation– Strategy– Evaluation
Chapter 5
The Interpretation of Problems
Problem Representation– The first step in solving a problem– Interpreting or defining the problem
Divergent Thinking– Thinking that meets the criteria of originality,
inventiveness, and flexibility– Generates many different possible answers
Convergent Thinking– Thinking that is directed toward one correct solution to a
problem
Chapter 5
Producing Strategies & Evaluating Progress
Problem-solving approaches– How was the problem solved in the past?– Trial and error– Algorithms
– A step-by-step method of problem solving that guarantees a correct solution
– Heuristics– Rules of thumb that help in simplifying and solving problems– Do not guarantee a correct solution
– Troubleshooting– Anticipating what problems may arise before they develop
– Brainstorming– An individual or group produces numerous ideas and
evaluates them only after all ideas have been collected
Chapter 5
Obstacles to Solving Problems
An individual’s level of motivationMental Set– The tendency to perceive and approach problems in
certain ways
Functional Fixedness– The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for
an object
Chapter 5
Outline
Building Blocks of ThoughtProblem SolvingDecision MakingIntelligence and Mental AbilitiesHeredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Chapter 5
Decision Making
Decision making is a special kind of problem solving in which we already know all the possible solutions or choicesThe task is not to come up with new solutions but rather to identify the best available one based on whatever criteria we are using
Chapter 5
Logical Decision Making
Compensatory Model– A rational decision-making model in which choices are
systematically evaluated on various criteria
Chapter 5
Decision-Making Heuristics
When people use heuristics to help make decisions, they can save a great deal of time and effort, but they do not always make the best choices Representativeness– A heuristic by which a new situation is judged on the basis
of its resemblance to a stereotypical model
Availability– A heuristic by which a judgment or decision is based on
information that is most easily retrieved from memory
Confirmation Bias– The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief
and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief
Chapter 5
Explaining Our Decisions
Framing– The perspective from which we interpret information
before making a decision
Hindsight Bias – The tendency to see outcomes as inevitable and
predictable after we know the outcome
Counterfactual Thinking – Thinking about alternative realities and things that never
happened– “If only…”
Chapter 5
Outline
Building Blocks of ThoughtProblem SolvingDecision MakingIntelligence and Mental AbilitiesHeredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Chapter 5
Intelligence and Mental Abilities
Intelligence– A general term referring to the ability or abilities involved
in learning and adaptive behavior
Chapter 5
Theories of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Triarchic TheoryGardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesGoleman’s Emotional Intelligence
Chapter 5
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Analytical Intelligence– Mental processes such as ability to learn how to do things,
acquire knowledge, solve problems, and carry our tasks
Creative Intelligence– The ability to adjust to new tasks, use new concepts,
respond effectively in new situations, gain insight and adapt creatively
Practical Intelligence– Finding solutions to practical and personal problems– Seek out situations that match their skills, shape those
situations to better fit their talents and know when to change situations to better fit their talents
– Enables people to get along successfully in the world
Chapter 5
Theory of Multiple Intelligence
There is not one intelligence, but rather many intelligences, each of which is relatively independent of the others– Logical-mathematical– Linguistic– Spatial– Musical– Body-kinesthetic– Interpersonal– Intrapersonal– Naturalistic
Chapter 5
Emotional Intelligence
How effectively people perceive and understand their own emotions and the emotions of others, and can regulate their emotional behaviorFive Traits:– Knowing one’s own emotions– Managing one’s emotions– Using emotions to motivate oneself– Recognizing the emotions of other people– Managing relationships
Chapter 5
Intelligence Tests
Binet-Simon Scale– The first test of intelligence, developed for testing children
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale– Adapted from the Binet-Simon Scale by Louis Terman – Designed to measure four kinds of mental abilities
– Verbal Reasoning– Abstract/Visual Reasoning– Quantitative Reasoning– Short-Term Memory
– Best suited for children, adolescents and very young adults
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): – A numerical value given to intelligence that is determined
from the scores on an intelligence test on the basis of a score of 100 average intelligence
Chapter 5
Wechsler Intelligence Scales
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)– An individual intelligence test developed especially for
adults; measures both verbal and performance abilities– Results in separate verbal and performance scores as well
as an overall IQ score– Unique scoring system gives credit for reflective qualities
we expect to find in intelligent adults– For some questions, both seed and accuracy affect score
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III)– An individual intelligence test developed especially for
school-aged children; measures both verbal and performance abilities
Chapter 5
Group Tests
Group Tests– Written intelligence tests administered by one examiner to
many people at a time
Advantages– Eliminate bias on the part of the examiner– Norms are easier to establish
Disadvantages– Examiner less likely to notice if the person is tired, ill or
confused by the directions– People not used to be tested tend to do less well in group
tests than on individual tests– Emotionally disturbed children and children with learning
disabilities do better on individual tests than group tests
Chapter 5
Performance and Culture-Fair Tests
Performance Tests– Intelligence tests that minimize the use of language
Culture-Fair Tests– Intelligence tests designed to eliminate cultural bias by
minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another
Chapter 5
What Makes a Good Test?
Reliability– Ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores
Split-half reliability– A method of determining test reliability by dividing the test
into two parts and checking the agreement on both parts
Chapter 5
What Makes a Good Test?
Validity– Ability of a test to measure what it has been designed to
measure
Content Validity – Refers to a test’s having an adequate sample of questions
measuring the skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure
Criterion-Related Validity– Validity of a test as measured by a comparison of the test
score and independent measures of what the test is designed to measure
Trashcan Test
Chapter 5
Criticisms of IQ Tests
Narrowness of content– Assessing a very limited set of skills
Content and administration do not sufficiently take into account cultural variations and may discriminate against minorities
Chapter 5
IQ and Success
IQ scores predict success in school with some accuracy– Require similar kinds of motivation, attention,
perseverance and test-taking ability
Attitudes and Beliefs– Self-fulfilling prophecy– Teachers may encourage students with high IQs more than
other students
IQ scores tend to predict success after people finish their schooling
Chapter 5
Outline
Building Blocks of ThoughtProblem SolvingDecision MakingIntelligence and Mental AbilitiesHeredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Chapter 5
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Is intelligence inherited, or the product of environment?
Chapter 5
Heredity
Scientists use studies of identical twins to measure the effects of heredity in humansWhen identical twins are raised in different families, they tend to have very similar test scores– Similarity is much greater than between non-twin siblings
who grow up in the same environment
Adopted children have IQ scores more similar to their biological mothers than the mother raising them
Chapter 5
Correlations of IQ Scores and Family Relationships
Chapter 5
Environment
Genes provide a base, but experience plays an important role in the development of intelligence– Nutrition– Human interaction– Intellectually stimulating environments– Socioeconomic status (SES) of parents
Chapter 5
Intervention Programs
Can intervention programs that enhance the environments of impoverished children have a positive impact on their IQ?Head Start– Focuses on preschoolers (3-5 years old) from low-income
families– Provides children with some educational and social skills
before they go to school– Provides information about nutrition and health to both
children and their families– Head Start school graduates tend to stay in school longer
and more likely to graduate from college– Long-term effects of Head Start does boost cognitive
abilities, but they may be modest or short-term
Chapter 5
Understanding the Interaction of Heredity & Environment
Is one more important than the other?– Depends on the IQs being compared– Group differences in IQ scores might be due to
environmental factors– Differences among people within groups could be due
primarily to genetics
50% of the differences in intelligence are due to genetics and 50% due to environment and education
Chapter 5
Extremes of Intelligence
The IQ’s of nearly 70% of the general population fall between 85 and 115All but 5% of the population have IQ’s between 70 and 130Extremes of intelligence– Mental Retardation– Giftedness
See IQ examples
Chapter 5
Mental Retardation
Condition of significantly subaverage intelligence combined with deficiencies in adaptive behavior25% of cases – especially the more severe forms of retardation - appear to have genetic or biological disorders– Phenylketonuria (PKU):
– The liver fails to produce an enzyme necessary for brain development
– Fragile-x syndrome: – Due to a defect in the X chromosome
– Down syndrome– Results from a defect on chromosome 21
Chapter 5
Levels of Mental Retardation
Refer back to Webslice
Chapter 5
Giftedness
Refers to superior IQ combined with demonstrated or potential ability in such areas as academic aptitude, creativity, and leadershipGifted people do not necessarily excel in all mental abilitiesSometimes they are gifted in one area without being gifted in othersResearch does not support the stereotype that they have poor social skills and are emotionally maladjusted
Chapter 5
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objectsHow is creativity measured?– Scores are based on the originality and number of a
person’s answers– Remote Associates Test (RAT)
– Asks people to relate three apparently unrelated words
Study of creativity demonstrates mental abilities are – complex and multi-faceted– Linked to personality dimensions and motivational levels
Chapter 5
Chapter Review
Building Blocks of Thought– What steps do we go through to turn a thought into a
statement?– What role do images play in thinking?– How do concepts help us think more efficiently?– How do language, thought and culture influence each
other?
Chapter 5
Chapter Review
Problem Solving– Why is representing the problem so important to finding an
effective solution?– Why is an algorithm often better for solving a problem than
is the process of trail and error?– How can a “mental set” both help and hinder problem
solving?
Decision Making– How would you go about making a truly logical decision?– How can heuristic approaches lead us to make bad
decisions?
Chapter 5
Chapter Review
Intelligence and Mental Abilities– What are some of the major theories of intelligence?– What kinds of intelligence tests are in use today?– What are some important characteristics of a good test?
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence– Why are twin studies useful in studying intelligence?– What have we learned from early intervention program
about the influence of the environment on intellectual development?
– What do psychologists know about the two extremes of human intelligence: very high and very low?
– What is creativity?