Cognitive LoA

MEMORY

Thought to ponder and Discuss…

From what you have learned thus far, or from personal

experience, do you think all memories are stored in the same way? Why or why not?

Types of Memory & Encoding

How many types of memory do you think exist?

Name & describe themEncoding: Converting stimuli/information so it can be stored within the brainWhat about types of encoding?

Types of Memory

Iconic (Visual)Echoic (Auditory)

Flashbulb Memory: A vivid memory of an emotional event

Prospective and Retrospective Memory (NOT IN YOUR BOOK!)

Prospective Memory: remembering to do something in the futureEx. I need to remember to get my wife an anniversary gift.

Retrospective Memory: remembering you already did something in the pastEx. I already got my wife an anniversary gift

Context Effects Memory Retrieval

Context-dependent memory: Being able to retrieve information better when you are in the same context you learned it in.

Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory: State-Dependent Memory: information is

most easily recalled when in same “state” of consciousness it was learned in.

Mood Congruent Memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood.

Types of Encoding

There are three or four main types of encoding: Acoustic encoding is the processing and encoding of

sound, words and other auditory input Visual encoding is the process of encoding images and

visual sensory information. Tactile encoding is the encoding of how something feels,

normally through the sense of touch. Semantic encoding is the process of encoding sensory

input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a particular context, rather than deriving from a particular sense.

http://www.human-memory.net/index.html

Process of Encoding: 2 Types

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

unconscious encoding of incidental information space time frequency

well-learned information word meanings

we can learn automatic processing reading backwards

Automatic Processing (Type 1)

Automatic Processing: Reading Backwards

Reading backwards requires effort at first but after practice becomes automatic.

.citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE

Automatic processing allows us to do multiple things at once and re-illustrates the concept of parallel processing.

Effortful Processing (Type 2)

Effortful Processing: type of encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Ex: Learning new vocabulary terms, memorizing historical events/chronology, etc.

Encoding can be aided by maintenance rehearsal: simple rote repetition of information in consciousness or even more successfully by elaborate rehearsal: processing of information for meaning which can more easily help produce long term memories.

King of Memory Experiments:Hermann Ebbinghaus

Wanted to research capacity of verbal memory.

Looked to study to see capacity of peoples’ memories to study strings of non-sense syllables.

Ex: JIH, FUB, YOX, XIR,

Findings of Ebbinghaus”

1. Practice makes perfect. The more rehearsal he did on day 1, the less rehearsal it took to learn the syllables again on day 2. Overlearning increased retention (overlearning effect)

2. The Spacing Effect: the tendency for studying over a long period of time produces better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. SPACED STUDYING BEATS CRAMMING!!!

3. Serial Position Effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Ex: Presidents

Explaining the Serial Position Effect

Primacy Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the beginning of a list since these are often the terms we have seen the most when reviewing.

Recency Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the end of the list a since these are the terms we have seen most RECENTLY.

MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN.

Retrieval Cues: Reminders associated with information we are trying to retrieve

Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations of memory.

Distributed practice: Spreading memorization out over several sessions (BEST)

Massed practice (AKA Cramming): One session

Mnemonic devices: ROY G BIVMethod of Loci: Association of words on a

list with visualization of places on a familiar path

Peg word mnemonic: 1st memorizing a scheme and then mentally picturing items

Memory Retrieval

Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. Ex: fill in the blank, essay questions

Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned. Ex: multiple choice, matching

Reconstruction of Memories: Retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, losing, or changing details to fit a schema Often memories have missing pieces thus

resulting in reconstruction Loftus’ car crash experiment

Forgetting

Forgetting is a result of either:1. Encoding Failure

Not paying attention to certain stimuli (selective attention)

2. Storage Decay Gradual fading of the physical memory trace Neural connections are no longer there

3. Retrieval Failure from LTM

o Relearning: A measure of retention of memory that assessed the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again

o *if relearning takes as much time as the initial learning, the information has decayed

Motivated ForgettingMotivated Forgetting is the idea that people

unknowingly revise their history. Ex: I broke up with her; she didn't break up with

me.

What purpose might motivated forgetting serve?

Motivated Forgetting: A Freudian Concept

Repression: idea put forth by psychoanalytic theorists like Freud which states anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories can be banished from consciousness.

Ex: child abuse, rape, incest may be repressed and not be able to be actively recalled.

Freud believed Repression was a Defense Mechanism

Freud argued: individuals often “forgot” traumatic incidents to

protect their self concepts and to minimize external anxiety.

“Forgotten” incidents are banished the “unconscious.” With proper therapy, patience, and effort, these

memories can be retrieved

The incidents may cause you to have unexplained phobias or problems, that won’t be helped until you uncover the incident

Controversy of Repressed Memories

Although there have been documented cases of forgotten trauma, many psychologists argued that some repressed memories may have been constructed by therapists.

The False Memory Syndrome Foundation: argues it is possible for individuals relationships to center around a false belief.

Some psychologists have argued against the very existence of repressed memories since most memories that take place during stressful events are remembered more vividly.

Elizabeth Loftus: Opponent of Freud

Disagrees that memories are remembered during therapy but rather the action of reconstruction of memories

Reconstruction: Retrieval that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to complete a picture from incomplete stored information

Confabulation: Process of combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you are trying to remember Questioning and other confusing inconsistencies during eyewitness

testimonies lead to confabulationMisinformation effect: Incorporation of misleading

information into memories of a given event Misattribution error (source amnesia): Forgetting what

really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval which results in confusing where we attained the information from.

Interference

Interference: Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference: disruptive

effect of prior learning on recall of new information (old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories)

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference: disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information (new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories)

Tip of the Tongue phenomenon: when we are certain we know something yet we are unable to recall it. Relates to retrieval failure, usually priming or external

cues will help you recall the information you are looking for.

Videos for your viewing pleasure

The Memoriad!Clive Wearing:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2YGabby (The Girl Who Doesn’t Feel Pain)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1vLsZ_dXFAg (20/20)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRaCFUtpxFU

(Where is she now?)