contents - transilvania university of brașovwebbut.unitbv.ro/bu2009/buletin2009/series viii/buletin...

CONTENTS

ART STUDIES ...................................................................................................7

Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and ”The Personal

History” of a Composer ........................................................................................9

Bostan, M. C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of the

20th Century……………………………………………………………………….. 17

Demenescu, V. L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century

from the Perspective of the Main Representatives of the Musical Culture from

Banat, the Romanian and European Musical Culture ......................................... 21

Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music......................................................... 27

Măniut, P. M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music. ..................................... 31

Niresteanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education

Pupils. ................................................................................................................ 37

Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Modern

Composition School ........................................................................................... 41

Petrescu, A. R.: Robert Wilson or Time and Immovability.. .......................................... .45

Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem. ............................................. .49

Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue (part II), a Parallel between Vocal Therapy

Exercises and Vocalization-Proposal. ................................................................. 55

Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contemporaneity in the Dragaica ................................... 61

łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music..................................................... 67

Vârlan, P. M.: The Hexa- and Heptacord Modal System in T. Ciortea’s Piano

Compositions. .................................................................................................... 73

SPORT STUDIES ................................................................................................... 79

Albulescu, E.: The Suffering Musician A Position Paper on Music-Related Injuries

and their Relationship to Sports Injuries............................................................. 81

Cioroiu, S.G.; Moldovan, E.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health – A Current

Problem ............................................................................................................. 85

Chicomban, M.: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports

Training in the Basketball Game ....................................................................... 93

Enoiu, R.; Enoiu, R.S.: Dribble Improvements in Basketball Game through

Multimedia Means ............................................................................................ 101

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) – 2009 • Series VIII 6

Feşteu, D.; Balint, L.: Improving Pupils' Initiative Taking Capabilities through

Physical Education Lessons ............................................................................. .107

Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From the Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of the

Explosive Muscular Force Specific to the Sprinter ............................................ 115

Martoma, A.: Non – Nutritional Natural Antioxidants ............................................... 119

Moldovan, E.; Cioroiu, S.G.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesitherapy in their

Correction ....................................................................................................... 127

Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport.............................................................................. 135

Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, G.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength Conversion

Training in Junior Sprint Events ....................................................................... 139

Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, M.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity Indicators

in 12-14 Year Old Children over One Athletics Competition Year ..................... 145

Simion, G.: Considerations on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game ......................... 151

Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects Children at the Age

of 10-14 years .................................................................................................. 157

Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and

Sports ............................................................................................................... 163

Authors Index ............................................................................................................ 169

ART STUDIES

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

POSSIBLE LINKS BETWEEN THE HISTORY OF SOUND AND THE PERSONAL HISTORY

OF A COMPOSER

LaurenŃiu BELDEAN

1

Abstract: ,The history of sound’, a notion which belongs to the composer Aurel Stroe, finds its correspondence in the temporal envelope of the acoustic

sound and it refers to its evolution in time, going through the three stages of

its existence: attack, sustainment and decay.

Key words: Stroe, history of sound, tuning systems, micro-intervals.

1 Composer.

Aurel Stroe shared with me, during some

discussions at the Busteni villa, some of

his thoughts, which resonate beyond art. In

his opinion, “the human being lays his

personal history, under multiple shapes, in

his creation”.

According to this affirmation and having

a proper knowledge of the semantic fields,

Stroe operates with the ,multiple shapes’,

which could be the forms of sounds, their

,history’.

The forms of sounds cannot be imagined

by Stroe as predestined monads, which are

condemned to temperance. For him, they

are ,tunings’, and the composition

technique through which the tuning of a

sonorous structure changes, in many of his

works, is interesting. The distinctive

patterns of these ,tunings’ are described by

the musical microtonal intervals of

different sizes, among which the most

preeminent are the commas.

To reinforce the argument about the

,tuning’ technique, we need to mention that

the composer calls on the sources of

inspiration coming from his childhood, a

period in which he found himself, through

predestination, accompanied by music:

“I listened in my childhood many times

to the peasants singing. In Urlati. There

were some girls, a group of 5-6 girls,

coming to the mountains for vintage, and

oh they sang, sir: some of them had more

vibrato, some others had less vibrato…

some of them simply attacked and held

the sound. This influenced me a great

deal. You can find all these influences in

my Oresteias, in Choephoroi...”

Stroe later transformed the experiences

of sound perception from the times of his

childhood into skills and the craft of

creation. He understood and reevaluated

the fact that through the oscillations of

intensity and frequency, shown in ,the

history of sound’, its pitch will distort

the sound: “if one heightens or lowers

[the pitch], the fact that something is not

tuned will be heard”. If, for example, a

structure carries on, at the beginning, in a

normal tuning, through these oscillations,

at a certain moment, in the same

structure, another tuning can be

encountered, and this one could fit a well

known tuning such as: the Pythagorean,

the Tibetan, or the Zarlinian tuning.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

10

An important influence for the creation of Stroe was the music of George Enescu.

In his scores, especially in his latest works

for piano and violin such as the suite

“Childhood Impressions” (in this context,

look for fragments from “The Well’s

Spring” or “Cradle Song”), or the Violin

Sonata No. 3 “In Folk Romanian

Character”, Stroe explores the meanings

of ,history’. In some fragments of these

works, the ,histories’, transformed into

color, have the permanent capacity of

narrating something new.

The Violin Sonata No. 3 seems to be

among the first works in the history of

music which expects the interpreter to

create a ,personal history’; the musical

work has the interpreter look for a certain

sound through his fingering technique. In

this way, the interpreter has the possibility

to touch the pitch and the color a priori

imagined.

In his pages, Enescu changes with great

ingenuity the techniques of attacking the

sound, maintaining it within the same

parameters, and accessing a microtonal

interval zone, in its interior. For example,

he succeeds to modify the effect of a

passage evoking the blowing of the wind

through attacking the sound each time in a

different way, diversifying thus, different

parameters in ,the history’ of a particular

sound.

The impregnation of sound with

liveliness, with ,history’, cannot appear but

within this compositional option. In the tonal, or serial (dodecaphonic) music,

where its form is almost callous, through

the conviction to temperance, the ,history’

is absent.

In musical practice, the conception and

the performance of music uses only

unchangeable, standard tones, c, d, e, f, g,

a, b; thus, it is possible to play only on 7

steady pitches (or swaras, as musical notes

are named in Indian music). This is already

known since the researcher Alain Danielou

presented in his work “Le semantique

musicale” a table of the subtle intonation

deformations, which, according to

Danielou, are perceived by our psyche as

privileged points (easily perceivable), and

which are situated on the axe of the

sonorous continuum. He discovered and

determined the existence of a multitude of

swaras, classifying and placing in the table

all the existing intervals in the European

and extra-European musical practice.

Sustaining the existence of perception at

the level of our psyche, the author gave

them a formal model, showing that these

could, in fact, be constructed by the

Pythagorean relations (which are easiest to

be remembered by our psyche: the

multiples of 2, 3 and 5). He affirms that the

sounds of the temperate European system

are lifeless, and illusory.

This assertion seems somewhat hilarious,

since we know that people have operated

for centuries with such “illusory” sounds,

these standing at the foundation of the

master sonatas of Beethoven, Brahms and

other composers of temperate, tonal works.

The traditional vocabulary and grammar

references (tonal, serial and neo-modal

references) do not allow the composers to

trouble themselves to use more than 12

sonorous elements; nor do these references

allow to attain the ethos of these elements

completely. Following the deadlock ,which

resulted as a consequence of the uniformity

of the vocabulary, composers try to make up for the deficit of the ,temperate’ ethos,

through the emphasis of secondary

parameters in the sound’s instrumentation

like, for example, its emission with a

certain intensity and a certain attack

modality (sweet or less sweet sound). This

produces in the sonorous conscience of the

listener the specific difference, afferent to

a certain affective zone (zone present in

the interaction among these vocabulary

elements).

Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and …

11

Classical and dodecaphonic composers

present, through their scores, a

unidirectional mode of conceiving and

perceiving sonority. It is, thus, clear that a

temperate d sound will sound different

from an attacked d. But through this

distinction we can discover only half the

truth because, in fact, none of the

composers using this vocabulary has

started the rigorous work of studying all

sounds under the aspect of their ,history’,

and no scientific research has been led to

permit the exact observation of quality.

A supplementary explanation to Stroe’s

assertion that “the human being lays his personal history, under multiple shapes, in

his creation” permits us to imagine what

meant for George Enescu the experience of

those times, of the contact with the

fiddlers’ song, either when he listened to

them on his native lands, or when he was

around them during his stay in Paris. The

fact that violins produce, above all, non-

temperate sounds is well known; for a

violin, music is represented by the notes B,

C, D, E, F, G, A, H, which are the same

notes used by any European musician.

Each time they play what they have to

play, however, through deviation, they put

together, on an ad hoc basis, a multitude of

swaras which results from the specific

notes. In the interstice between the formal

object (represented by notes) and the real

sonorous image, the special ethos can be

found, which the violinists drag to the

surface in a matchless way.

Starting from the reality given by the

non-temperate entities, in the two works of

Enescu appear some features of the

musical form: the differentiation between

note as a musical notation element and

sound.

It is necessary to understand that notes

are poorer in meaning than sounds because

they always appear schematically (as any

written sign). We can say that a note is the

formal expression of a sound (translated

into sound; a note can become a sonorous

image). The notes cannot be ,music’ but in

the moment of instrumentally displaying

the structure the notes describe, the

sonorous restoration occurs only through

notes transformed into sounds.

The sounds themselves take a completely

different meaning, which is the effect of

the translation of notes into sonorities. The

sound appears in the act through ,history’,

succeeding in this way to control through

analyzing the temporal envelope (which

can be pictured as an oscillograph giving

the frequencies' coordinate system to the

intensities of the partial components of that sound).

In all the scores of the past centuries, but

also in many contemporary scores, a sound

can only be fixed through a note. From

here results the distinction appearing in the

German theoretic interpretation, which

associates a musical tone (der Ton) to a

written note (in whichever sonorous

system), while a sound (der Klang) is

viewed as a sum of associated notes, a

configuration made up of multiple

sonorous elements. Thus, the “Klang”

notion can be attributed to a chord or

cluster, but it cannot be mistaken for a

“Ton”, which follows a singular sound, its

given image through a written note. The

reality, according to which, in classical

composition, the sound we hear is equal to

the written note on the paper, has not been

conceived only for the practice of

composers, but also for the manufacturers

of musical instruments. The manufacturers

wanted to temperate the intervals, which

had been, until that time, non-temperate (it

suffices to mention only the ones

belonging to the Zarlinian intonation

system). Through tempering all intervals

appeared the possibility of writing on

paper the chromatic scale, which

represents all notes which can be used by a

European composer. We point out the fact

that ,the personal history’ of the composers


12

that subscribe to using the temperate-

chromatic scale is, in general, a history of

the fixation of a sonorous construction.

We have mentioned already the

connection between the written note and

the sound in the music of any given

composer (Bach, Haydn, Mozart and

Beethoven). It is the prototype of the

composer that draws up the sounds of

tonalities through notes (and other signs).

The composers of those times could not,

however, fix into scores the ethos

associated to the notes, which is, in fact, part of the sounds. Grammar gave them

only the possibility to write some of these

notes (the most important ones).

The ethos of sonorities can, however, be

imagined and deduced from notes in

different ways: the formal structures,

which are generally dynamic, are suited to

be analogized to some play characters;

these characters do not have an existential

status only because they are built on

temperate-chromatic pitches criteria. They

are ontologisms, ,histories’, because they

exhibit the formation of a great idea (of

existential, philosophic, religious nature).

Thus, in the art of sounds, a familiar way

through which the human being displays,

concerning the great classics, his personal

history’, under multiple forms can be, for

example, the multiple ways to present the

musical material: the expositive sonata

forms in which, in the real execution,

deviations from the composer’s tablature

use to take place.

One can easily observe that ,the personal

history’ of the classical creator recurs to

the myth of ,the eternal coming back’. The

procedure of the imitative polyphony is an

example for this, with the models held by

the fugue form. Some other examples are

offered especially by the sonata and

symphony genres, in which the extreme

movements (Allegro) have a sonata form,

and where the expositive section is

repetitive.

One can observe in instrumental sonatas,

rather than in symphonies, how frequent

the manner of perturbation of the initial

model appears. In the moment in which the

exposition continues (when the music

begins again, after the repetition sign), it

continues the harmonic-melodic pattern of

the first exposition, but with small

transformations of the relations between

notes, and thus, by changing sounds. Here

appears, in continuous emancipation, the

procedure of ornamental variation.

The skill of the classic creators, to handle the pattern of discourse (the 0 moment and

the final ,coming back’, at the same

moment), belongs to the attributions of the

musician interpreter (either conductor or

instrumentalist); we recognize the source

of this practice from the experiences

described by the history of music: an array

of harpsichord and violin players, like

those from the 17th

century (Giuseppe

Tartini, Pietro Locatelli and others),

created in time (until the moment when

Nicolo Paganini appeared as an excellent

virtuoso) schools specialized in

instrumental improvisation.

Concerning the act of vocal performance,

related to the ,sound as searching

typology’ (which is to be discovered by

Enescu and some of his contemporaries),

we want to give another example which

differs from the norm: the graphics of the

pitches from the scores. In the time of the

classic opera composers Vincenzo Bellini,

Gaetano Donizzeti and Giaccomo Puccini,

singers knew how to attack a sound, even

if they had to look on a score with notes

written in the temperate system.

One can, therefore, assume that

interpretation has always belonged to the

nature of artist. By modifying indications

appeared the tiny differences among the

above mentioned ,swaras’, differences

between the pitches of notes. Since then,

there have been respected, through

tradition, some rules for sounds which do


13

not exist for notes; the simple notes (B, C,

D, E, F, G, A, H) are those which reiterate

in whichever intonation system (be it non-

temperate or temperate). The ethos of a

melody modifies unconditionally from one

,tuning’ (intonation system) to another,

which makes perceivable the fact that the

sound has always been a variable which

can take multiple possible values, while

the note has remained the invariable

element to which multiple sonorous

correspondences can be attributed. This is

only perceivable during interpretation,

when the artist on stage defines the dogma

given by the grammar and vocabulary of the temperate system, a grammar and a

vocabulary of notes, especially. Under this

aspect, the classical grammar can be

considered imperfect or incomplete.

We must bind the constructive

consistence of the musical form,

encountered at the classics, with the

interpretation of the musician that steps

into the concert hall with his own ,history’.

Through his level of understanding, the

musician gives life to the notes, to the

,personal histories’ displayed by them: the

,Bachian’, ,Mozartian’ or the

,Beethovenian’ history. The transfer from

notes to sounds can manifest in different

ways. This can only be possible through

the fact that the interpreter mentions an

authentic dictionary of ,sounds-ideas’,

which are only his, transforming the

existence of the written form in the

existence of the sensible form, musically

accurate and dynamic. Through the

interpretation that he offers, there can be

made qualitative analogies and

differentiation among the types of

,personal histories’ of the composers

displayed in the scores.

The integration of the interpretative act

in the codified creation by a score of notes

leads us to discovering another face of

Aurel Stroe’s statement, for whom there is

a singular form of thinking: that of

fixation, univocal and ,temperate’, through

which the ,personal history’ becomes

objective. Through the interpretative act,

the sound modifies constantly, detaching

itself from the notes (from the starting

schemes), even if the reality of the score is

presented in the relation note-sound.

Without an authentic interpretation, they

could seem ,poor’, but confronted with an

abstract projection, with a virtual, more

suggestive image, which is richer in

semantics, another image is invented by

the intelligence of the modern musician in

the 20th

century. Pictured in this way,

presented by a more complex grammar than the classic one (which would have

enabled another kind of enrichment field

for these ,histories’), the ,personal

histories’ of a composer could manifest in

a different way at the level of what is noted

and given than at the level of musical

semantics.

An envy-sparking fact is to be remarked,

which is almost unbearable for the need of

the modern-day creator: without the ethos

of the ,musical words’, the 18th

, 19th

and,

partially, 20th

century composer subdued to

the univocal construction relation existing

between note and sound, which enclosed

him; he laid his ,personal history’ in

manuscripts of a remarkable conceptual

consistence, turned immortal through their

strength of expression.

In the 20th

century, however, a change

occured, concerning the interpretation of

the noted work and ,the personal history’

of an artist. Following the appearance of

the interest for ethnomusicology and

folklore, the composers of the national

schools and the folklorists discovered in

their research field a multitude of melodies

which could no longer be noted according

to the exact correspondence note-sound,

present at the classical composers.

An example of this new perspective is

encountered at Béla Bartók, who wrote the

pitches of the sounds with special


14

alterations, looking for additional

notations. Already at Bartók, the relation

between note and sound does not resemble

anymore to the one employed by the

grammar of the classical composers. This

is due to the wave of oral tradition in

written creation (look for the functional

notation of the micro intervals in his

Carrols). We can argue that Bartok bridges

the natural gap between the interpreter’s

intuition and the composer’s strict way of

noting. Alike George Enescu, Bartók

explains the preexistent notation system. Being very close to the artist’s conscience,

he no longer writes notes in his scores, but

intentional notes (semantics of the micro

intervallic type).

Bartok’s ,personal history’ infiltrated in a

creation situated at the balance of synthesis

of certain traditional languages accustomed

with the renewal generated by archetype-

folkloric Weltanschaung. It appears as

different, as very individualized, in

comparison to the ,predestined’ histories of

Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Wagner; in

this context, we only have to think of the

last three Bartokian string quartets.

Coming back to the Sonata No. 3 for

Piano and Violin by George Enescu, we

can observe that the relation note-sound

appears in a special way, the massive share

being given by the interpretation of the

text, which leads to the necessity of a

careful analysis of the construction aspects

of the work. Its structure resides in a

multitude of shapes acquired by sounds.

Here, we can distinguish sounds that are

imprecisely attacked, and which filter their

pitch on the way, as well as sounds which

are clearly attacked, which then lose

themselves in a flow, through sinking in

the continuum from which it came from:

we observe sounds which are clear from

the beginning to the end and, of course,

there are also the imprecise sounds. Apart

from these, some other sound categories

can be observed.

A moment from the third part can be

taken as an example, in which a sound

noted with a quarter of tone is discovered

and played on the d chord a little higher.

Through its position and the fingering

technique, chosen deliberately by Enescu,

this sound fluctuates, and produces a

sonority that, in our psyche, is intercepted

as a turbid feeling, as something reaching

for clearing.

Here appear micro-intervals, a category

of sonorous pitches, whose ,inhabitants’

take on morphism, applied between the steps of the intervals, which had been

codified from the 17th and 18th century in

the temperate European music, and which

have been used by all classic composers

(being then considered an ultimate

clarification of the ultimate acoustic

construction process of the vocabulary that

a musician could use).

Aurel Stroe links this morphism to the

revolutionary cultural-historic phenomena

which take place in music, and which have

established a perception and assimilation

paradigm, different from the classical one:

“The discovery of some extra-European

musical traditions: Asian, African music,

the music of the two Americas, led to

interesting observations concerning the

formation of musical scales, which all

seem to be different from the so-called

,temperate’ scale used by the European

musician. Surely, European music has

gained a lot through temperateness,

especially from the construction point of

view: we couldn’t have imagined neither

the symphonies of Mozart, nor

Beethoven’s string quartets, nor Richard

Wagner’s dramas, without a preliminarily

temperateness, without a precise

codification of sounds with which the

composer works. In the extra-European

music there is a greater variety of sounds

and, in addition, there is something very

important: the power to create semantemes

- minimal unities significant at the level of


15

relation between two sounds - and this is

obtained precisely through these micro-

intervals. Said in a simple manner: on a

piano, between the C-D notes only C sharp

exists, respectively D flat. In the extra-

European music, however, we encounter

other notes in the C-D interval, other

beside C sharp and D flat. This fact has

long been preserved in the European music

as well when certain instruments used to

be played like the violin, the cello, the

flute, but this was lost with time. But it

appears frequently in the extra-European

music being not just an empty virtuosity,

but linked - as I was saying - to powers to signify at very small levels”.

Looking at the quarter of tone categories

from the Sonata in folk Romanian

character, which presents an intonation

grammar through which the ,histories of

sound’ are being pushed towards

successive formation stages until their last

definition, Stroe makes certain

observations to Enescu’s mentality in

relation to those of other quarter of tone

theoreticians (who eluded the possibility of

the creation of semantemes through a

static, roughly productive division of tone):

„The Third Sonata seems the

reappearance of the micro-intervals after

several centuries of absence. I don’t know

exactly if Enescu is the first one to use

them again, my impression is that the

Czech Alois Haba intented this some time

before and I think that the Frenchman

Wyschnegradsky also. But these two

scholars started from an initial mistake:

they made a temperance based on quarters

of tones, this establishing certain errors

which make the perception of the sonorous

material difficult and destroy the semantic

effect concerning micro levels. These

errors appeared- let’s say- doubled, thus

multiplied in comparison with those of the

classic temperance. Enescu - maybe in an

intuitive manner - but with a vision out of

the ordinary - manages to use these micro-

intervals not as some temperate intervals

but as producers of new effects, as

producers of meaning at a very tiny level.

A quarter of sharp - for example - by

Enescu, doesn’t necessarily mean that the

specific note climbs up with the quarter of

temperate tone, but that the instrumentalist

is invited to look in that moment (in that

very moment when he plays the violin) a

certain point in which a musical interval is

happening - meaning that the pitch relation

between two sounds in which a new

expressive effect appears, like - let’s say -

an ,unusual word’, never before used until

then, and this ,word’, maybe evidently turn upside down at the highest levels the

whole grammar of the respective section.”

The study of this aspect should also be

integrated into a sonorous structure

analysis: it is the material with which the

composer works and which represents the

,history’ enciphered by him.

“If for the classical music the sound is a

given thing, a constant lasting as long as

the sound, in Enescu’s music the sound

becomes a variable, it becomes more

flexible. A sound can be attacked higher,

then lowered, the again risen - and not

necessarily in glissandi forms,

schematically enough - (as modern music

sometimes teaches us), but in some fine

undulations, very rich - in the length of a

sound. From electronic music we know the

fact that a sound can be changed from

multiple points of view: it can be changed

as attack, it can be changed as form, thus it

can fluctuate from diverse points of view

in a given time; it can be changed from the

point of view of its relation with the

surroundings - in which it manifests itself ,

and thus the outer envelope (,history’) of

the sound can be changed, factors like its

intensity can be changed, timbre variations

can be obtained on the same sound, and

evidently, from all these variations

different combinations can rise, which

practically leads to endless possibilities to


16

modify, to vary, to give life to a sound.

This leads to some sort of continuum in

this variation, continuum which links to

the idea of psychological continuum

created by its musical form. He creates

sonorous forms, lied-forms, he makes

variation-forms, - all kinds of forms

(having a predilection though for the

sonata-form). But his forms never appears

obvious when listened to, the cuts

(discontinuities) are blurred by the

continuous flux.”

Alike Aurel Stroe’s saying, from which I started, the way to grasp the semantics of

the art work and the complexity between

,the history of sound’ and ,the personal

history’ of the composer (both contained in

different quantities in the musical work)

have to be rethought and completed again

ontologically, at multiple levels, together

with the content of the score, to

reestablish, through the dynamism of

conscience, the musical composition

identity.

References

1. Vieru, Anatol. Cartea Modurilor. Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1980.


1 Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Braşov.

THE CONCERTIZING SPIRIT IN THE

EUROPEAN MUSIC IN THE FIRST

HALF OF THE 20TH

CENTURY

Maria Cristina BOSTAN1

Abstract: A preference of the 20

th century composers is to be noticed not only

in the combination of the symphonic with the concertizing elements (Prokofiev, Honegger, Enescu) but also in the impregnation of the compact orchestra assembly (symphonic or chamber orchestra) with specific concertizing elements, thus developing the genre of ‘concerto for the orchestra’. The rapport between the soloist and the orchestra changes in direct connection to the configuration of the form in which the concertizing compositions are made up: if the latter consist of structures of the classical form, the soloist instrument is attributed the leading role. The soloist instrument is integrated in the symphony (starting from the transformation of the musical soloist discourse into a symphony within the instrumental concerto), in Prokofiev’s (Concerto Symphony for Cello and Orchestra opus 125, 1953) and Enescu's creation (Concertizing Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, 1901).

Key words: concertizing spirit, European music of the 20th century.

After the supremacy held within the framework of the instrumental-soloist concerto by piano and violin (besides assigning the soloist role to the cello and to other wind and brass instruments, such as: the flute, the oboe, the clarinet, the bassoon, the horn), in the 20

th

century the composers extend the soloist's instrumental range, orienting to instruments such as the viola (Batrók, Hindemith), the trumpet, the saxophone (Debussy and Milhaud compose a rhapsody and a concerto for saxophone and orchestra, alongside with Astor Piazzolla), the clavichord or the Martenot waves (André Jolivet). The timbre range diversifies both on the soloist plan and within the symphonic assembly by the soloist individualization of an instrument or group of instruments, accomplished by virtuosity or increased expressivity, integrated in the thematic discourse.

One witnesses in the 20th

century the spreading of the concertizing genre in the composers’ creation, by the enrichment of the elements of technical difficulty. The

concertizing virtuosity reflects on the entire orchestra assembly in whose structure the soloist instrument is, most of the times, an “integrated” voice. The new tendencies of the dodecaphonism of the Second Viennese School become concrete in Schönberg and Berg’s concertos and will also influence the creation of the composers belonging to the national modern schools (Stravinski, Batrók, Prokofiev). The creation of the composers of the national schools reveal the structure of the composing language based on neo-modals, triggered by the melodic content with folklore influence. The tonal-modal synthesis in their creation contains “generating archetypal modal cells” (oligochords, pentatones, hexatones) characteristic of the popular modes.

The soloist instrumental concerto preserves the coordinates of form and the conditions of the harmonic amplitude (from abundant chromatics to atonalism).

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII 18

The structure of the soloist instrumental concerto is different from a composer to another, still preserving the classic patterns bi-, tri-, and quadripartite (as I shall try to prove further on). Some baroque structures such as Passacaglia, Fugue, Aria can be resumed.

In Max Reger’s creation, one can meet quotations from the protestant chorals (the second part of the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra opus. 114, 1910), the Concerto for Violin and Orchestra opus 101 (1908) is composed as an ample concertizing sonata. Similarly, Hans Pfiztner is responsible for the interference between the symphonic writing and the form of the theme with variations, in Concerto for Violin and Orchestra opus 34 (1924) and in Concerto for Piano and Orchestra in E flat major (1923) he distributes the working out of the themes both to the whole orchestra and the soloist instrument. Beginning with the second decade, the structure of the form and the compositional technique develop new aspects within the framework of the soloist concerto. Within the bi-, tri-, and quadripartite structures one can identify musical structures which are constituted on the polyphonic forms of baroque, the treatment of the musical elements (melody, rhythm, harmony, instrumental timbre modulations, dynamics, agogics), unique to the new musical orientation (expressionism, neoclassicism). For example, one can meet Passacaglia, Toccata and Aria as parts of the concerto (Schönberg, Stravinski, Şostakovici). Hindemith is, as I have already pointed out, an example for the re-evaluation of the concertizing genre of the baroque (Concerto Grosso). In this context, Hindemith, as well as the modern composers such as Poulenc, orients towards instruments such as the organ, the clavichord, the viola d’amore, the viola and the cello. The title changes in Kammermusic (Hindemith), Concertino (Stravinski, Honegger, Şostakovici) for miniatures, whose dominant instrumental character is part of the concertizing spirit, Capriccio (Igor Stravinski, Capriccio for piano) and

Fantasy (Claude Debussy – Fantasy for piano and orchestra, 1891, where the orchestra score is impregnated with soloist elements, the piano being treated as a “voice” integrated in the symphonic discourse, and Feruccio Busoni – Indian Fantasy for piano and orchestra, 1913). The accent falls on the motility characteristic of the instrument, with a focus on the emphasis of the soloist virtuosity with composers such as Batrók, Stravinski, Prokofiev (as presented lower) or with the composers from the “Group of the six” who resume the forms of the 18

th century (Germaine

Taillefère) in Concerto in D Major for Piano and Orchestra (1926), Darius Milhaud who, besides the Concerto for Saxophone and Orchestra (1938), with jazz and south-American elements, composes also a series of concertos for piano and orchestra, études, spiritually and humorously written, and André Gedalge, who composes the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra opus 16 in C Minor. We meet a symbiosis of elements characteristic to the soloist and rhapsodic concerto (Ravel, Rhapsody – Concerto Tzigane, 1924), between concerto and the symphonic poem or fantasy. The score of the orchestra accompaniment is written either for a great symphonic assembly, for a chamber orchestra (Hindemith, Şostakovici), or for wind instruments (Kurt Weil – Concerto for Piano and Woodwinds, and Igor Stravinski with his Concerto for Piano and Wind Instruments, 1924). Within the framework of impressionism, French composers such as Debussy and Ravel focus on the concertizing style, Debussy composing the Fantasy for Piano and Orchestra (1935) amply developing the symphonic discourse, and Maurice Ravel, the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra: № 1 in G Major and № 2 in D Major for the left hand (1935) which I will present further on.

The return to the old art, especially for the polyphonic constructions and the modal language, is reflected by Ottorino Respighi in the Gregorian Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (1921) and in the Mixolidian Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1922). In

Bostan, M.C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of … 19

contrast to the modal preoccupations of some composers such as Respighi, the dodecaphonic technique was adopted by Alban Berg in Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (1935) and Arnold Schönberg in Concerto for Violin and Orchestra opus 36 (1936), a threefold work, and Concerto for Piano and Orchestra opus 42 (1942), a fourfold work, with strong contrasts between the assembly and the soloist.

By synthesizing the already introduced aspects and summarizing the issues related to the evolution of the instrumental soloist concerto, one pictures the diversity of the options which refer either to the compositional writing or to the instruments for which the concertizing works are composed. Starting from the “classic” instruments, the concertizing works address such instruments as: the saxophone, the panpipe, the bandoneon, the clavichord, and the Marternot waves.

The concertizing spirit reflects on the symphonic and chamber genre also by the symbiosis among the particular characteristics of these genres (the instrumental soloist virtuosity of the assembly’s compartments, with a strong individualization of the timbre, the complementary thematic discourse within the symphonic assembly, the increase or reduction of the assembly and the direct involvement of the soloist instrument in the symphonic discourse). The new language is experimented by A. Jolivet in Concerto for Marternot waves (1947). André Jolivet is a modern composer who pays special attention to the instrumental soloist concerto, composing a significant number of the following works: Concerto for Piano (1951), 2 concertos for trumpet (1948, 1954) Concerto for Percussion (1958), 2 concertos for cello (1962, 1966) and Concerto for Violin (1972). The French composer achieves a vocal-symphonic symbiosis in Concerto for Soprano and Orchestra – Songe nouveau rêvé (1971). The constructivist technique and the mathematization of the musical language are reflected in Concerto for Keqrops Piano

(1986) by I. Xenakis. Composers such as Bartók, Stravinski, and Lutoslawski address also the orchestra assembly which they enrich with concertizing elements specific to the instrumental soloist style, by individualizing the instrumental timbre and the highlighting within the assembly of the individual soloists marked by virtuosity.

A preference of the 20th century

composers is to be noticed not only in the combination of the symphonic elements with the concertizing ones (Prokofiev, Honegger, Enescu) but also in the impregnation of the compact orchestra assembly (Symphony or chamber) with specific concertizing elements, thus, developing the “concert for orchestra”. The relationship between the soloist and the orchestra changes according to the configuration of the form in which the concertizing work is made: if it is based on classic forms, the soloist instrument is attributed the main role without the orchestra’s being, its mere accompaniment support and the harmonic and modular atmosphere, this representing also a means of support and technical work. The soloist instrument is integrated in the symphony as well (starting from the transformation into a symphony of a soloist musical discourse in the framework of an instrumental concerto), in Prokofiev’s creation (Concerto Symphony for Cello and Orchestra opus 125, 1953) and Enescu (Concertizing Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, 1901).

Together with Prokofiev and Şostakovici, the concerto for the soloist instrument is also of interest for the Russian composers Aram Haciaturian and Dmitri Kabalevski.

Known for his symphonic music and his ballet suite, Aram Haciaturian (1904-1978) dedicates soloist concertos to piano, viola and cello where he uses the resources of the Armenian folklore from the perspective of the genre’s modernity.

Dmitri Kabalevski (1904-1987) as a representative of the Russian music avant-garde, together with Haciaturian and Şostakovici (although he is forced to blame the dodecaphonism), composes 3 concertos for

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII 20

piano and orchestra (1936-1937), the Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (1940), and the Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1946).

The instrumental virtuosity predominates both in the construction of the soloist score and in the one of the concertizing instrument, by impregnating the symphonic discourse with specific elements (ample passages in an improvisational style or of an increased proportion and technical difficulty) and the individualization of the instruments in the assembly. The rapport between the orchestra and the soloist instrument can change by the equal involvement of the two partners in the development of the symphonic dramaturgy. The soloist instrument tends to be considered a “voice” in the symphonic assembly and the characteristics of the soloist instruments, of individual assertion and virtuosity, are to be found in the orchestra assembly as well.

In the Romanian music of the 20th century,

the composers, starting from George Enescu’s example and using elements of the traditional popular songs, resort to the stylization of the folkloric material, capitalizing the melodic-rhythmic characteristics of authentic song and dance. Even when they use compositional modern techniques, Romanian composers introduce modal elements within the rigorous serial organization.

Starting with 1950, the concertizing creation is based on the synthesis of forms and includes a variety of musical languages, from tonalism to serialism and modalism (Paul Constantinescu and Sigismund ToduŃă). Despite these contributions, one can notice that harmony still constitutes a main element. Similarly, the role of the soloist instrument in the genre has, in relation to the orchestra, a different contribution. Either it manifests as a foreground element, as a soloist voice, or it is assimilated in the orchestra assembly. The seventh decade brings along the tendency to dissipate the melodic substance to promote the timbre punctualism where the technical effects of the instrumental writing represent an important means the expression. The atmosphere, the musical idea, the expression are evasively suggested, without depriving

the musical substance of tension (by using flageolets, trills, tremolos, “col legno”, “sul tasto” effects) (A. Vieru, W. Berger).

If up to the 8th decade of the 20th century the interest of the Romanian composers headed mostly towards string instruments (violin, cello), currently it is decreasing for the concertizing genre generally. Some composers are heading towards viola and double bass (M. Moldovan, M. Marbé) [1].

Thus, the composers of the 20th century

continue to promote the instrumental soloist concerto in their creation, focusing on the expressivity of the instrumental timbre, on the amplitude of the traditional forms and the combination of the characteristics of the concertizing genre with symphonic principles. The role of the soloist instrument has an impact on the symphonic conception of the score as well.

The concertizing spirit is reflected in the 20th century as a tendency towards playfulness and the explanation and exhaustion of the technical-expressive resources of the instruments that are used. To the emancipation of the concertizing spirit has also contributed the new vision on instrumentation within the orchestra assembly; new research on rhythm, the music exterior to the European space (jazz, the music of the Extreme Orient), traditional folklore and electronic music. The symbiosis that the romantic composers achieved by transforming the concertizing score into a symphony, the individualization of the instruments in the symphonic assembly, as well as the enrichment of the symphonic works with concertizing elements has been amplified by modern musicians. The concertizing spirit from the creation of the composers of the 20

th century is transferred to

the symphonic or chamber assemblies and gains new stylistic coordinates.

References

1. Firca, L.C. Modernitate şi avantgardă

în muzica ante-interbelică a secolului XX (1900 - 1940). Editura FundaŃiei Culturale Române, 2002.


THE COMPOSITIONAL CONTEXT IN THE

FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH

CENTURY

FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE MAIN

REPRESENTATIVES OF THE MUSICAL

CULTURE FROM BANAT, THE

ROMANIAN AND EUROPEAN MUSICAL

CULTURE

V. L. DEMENESCU1

Abstract: This study follows the development lines, which attract the creations toward the rural folk music direction, the transformation of

original melodies (rural or lectern music) according to the affinities for the

neo-romantic, neoclassical, folkloric, impressionistic or expressionistic

orientations, characteristic to some representative creators.

Key words: modal harmony, musical language, dialects, popular melody.

1 Faculty of Music, Vest University of Timişoara.

1. Introduction

The 20th century, considered relevant as

regards the elaboration, the broadcasting,

and the knowledge of a new sonorous

world, is characterized by the detachment

of the major-minor functionality, in favor

of modal sonorities. The compositional

orientations, the currents and the directions

of the 20th

century can only be the result of

an upper musical endowment that helped

the European composers to succeed with

the force of their creations, and with a new

impulse, to cultivate a fertile ground for

the next generations [2], the ground of

music able to artistically and harmonically

absorb the features of traditional folklore.

Following the same ideal, because of the

folk melodic thesaurus, which was ready to

receive valorization, the Romanian

composers started off on a road of

renewals, managing to make spectacular

changes, due to the variety of possibilities

offered by the European musical idioms, at

the end of the 19th

and the beginning of the

20th

century, due to the relationships

between the Romanian composers and the

western musical environment, or due to

their studies at the western schools of

composition.

Comparing the initial data of the

autochthonous traditional Melos with the

studies made within the national school of

composition, one could notice the gradual

emancipation of stylistic processes [5].

The consequences of these new

directions are debated by Romanian

musicologists, who do not hesitate to call

the specialists’ and the public’s attention to

various studies, ample paper works with an

analytical character, thus offering a solid

basis regarding the historical and


22

progressive aspect of the original musical

creation.

Alongside the development of the two

segments of composition and of musicology,

the second half of the 19th century and the

beginning of the 20th century sustains the

necessary steps regarding the organization

of a new cultural society. The organization

of musical education was accomplished by

the foundation of the Conservatory for

Music and Declamation in Iaşi (1864) and of

the Conservatory of Music in Bucharest

(1864).

The main problem of the Romanian art

creators seems to be the cultivation of

modal harmony. Gavriil Musicescu and

Dumitru Kiriac form such stylistic

orientations, grafted and derived from the

two traditional lodes of Romanian song,

the folkloric, and the clerical.

Romanian music at the beginning of the

20th

century, with all its aspects, on the

level of the architectonic form and musical

languages, is the result of the interference

between West and East, between the

folkloric and cultured creation, between

laic and church music. Sonorously, the

consequence of the interference offers a

European language with diversified

aspects.

The connection of Romanian creation to

European creation of that period is made with

the common elements within the musical

language typologies, identified in the musical

creation of the national schools’ representatives. Thus, the modal harmony,

imposed through the polyvalent

functionalism as well as through modal

cadences, is met in Seven Songs on Lyrics by

Clement Marot, by George Enescu, in

Concert for String Orchestra, in Rustic

Entertainment, by Sabin Drăgoi (1894-1968),

and in The Christmas Byzantine Oratorio, by

Paul Constantinescu (1909-1963) [4].

The tritones with a double major-minor

aspect are also met in The Third Sonata for

Piano and Violin, by George Enescu; the

harmonies of fourth are present in

24 Popular Songs and Doinas, by Sabin

Drăgoi, and in the ballet At the Market, by

Mihail Jora (1891-1971); the

accompaniment and the modal cluster are

present in the suite Impressions from

Childhood, by George Enescu.

In the folkloric creation of a people, the

tune not only plays a very important role,

but it also represents the trace of mental

and historical structure of that people. This

affirmation is also valid for the Romanian

people and for the popular song born from

the people’s lives along centuries [6].

Gottfried Herder pleads in his work

“Concerns about the Philosophy of

Humankind” for the liberty of all nations

to express themselves in their own

languages. This shows that all nations have

their own national values, which define the

characteristic Melos that distinguishes

one's origins. Thus, within the expressive

framework of every people, music and

melody represent the basic elements for the

creation of the national specific, which is

passed off from one generation to another,

through the inherent evolutions that

metamorphose the human being and its

concepts.

The Romanian popular melody has its

roots in the cultural, social and

geographical evolution of the Romanian

people; their tumultuous history has

contributed with all kinds of influences to

creating the popular melody along time. It reflects the spirituality and artistic genre of

a nation, and many art personalities have

been interested in the deep beauty of

folklore.

The evolution of Romanian music leads

us to the conclusion that the popular

melody is at the basis of our musical

school. Our folkloric song entails a special,

unusual mystery, and it requires deep

knowledge to understand its meaning.

The expressive power of music comes

from the blending of verse and melody,

Demenescu, V.L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century 23

which are different from one region to

another. In order to not destroy the

authenticity and originality of customs of

certain regions, we must avoid certain

processes of deliberate and uncontrollable

obscuration of the specific of certain

folkloric melodies.

One knows that since ancient times,

people have built a series of popular,

rudimentary, or modern instruments, which

had the role to amplify the expressivity of

the used sonorous material, and to

complete it when it exceeded the

possibilities of the human voice. This led

to the crystallization of two distinct styles

in popular melody: the vocal and the

instrumental style.

The main characteristic of Romanian

popular music is that it is predominantly

vocal, the instrumental style being more

suitable for dance tunes, pastoral, and

fiddler’s songs.

Another important feature of Romanian

folklore is the idea and the horizontal

development of tune, the monody, which is

present when the tune is performed by a

group of interpreters.

In time, we notice a permanent

development of popular song, which

acquires new elements: ornaments,

melismas, a wider range, and dialectal

melodic formulas. These elements need a

colored harmony if they are included in the

professional creation, to keep the

expression of tunes significant. Because of the historical and social-

cultural circumstances, which have formed

the Byzantine religious music, adopted in

general by the South-East European

people, because of the various

heterogeneous influences, and because of

the autochthonous popular music

influences that have marked it [1], because

the different musical ideas of some of its

reformers, because of its oral circulation

for centuries, because of the deficiency of

notation systems as well as of

psychological determinants, which have

given it a certain physiognomy, Byzantine

religious music has been not only adopted,

but also adapted to various people,

according to their specific musical thinking

and feeling. Thus, it has received a new,

original expression and dimension, specific

to the people that have adopted it.

Generally regarded, all these people

form, from a clerical music’s point of

view, the same spiritual community, as the

last researches on compared South-East

European folklore show, each of them

contributing by their original and specific

aspects to the crystallization of their own

national church music.

The causes that have lead to forming

these national variants of the same original

Byzantine music are decisive; thus the

differences imposed by them are present

not only in each nation, but also within the

same nation, in small social communities

like villages. In other words, Byzantine

church music may show artistic expression

differences from one social unity to

another.

In fact, the variant of unity is an

aesthetical law known ever since Aristotle,

confirmed by various modern

experimented researchers, who have

proved that the lack of variation in unity

would lead to monotony and dullness. This

aesthetical law of variety in unity governs

the arts of all times, being expressed in

fine arts, in music, language, clothes, customs, etc. Therefore, no one has ever

thought to homogenize and generalize

dialects, popular music, or the clothes

specific to a region. Such an attempt would

not only create adverse reactions, it would

also be considered absurd.

Thus, referring to church music, not only

the national variants of Byzantine music,

but also the regional variants within the

same people, or its dialects, correspond

folkloric regions. Folkloric regions and

musical dialects do not only exist in our


24

country, Romania, but in all countries;

they are determined by the contribution of

the autochthonous element, specific as

expression of soul and spiritual community

to a social group [3]. Thus, for example, in

his work, entitled The Serbian Orthodox

Church Popular Song, which appeared

posthumously in 1969 at Beograd, the

Serbian bishop Stefan Lastavici establishes

numerous variants of local dialects

(napev), differing from one another in

richer or poorer melodic lines.

As regards our church music, one of the

most individualized local dialects is the

dialect from Banat, a dialect of great

artistic beauty, differing from other

dialects in its rich and varied melodic,

nuanced expressivity, as well as in the

organic interpenetration and unity between

the musical substance and the sacred

content of the text. Our church music, in

general, as well as the music from Banat,

has reached the present structure as a result

of a natural evolution, after it assimilated

all influences along centuries, which

created an entity of autochthonous

elements by spiritual needs specific to the

thinking and musical predisposition of our

people. In some regions, like in the old

Romanian counties, which have been

influenced by the Greek and Turkish

music, foreign influences have imposed in

a different way due to historical and social-

cultural circumstances; these

circumstances are different from the ones of the Romanian people from Ardeal and

Banat.

2. Modal Structures in the Byzantine

Cantata from Banat

The music performed in the Church of

the Orthodox Orient is known as

Byzantine music; musicologists and

historians of the modern era, those who

have focused their attention towards the

study of medieval arts, named it that. In

the first centuries of Christianity, the

church cantata had as model the

synagogue canticle, which had been

joined, along centuries, by the musical

influences of people from Minor Asia,

Syria, Antiochia, Armenia and the

Ancient Greece. Together with the

apparition and development of Christian

hymnography and with the passing of

time, the church canticle suffered a certain

synthesis, beginning to get a determined

specific. The creation and evolution centre

of canticle was Byzantium, the capital of

the East Empire; from here it spread

towards other great monarchal centers

from Greece, Mount Athos, Palestine,

Alexandria and the Romanian countries.

Along centuries, in the Romanian

countries, the Byzantine music was an

objective reality, an integrant part of the

art and culture of the Romanian people.

This specific art has been kept, developed

and passed off in a traditional spirit,

together with its manuscripts written by

Romanian copyist musicians, well-known

of the neumatic singing and writing, who

opened schools close to the great

monasteries in the country.

The human voice cannot be defined by

mode or tone notions, but by the

complexity of elements: the musical scale,

the genre to which it belongs to, the

sonorous system, the system of cadencies

and melodic formulas. Speaking of a

musical scale, we consider a fragment of scale, counting sometimes three, four, or

five sounds, and other times even going

beyond the octave. The groups of three,

four, or five sounds sometimes form

sonorous systems; from their chaining or

joining are created scales with a greater

range.

In psalm music, for example, the

systems of four or five sounds can be met

in the diatonic genre, as well as in the

chromatic genre. Their use slowly leads to

the forming of cadence systems

Demenescu, V.L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century 25

approximately specific to each voice, as

well as to the creation of a melodic

formula, determined by the melodic

tessitura, which appears between the basic

sounds of each voice: tonic and dominant

(this differs from voice to voice, or,

sometimes, from a category of canticles to

another, within the same voice).

The cadences and melodic formulas are

two categories of elements met in

Byzantine and Gregorian cultured music.

In cultured music, there are melodic

formulas that show, starting from different

heights, the same melodic tessitura. This

happens in psalm music with the seventh

and the eighth voice’s hymn.

The more the canticles spread orally, the

more typical the melodic formulas and the

cadences became. This phenomenon is

met in the entire lectern music. The

reduced number of melodic formulas

constraints the ones who perform this

music orally, making it seem, for the less

skilled people, poor and monotonous.

Terentiu Bugariu speaks about three

models in the church canticle from Banat:

the proper voice, called the voice itself,

the equivalent of verse style, the voice of

“stihoavna”, an Orthodox Church song,

and the hymn’s voice, which is similar to

the irmologic style.

Timotei Popovici affirms that each of the

eight voices usually has two or three tunes

approximately different, which in our

country are called the voice itself, the hymn’s tune and the antiphon’s tune. The

same division is made by Dimitrie

Cuntan, except the fact that he adds a

fourth tune called the “podobia”. Aurel

Popovici mentions the following patterns:

the voice’s tune, the antiphons’ tune, the

hymn’s tune and the “pobobia” tune.

The musical art from Banat was

remarked through its originality, related to

the mentality of the people of that region.

The national feeling of the Romanian

population from Banat in the period under

the domination of the Hapsburg Empire

rises again in the second half of the 19th

century with the foundation of the choral

societies and reunions, explaining thus the

development of music and the attempts of

folklore harmonization. Among the oldest

bands from Banat stands the Lugoj choir

(founded in 1810), and the ploughmen

choir from Chizătău (founded in 1857).

The knowledge of the essential data of

the history of music from Banat is very

important, because it proves the existence

of an artistic climax. The study of musical

values inherited in time completes the

horizon of knowledge, and this is an

efficient way to form and cultivate

traditional thinking.

Following the ascension of the

representative composers from Banat,

related to the size of the Romanian and

European composition, we conclude that

the apogee of the creation from Banat is

similar to the apogee of the Romanian and

European creation, and this fact sustains

the choice of this article’s subject. Thus,

1922 is marked, concerning the creation

from Banat, by the conclusion of the

Three symphonic paintings by Sabin

Drăgoi, and in the European creation by

the publication of Sonata Nr. 2 for Violin

and Piano by Bela Bartok, by the opera

Master Peter’s Puppet Show by Manuel

de Falla, by the first version of the

orchestral work of Mussorgsky’s Pictures

at an Exhibition by Maurice Ravel, by the plays entitled Fünf Klavierstücke by

Arnold Schönberg, and by the opera

Mavra and Wind Octet by Igor

Stravinsky.

The year 1923 brought for the creation

from Banat the apparition of Suite of Folk

Dances for Piano, The Romanian Dance

of Concerto for Piano, the 25 Doinas for

Piano and the Eight Miniatures for Piano

by Sabin Drăgoi as well as the opera The

Girl from Cozia by Emil Montia.


26

The opera Prince Charming by Herman

Klee, a composer from Banat, and the

choral poem King of Mountains by

Thimotei Popovici, complete the

compositional picture of the year 1924,

which includes the opera Doctor Faust by

Feruccio Bussoni, String Quartet by

Gabriel Faure, Kammermusik Nr. 2 for

piano obbligato and 12 Solo Instruments

op. 36 by Paul Hindemith, the rhapsody

for concerto for violin and piano Tzigane

by Maurice Ravel, Concerto in

Mixolydian Mode for Piano and

Orchestra by Ottorino Respighi, Winds

Quintet op.26, Serenade op 24 and Suite

for Piano op. 25 by Arnold Schoenberg,

Concerto for Piano and Winds by Igor

Stravinsky, and Symphony VII op.105 by

Jan Sibelius.

The Prelude, Fugue and Toccata for

piano, Five lieder on lyrics by Reiner

Maria Rilke and Romanian Rhapsody nr.1

by Zeno Vancea mark the year 1926,

together with The Third Sonata for Piano

and Violin “in Romanian folk character”

by George Enescu, Two Romanian

Dances for Winds, Battery and Piano at

Four Hands by Theodor Rogallski,

Lyrische Suite für Streichquartett by

Alban Berg, Concerto for Clavicorn,

Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Violin and Cello by

Manuel de Falla, Simfonietta by Leos

Janacek, Concerto for Wind Orchestra

op.41 by Paul Hindemith, the poem

Tapiola op.112 by Jan Sibelius, and Oedipus Rex by Igor Stravinsky.

In 1927 the opera Năpasta by Sabin

Drăgoi and the Psalm 127 by Zeno

Vancea were finished. In the same year

George Breazul founded in Bucharest The

Phonogramic Archive for the Gathering

and Study of Musical Folklore, and the

Romanian repertoire was enriched with

The Chamber Symphony op.5 by Mihail

Andricu, the Fantasy for Symphonic

Orchestra by Mihail Mihalovici,

Concerto grosso nr.1 op. 17 by Filip

Lazar; the European repertoire was

enriched with: The String Quartet nr.3

and Micro-Cosmos by Bela Bartok,

Kammermusik Nr.5 and Nr.6 by Arnold

Schönberg, and The Second Symphony by

Dimitri Sostakovici.

What we attempted to underline in the

last part of the article sustains the idea that

the modal musical thinking represents an

important conquest of the European and

Romanian musical language, including

the musical language from Banat, through

the extraordinary above mentioned works.

References

1. Cinci, E. Sfânta Liturghie – creaŃia

supremă a gândirii religioase.

Panciova – Serbia. In: Revista pentru

artă şi cultură Lumina, anul LVIII,

nr. 7-8-9, 2005, pag.51.

2. Demenescu, V. L. Modele de gândire

modală în creaŃia muzicală europeană

din prima jumătate a secolului XX.

Timişoara: Editura Eurostampa, 2006.

3. MăniuŃ, P.M.; MăniuŃ, L.C. Cronica

ideilor contemporane - studii şi publicistică, vol. 1 (compendiu al

dominantelor de gândire ale culturii şi

civilizaŃiei secolului al XX-lea).

Braşov: Editura UniversităŃii

„Transilvania” din Braşov, 2005.

4. Stoianov, C. Coordonate stilistice ale

creaŃiei lui Sabin Drăgoi şi Zeno

Vancea. Bucureşti: Revista Muzica

nr. 4, 1990.

5. Stoianov, C. Repere în neoclasicismul

muzical românesc. Bucureşti: Editura

FundaŃiei România de mâine, 2000.

6. Vărădeanu, V. Originea muzicii

noastre bisericeşti - manuscris. Arhiva

Episcopiei Aradului.


1Dept. of Musical Interpretation, Transilvania University of Braşov.

ON THE ORNAMENTATION OF

BAROQUE MUSIC

Ignac FILIP1

Abstract: The contrastive mentalities of the two nations represent the

generating sources of their music: Italians are extroverted and passionate,

used to expressing their joy and pain directly and spontaneously, whereas the

French filter their feelings intellectually. This is the way the both contrastive

mentalities gave birth to two contrastive styles of musical expression. Italian

music is characterised by drama, spontaneity, a fantastic richness of musical

forms and a colourful expression, which also includes bizarre elements. Its opposite, French music, emerged as a reaction to the volcanic music: it is

intellectual, aristocratic, and it provides clear musical forms and precise

rules for interpretation. These contrastive elements of expression influenced

the entire European musical life strongly, and led to a gradual polarisation

of baroque music in relation to the two styles.

Key words: baroque, Italian music, French music, mentality, difference.

French Ornamentation Compared to

Italian Ornamentation

In the European art music from the 17th

and the first part of the 18th

century, there

was no stylistic unity. Different

compositional and interpretative manners

existed in different musical centres, which

evolved farther away from the common

roots of the musical baroque.

The musical communication among

these centres was established during the

journeys of the famous interpreters and

composers of the time. By their trips, the

musicians familiarized the Europeans with

the musical language characteristic to their

native places.

Starting from a common source, Italian

music, the baroque European music,

became more diverse.

The stylistic diversity, which emerged

mainly from the specifics of each nation,

began to express itself by the means of

baroque music. The tendency towards

diversification was promoted through the

inevitable connections and the reciprocal

influences of the traveller-musicians and it,

finally, resulted in two contrastive forms:

the French and the Italian style.

The emergence of these forms of musical

expression is not randomly related to the

two peoples. The contrastive mentalities of

the two nations represent the generating

sources of music: Italians are extroverted

and passionate; they use to express their

joy and pain directly and spontaneously,

whereas the French filter their feelings

intellectually. This is the way the both

contrastive mentalities gave birth to two

contrastive styles of musical expression.

Italian music is characterised by drama,

spontaneity, a fantastic richness of musical

forms and a colourful expression, which

also includes bizarre elements. Its


28

opposite, French music, emerged as a

reaction to the volcanic music; it is

intellectual, aristocratic, and it provides

clear musical forms and precise rules for

interpretation. These contrastive elements

of expression influenced the entire

European musical life strongly, and led to

a gradual polarisation of baroque music in

relation to the two styles. One element

that should not be ignored is the traditional

political, cultural and spiritual rivalry

which existed between the two nations.

This rivalry marked the two musical styles,

the conceptions of the music lovers and the

contemporary professional musicians. The

French considered the Italian music tasteless

and vulgar. On the other hand, the Italians

considered the French music inexpressive

and useless, destined for the ears, and not for

the heart. To understand the atmosphere of

the period and of its musical rivalries, some

of the most controversial opinions are worth

to be quoted:

Marin Mersenne (Harmonie universelle

– Paris, 1636-37, p. 356): ‘Italians strive

themselves to render passions, spiritual

states ... for us, the French, it is enough to

please the ears’ [1].

Georg Muffat (Florilegium, I. –

Augsburg, 1695): ‘The French are

characterized by a natural melodic spirit

and suppleness – a soothing character

which is dispersed by excessive and

useless variations, by too frequent and

uninspired intervals’ [2].

Francois Raguenet (Parallele des Italiens

et des Francais, en ce qui regarde la

musique et les opera) [3]: [The French]

‘play the violin with much more delicacy

and care, in comparison to the Italians who

agonise every time: the cellist tortures his

instrument and his body, he loses control

and is so agitated, as if this impetuous

movement were an infirmity. I have not seen

anyone so seized with passion while playing

the violin, like the famous Arcangelo Corelli,

whose eyes reddened countless times, whose

face maimed, and whose eyes moved as if in

agony, so that the interpretation of the music

seemed to have transformed him into a

different man’ [4].

Quantz (chapter X. 19): ‘Italian music is

less balanced; French music is yet much

too restrained and, probably, because of

that, in French music even what is new

seems old. But, the French style should not

be despised; we recommend to beginners

to combine the decent and clear conduct of

the French interpretation with the Italian

clear-obscure’ [4].

Quantz (chapter XVIII): ‘The taste of

these two nations determine the others'

taste as well.’

These two contrastive styles led to two

different styles of ornamentation. In the

Italian style, the figurative ornamentation

was primordial for the use of the proper

ornamentations. The Italians preferred a

spontaneous improvisation, an

embellishment of the melodies through

melodic notes, figures and rhythmic-

melodious cells. The French used the

ornamentation of the musical sounds as the

basic unity of melody.

There are some quotations about the

French and Italian ornamentation:

Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 2): ‘Man kann

das Adagio, in Unsehung der Art dasselbe

zu spielen, und wie es nötig ist, mit

Mannieren auszuzieren, auf zweherlen Art

betrachten; entweder im französischen,

oder im italianischen Geschmachte…Die

erste Art erfordert einen netten und an

einander hangenden Vortrag des

Gesanges, und eine Auszierung desselben

mit den wesentlichen Manieren, als

Vorschlägen, ganzen und halben Trillern,

Mordanten, Doppelschlägen, battemens,

flattements, u.d.gl.; sonst aber keine

weitläuftigten Passagien, oder großen

Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music 29

zusatz willkührlicher Verzierungen….’

[The interpretation of the Adagio and its

ornamentation can be dealt with according

to two ways: the French or the Italian way

… The first way demands an engaging

and fluent interpretation, and an

ornamentation of the melody with basic

elements such as appoggiaturas, trills,

mordents, groups, vibratos, but without

further arbitrary ornamentations] [4].

Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 3): ‘Die

französische Art das Adagio auszieren,

kann man durch gute Anweisung, ohne die

Harmonie zu verstehen, erlernen.Zu

italiänischen hingegen wird die

Wissenschaft der Harmonie unumgänglich

erfordert.’ [The French ornamentation of

the Adagio can be learned under good

guidance, without having to study

harmonies. In comparison, the Italian

ornamentation requires knowledge of

harmony] [4].

Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 4): ‘Daß die

französischen Componisten die

Auszierungen mehrenteils mit hin

schreiben; und der Ausführer also auf

nichts weiter zu denken habe, als die gut

vorzutragen, ist schon gesaget worden. Im

italiänischen Geschmachte wurden, in

vorigen Zeiten, gar keine Auszierungen

darzu geseßet; sondern alles der Willkühr

des Ausführers überlassen;…Die denn

nicht zu läugner ist, daß in der

italiänischen Musik fast eben so viel auf

den Ausführer, als die Componisten; in der

französischen aber, auf den Componisten

weit mehrals auf den Ausführer ankomme,

wenn das Stück seine volkommene

Wirkung thun soll.’ [The French

composers used to display most of their

ornaments; thus, the interpreter did not

have anything else to do than to interpret

them correctly. Italians preferred not to

display the ornamentations at all; they

were left to the interpreters' ingenuity …

One cannot deny the fact that, in the Italian

music, the interpreters have the same merit

as the composers; but, in the French music,

the contribution of the composers to the

perfect achievement of the melody is

greater than that of the interpreters] [4].

After all, the two musical styles got

together through their synthesis, from

which the German baroque emerged, and

through the great artists of the time such as

Telemann, Händel and Bach.

References

1. Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato

(Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten

im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil

1, in Tibia 2/97, p. 401-407.

2. Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato

(Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten

im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil

2, in Tibia 3/97, p. 481-488.

3. Donnington, Robert. A performer’s

guide to baroque music, Faber and

Faber, Londra, 1973 (în limba

maghiară: A barokk zene

elıadásmódja). Budapest: Editura

Zenemőkiadó, 1978.

4. Ganassi, Sylestro. Opera intitulata

Fontegara/La quale insegna a sunare

di flauto. VeneŃia, 1535 (în limba

germană după Peter, Hildemarie:

Schule des kunstvollen Flötenspiels

und Lehrbuch des Diminuierens).

Berlin: Robert Linau Verlag, 1956.

5. Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. Musik als

Klangrede, Editura Residenz Verlag,

Salzburg und Wien, 1982 (traducerea

în limba maghiară: A beszédszerő

zene). Budapesta: Editura Editio

Musica, 1988.

6. Mersenne, Marin. Harmonie

universelle. Paris, 1636-1637, p. 356.

7. Muffat, Georg. Florilegium.

Augsburg, 1695.


30

8. Quantz, Johann. Versuch einer

Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu

spielen. Berlin, 1752.

9. Quantz, Johann. Versuch einer

Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu

spielen, 1752.

10. Raguenet, François. Parallele des

Italiens et des Francais, en ce qui

regarde la musique et les opéra. Paris,

1702.

11. Raguenet, François. Parallele des

Italiens et des Francais, en ce qui

regarde la musique et les opéra. Paris,

1702.


MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS

IN AUREL STROE’S MUSIC

PetruŃa M. MĂNIUł1

Abstract: Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person who found similarities between works of art and fuzzy sets, which are subject to gradual change. In

compositional art, Aurel Stroe translates these notions into his music. This

perspective is adequate, since mathematical notions are very close to the aesthetics

of works of art, which involve a poetic dimension, the ethics of intentional

ambiguity and vagueness, features which promote musical interpretation.

Key words: fuzzy sets, contemporary music, (non-)Euclidean geometry.


The music of Aurel Stroe is one of the best Romanian works of art of the XXth century. The aesthetic approach on fuzzy sets is a way to analyze the profound signification of his art. The explanations I will provide further refer to the way mathematical arguments simplify the understanding of a work of art, especially in the context of the XXth century, when philosophy and art introduced ”the primacy over the real”. Mathematics is useless within a world in which the possible does not take precedence: ”if you take the real for granted or consider it unique, you miss the unit of deeper mathematics. But if you double, triple or polymerize the real, if you dive into the ocean of the possible, then mathematics becomes a means to know, to explore the possible” [1, p. 61]. The work of art is itself a reality meant to multiply reality in a deeply recreative way, which is neither photographic nor mimetic. The musical masterpieces composed by Aurel Stroe are the best examples to support the statement above, as they reflect a perspective of the possible, infinite world, as well as the marginal visions of reality. The composer’s spiritual refinement is transposed to his musical work, which is the fruit of his approach on world and art, and which explains why these concepts can naturally

and organically be identified in his compositions.

Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person who found similarities between works of art and fuzzy sets, ”which are subject to gradual change” [2]. This perspective is adequate, since mathematical notions are very close to the aesthetics of works of art, which involve a poetic dimension, ”the ethics of intentional ambiguity and vagueness”, features which promote musical interpretation” [3, p. 62].

There is an obvious compatibility between mathematical notions and phenomena, which are deeply related to each other, and the artistic background, as it is shown in the specialized literature. Goethe promoted the mathematic approach concerning art, by pointing out the spiritual dimension of mathematics, which contributes to the development of the creative artistic phenomenon: ”mathematics is an element of the inner superior sense; practically, it is an art. Nevertheless, mathematics is not able to perform any moral act; a mathematician is accomplished only if he is accomplished as an individual” [4, p. 53]. The end of the quotation made by the Romantic German artist makes the distinction between the artistic valuation of the artistic piece of work


32

and its creator’s moral profile, which proves to be so important. As one fundamental law of aesthetics states, ”every aesthetic end product may not always be moral”; it proclaims the superiority of the spiritual quality over the aesthetic aspect.

”The Euclidean geometry is the perfect introduction to philosophy” [5, p. 35]. The work of art has a lot in common with the philosophical conceptions of non-Euclidean geometry, especially as regards the meaning of Aurel Stroe’s composition work which displays complex ideational understood implications. Euclid, the famous Greek geometrician, who lived around 300 B.C., was a professor in Egypt; among other works, it is worth mentioning his book, ”Elements”, a geometry manual, which contains individual theorems for plane and special geometry, algebra and the theory of numbers. He promoted the logical reasoning and deduction and influenced Newton in his work ”Principia”. Today it is known that the Euclidean geometry is not the only independent geometric system due to Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (”the Euclidean geometry is not respected in vicinity of the black holes and the neutron stars, where the gravitational fields are very intense)” [6].

Mathematics is usually defined as the science which is concerned with structure, change and space. A modern approach on mathematics states that it is concerned with the investigation of abstract structures, axiomatically defined by formal logics. The basics of the structures investigated by mathematics are sometimes found in natural sciences (especially in Physics). Mathematics defines and investigates its own structures and theories, to synthesize and unify multiple mathematic fields as a unique theory, a method which usually simplifies generic methods for calculation. Occasionally, mathematicians study fields of mathematics strictly for their abstract interest; therefore this approach is more related to art than to science. The specific domains of mathematics are used to mark generically the limits of the trends approached by mathematics to date, in the

sense of delineating three specific directions: the study of structure, space and changes.

The study of structure generally focuses on the theory of numbers (elementary algebra); abstract algebra is the result of a deep investigation and abstracting of these theories (abstract algebra studies the structures which generalize the properties of numbers in the usual sense). The ”vector” concept, generalized in the sense of vector space, and studied by linear algebra, is specific both to the study of structure and space. The study of space naturally starts from (Euclidean) geometry and three-dimensional familiar trigonometry which later becomes non-Euclidean geometry and plays an essential role in the theory of relativity. The study of change, as it reflects the dramatic background of the musical discourse, is necessary, especially in case of arts, where measurement and predictability of changing some variables are essential.

The current development process of human society requires ever more resources, both material and human. We can notice a constantly changing scale of values and lifestyles; we are on the threshold of supportability, at a critical point in human evolution. It is the energy and the space-time of the habitat in which we are dwelling that keeps us together. All these barriers are also related to the level of civilisation we are living in, to the way people create, achieve and consume artistic products, and to the present cultural paradigm. Therefore, we should consider music from a space-limit perspective (a philosophical limit of non-Euclidean geometry): the conquest of a new dimension, the perception and pragmatic use of the properties of a new dimension could be more than an intellectual challenge, a step towards self fulfilment and, implicitly, a proof that man can survive in a world which seems to be consumed.

The issue regarding the fourth dimension is not only a mathematical issue, but also an aesthetical one. Nevertheless, nobody, excepting for the mathematician Howard Hinton who had intensively trained his

MăniuŃ, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music 33

imagination, has got a picture of the volume in a non-artistic act with significant expressive implications. All great mathematicians, except for a few of them (Henri Poincare was ahead of them), agree to the fact that there is incontestably a four-dimensional space. Nowadays, a great number of scholars and philosophers are concerned with the issue of the fourth dimension. This issue replaced the interest people used to have for the squaring of the circle or for the perpetuum mobile. To conceive the fourth dimension, we should leave the strictly scientific, concrete

dimension of the human universe which can be directly analyzed, and study thoroughly the meanings of art.

It is known that Euclidean geometry has three dimensions: length, width, height or thickness. It is only since 1621, due to the research done by Sir Henri Saville, that a new type of (non-Euclidean) geometry was born because of certain obscure issues specific to geometry (especially as regards parallel lines); this discipline was the result of the contributions made by Saccheri, Lambert, Gauss, Lobatschevsky (his research was highly appreciated by the scientific world), Bolyai, Riemann, Helmholtz, Beltrami and many others. Simultaneously with Lobacevski, the Hungarian mathematician from Transylvania Janos Bolyai (1802-1860) created non-Euclidean geometry. During his studies, but especially after he graduated the Academy in Vienna, Janos Bolyai made important discoveries which contributed to his major work "Appendix" (1832); his work was published in Latin as a completion of the manual written by his father. The results achieved are a thorough dialectic study of the issues of mathematics. Bolyai’s research set up the foundation of new trends in geometry which, however, were not understood and appreciated by his contemporaries.

The research of the reference works mentioned above proves the profound correlation between them and the musical phenomenon created by Aurel Stroe, which has a unique interior geometry, developed according to other macro and micro formal laws than the ones commonly used in

modern composition art. The tragic feature of the paradox of the non-Euclidean knowledge” [7, p. 122] is very well adapted to the aesthetic background approved by contemporary art.

This new geometry shows that space is no longer the Euclidean space. It is also obvious that we are able to understand various types of spaces with different properties, where parallel lines meet, where the angles of a triangle scale down unlimitedly while its sides become longer, and other similar anomalies. The non-Euclidean geometry turns into a hyper geometry or a metageometry, a theoretical background to investigate hyperspace, the fourth dimension. But what is hyperspace? Once this question is asked, difficult issues are brought into discussion. Is it a space accessible to man, to his spirituality, or is it a hypothetical space similar to Einstein’s space?

Here we are very close to the concept of the infinity of the (aesthetic, expressive) universe which raises the following question: what is a bound? It may be more than ”the extremity of a certain surface”. The issue related to infinity is abnormally complex and out of the intricate network of numbers, of abstract or concrete geometry; it suffices to remember the difference between ”the undefined” and ”the infinity”. The infinity which pushes our imagination to limits is nothing else but the undefined. It is nothing else but a variable infinity which oversteps the imposed bounds. Our imagination cannot perceive but a finite area, to which is added another finite area, and this circuit is endless. It can neither reach big infinity nor small infinity, only what is left finite. Imagination cannot reach infinity, neither the bound of big infinity nor zero, the bound of small infinity. These two ”extreme states” of infinity are ideas which only reason can understand. ”The infinity made of more pieces is nothing but the mobile and fugitive shape, the parody of infinity”.

Mathematical infinity removes imagination and first appeals to reason. To conceive and reach infinity, reason does not have to cover the domain of infinity and waste the series of undefined bounds.


34

It is enough for reason to find that a finite right line can be prolonged on both sides, to find also that any given number can be added to a unit, and to notice that this is always possible, independent of the number or the line. The mathematic infinity is a kind of ”spontaneous infinity”, similar to the artistic infinity; it is an infinity which is made up outside imagination and reason, which gives birth to the force of things, the infinite numbers or the projections of superior geometry. According to Jouffret, ”a geometrical being would be created with its own individuality, which is above the finite and the unlimited”, while the unlimited is connected to our mind. Such a superior being could act in an interpersonal space which would overstep our imagination, either in big infinity or small infinity, without having anything in common with this imagination. It is a space which people can conceive beyond their reason, and this had been impossible but for the mysterious force of art, whose impact on the concepts of new mathematics has become obvious; it imposed the ideas of an extra human space, which at first sight seems more unreal than our hereditary space, where things happen similarly to the way they do in our familiar space.

It is not easy to know or to define a hyperspace (from a cultural, not from a geophysical point of view). It is difficult to define the three dimensional space: the Kantian formula, which states that space is subjective, a required supposition of all experiences, cannot be ignored. The comparison between aprioricists, who state that the idea of space is innate, and empiricists, who argue that this idea is the result of experience, does not ease the issue under discussion; neither do we find out whether to accept the idea that space is a structuration order in time and that time is a succession order, as Leibnitz stated. We do not go any deeper in understanding this issue if we state that time can be represented by space or that space is necessary for all representations.

All Kantian and Neokantian efforts made by idealist empiricists finish up by preserving the same obscure information on this issue; all philosophers who were preoccupied with space and time (Spencer, Helmholtz, Renouvrier, James Sully, Stumf, Wiliam James, Ward, Stuart Mill, Ribot, Foille, Iuyan, Bain, Lechalas, Balmes, Donnan, Bergson, and many others) were not able to solve the double enigma; their most controversial theories are still obscure. Among the scholars preoccupied with the exploration of the multiple dimensional geometry, it is worth mentioning Poincare and Goursat (France), Cayley, Hinton (United Kingdom and the United States of America). Certain theories promoted by Hinton or some remarks of Boucher’s geometry state that the one who can use the fourth dimension will be able to see the whole interior of the material bodies, without being stopped by their surface and even without taking it into consideration; the tiniest interior and exterior particles of objects will appear as juxtaposed, not as superposed. Whatever we may think, what happens beyond our being is much more fertile than anything which happens anywhere else.

Schofield (Hinton’s disciple) presented the three dimensional life in an ingenious way. He started from the non-dimensional being, who cannot see anything, not even herself/himself; everything is non-being and s/he is convinced that the non-being is her/his universe. On the next level, there is the linear being, who lives together with her/his fellows; s/he cannot see anything but the extremities of the line, a point. Then he analised the plane being, or the two dimensional being, who cannot see anything but two lines; in the end, the thinker described the volume being, who cannot see anything but surfaces and the hypervolume being (the artistic work), who can perceive volumes instantaneously and completely. All revelations and apparitions in the Old and New Testament come from beings who possess the fourth dimension: the spiritual dimension which makes the

MăniuŃ, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music 35

perception and feeling of the artistic act possible.

Hinton proved to be the scholar who passionately dedicated himself to researching the fourth dimension. He was not only a mathematician, who used to make fun of the thrilling game of the most daring hypotheses, but also a balanced, gifted man with a vast, unique imagination, which allowed him to put forward viable theories for most of his abstractions. Besides the mathematical works, he also wrote scientific literary works, but only a few of them were successful. This is the case for the novel Stella, which narrates the life of a young girl, who was made invisible by her father (he took the principle of the refraction of light as a basis). In ”The Fourth Dimension”, the reader is led to the darkest of the greatest enigmas: the author pretends to have built some solid four-dimensional cells called tesseracts which are a close transposition of a four-dimensional space.

What Hinton wants us to develop by this experience is a special feeling (comparable with the fundamental power of the spirit). This means that we have to train our conscience to look at things from a different, non-conventional point of view: an artistic, aesthetic point of view. Hinton stated that ”when we meet infinity at a certain moment of our thinking, this is a sign that this way of thinking is related to a reality which proves to be higher than the one we are used to”. The space we usually conceive is limited, not in terms of surface, but in a way which cannot be grasped. But why does space have to be tridimensionally limited? The spiritual experience is the only capable of answering this question. We may experience the cultural existence of the fourth dimension; in a way or another, the human being is not simply a tridimensional (material) being. There have been put forward certain suppositions, which in an arbitrary and artificial way provided a draft of the relation of our body with the existence of the fourth dimension; it states that our

spirit is able to identify it. Our spirit can develop a superior conception of the fourth dimensional space, adequate to our tridimensional space and it can use it likewise. The only difficulty is to decide or at least to sense that there is a fourth dimension (or even more dimensions) in the universe.

Therefore, the three dimensions are the measurements of matter in space. These measurements take into account only one feature or characteristic of matter: the extension in space. From this point of view it is impossible to find other dimensions, except for length, width and thickness. But it is likely that other senses (like the cultural sense) could reveal other unexpected coordination characteristics of space and time; thus, we might discover an extension of the fourth dimension. As Ouspensky stated, ”by time we understand ”the distance” which separates the events in their succession, connecting them to different entities. The distance can be found in a direction which does not exist in the three dimensional space: the fourth dimension. By the term ”time” we express a reality, a certain space and a movement within the space and, consequently, the time extension is the extension in an unfamiliar space, which explains why time is the fourth dimension of space”. Nevertheless, from a certain point of view, time and space are interchangeable. Mathematicians use time as it were the fourth dimension of space. The idea of explaining space by time and time by space is similar to the one by which we try to explain the night by the day and the day by the night. According to Ouspensky, ”the sense of time is an imperfect sense of space, it is the limit of our space”. Space is the visible present; time is a burning space which becomes past or future. Space is an intense time, a horizontal time; time-space is the lasting time, time is the ephemeral space. We cannot measure our limited space but as related to time. If we want to give time a reality, we can only represent it as an immaterial space. It provides a total lack of objects; in exchange, it is full of the


36

events it develops. For us, time begins when we cannot understand each other any longer; the picture of space is made up around us, when we follow the passing of time. Space and time share certain properties; for example, the centrifugal force (this mysterious energy which is the eternal enemy of gravitation), as the rotary motion of the Earth, has a mathematical representation by the formula in which time and space intervene. By virtue of this principle, time is limited only by time and space is limited only by space; space is almost always limited by time, and time is surrounded by space. They fight for supremacy and vanish in the dark. Space necessarily exists in time.

Eddington stated that ”the fundamental measure is not between points in space, but between two points in space associated to some moments in time (the case of the work of art). We consider time a moving of space and space a break of time; in reality, time is as motionless as space. We picture it as a river which flows unceasingly. In reality, it has never moved, it is we who are flowing, not time. We are kept between space and time and end in a cosmic deadlock. When mathematicians get us out of space, when they get to a critical point in which space gives no feed back to their calculations, they make a fourth variable break into the background, time, which restores the balance of their calculations and allows them to go further.

The work of art is related to this temporal reality which contributes to the embodiment of the work of art and the cultural (even more, the spiritual) dimension, which is in fact the fourth dimension (left aside by mathematicians). In conclusion, Hilton assures us that we will never be able to see a four dimensional figure physically, but only with the mind’s eye. The real, three dimensional and strictly material world is obsolete; it has to be replaced by non-Euclidean properties and by four dimensional space and time. The four dimensional world is not just a mere

mathematical figure; it is the real world of physics, the way pursued by physicists to reach reality. Metageometry also looks outside our space for less conventional and subjective situations which have uncertain relations with the space we created (or which was created inside ourselves) to help us understand the phenomena of the universe.

”There is not only the sensuous music; there is also a spiritual music. There is not only the music which is being performed at present, but also the eternal music, which exists even when it is not performed. All lonely people have their silent music inside themselves and I am glad that there is such music. But where do people get the music from? They get it from us, the musicians, because it has to be first performed and listened to (…) so that any person can think about it and dream of it when s/he returns home” [8, p. 134-135].

References

1. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei. Bucharest:

Humanitas Press, 1991. 2. Dediu, D. Fenomenologia actului

componistic. Bucharest, 1995. 3. Larson, C. Persuasiunea – receptare şi

responsabilitate. Iaşi: Polirom Press, 2003.

4. Goethe, J. W. Maxime şi reflecŃii. Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972.

5. Goethe, J. W. Maxime şi reflecŃii (Meditations and reflections). Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972.

6. Hart, M. O sută de personalităŃi care au influenŃat evoluŃia omenirii. Bucharest: Lider Press, 2003, art. Euclid.

7. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei. Bucharest: Humanitas Press, 1991.

8. Hesse, H. Lupul de stepă. Bucharest: Rao Press, 1995.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

CREATIVITY IN THE MUSICAL GAME –

A MAJOR ELEMENT IN THE

EDUCATION OF PUPILS

Lucian NIREŞTEANU

1

Abstract: The paper, which belongs to the field of pedagogical methodology, aims at emphasizing the game as a permanent activity in a

person’s life. This activity manifests itself in the first years of life by the

employment of the so-called ‘functional games’ for the coordination and

gradual organization of the child’s physical movements; it continues with

fictional games, and creation games. These games are also employed in the

creative work of adults, and they seem necessary for the maintenance of one's

moral and psychic balance.

Key words: game, creation, modeling, activity, stimulation, mission, emotional background, creative work.

1 Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Braşov.

Musical games have a long tradition in

the history of universal music, representing

sources of inspiration in the practice of

composition; they are needed to promote

the instructive, educational and formative

development of children.

Equally, due to their importance, musical

games have been subject to

methodological research concerning the

identification of the most efficient means

for teaching music in relation to the

physical, psychologic and artistic

necessities of children. These methods

have been perfected by the teachers in the

Romanian educational system, who, by

elaborating the necessary musical

materials, have contributed to the

development of the children’s personalities

as future professional musicians.

Talking about games, one can assert that

they are adapted to the age of a person.

Being a human activity, the musical game,

in particular, fulfills several functions: it

promotes the creativity, the modeling, and

the development of the children’s

personalities. Due to this factor, games

have always represented an important

research topic in the fields of education,

psychology, and biology. Despite its

spread, research on games became

functional only in the 20th

century.

From a large range of opinions and

observations of some thinkers, philologists

and famous artists, the most useful can be

considered the ones referring to the

purpose of the game in connection to the

life and activity of children and youth at

different ages.

Thus, one of the most comprehensive

definitions about games is that of

Friederich Schiller (1759-1805), who, in

his work called “Letters on the Aesthetic

Education of Man”, states that “the human

becomes truly human when he plays, the

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII

38

game representing the main means of his

full expression of freedom”.

According to the poet’s statement, the

game reflects a person's creativity.

The Dutch historian and theoretician of

culture, Johan Huizinga (1872-1945),

presents in his famous book, “Homo

ludens” (1938), a conception about game

that is close to that of Schiller. Huizinga

considers the game “an essential,

stimulating element of all forms of human

culture”.

According to the psychologist Edouarde

Claparede (1873-1940), the game stands

for the most important preoccupation

towards which the child manifests its full

interest, since it supports its biological and

psychological needs. In Claparede’s

conception, the meaning of game consists

in the very ‘action of playing’, which

‘prepares the future, by quenching the

needs of the present’.

The Russian psychologist Serghei

Leonidovici Rubinstein (1889-1960),

defines the game as being ‘the child of

work’. He demonstrates that the game is a

product specific to human activity, and that

the essence of the game consists of the

children's preoccupation with the ‘reflected

transformation of reality’. For example,

one social function of a mother is that of

preparing food for her family; in games,

the child takes over the function of the

mother, pretending to cook for other

children, an activity which causes it much

satisfaction and joy. Paul Popescu

Neveanu states in the “Dictionary of

Psychology” (Dictionarul de psihologie -

Bucharest, 1978) that a child's game is ‘a

kind of … determining activity for his

psychological development’.

In the children's and youth’s life, the

game fulfills a formative function: ‘by

playing games, they prepare for life’; the

games represent, thus, the practical

exercises necessary to becoming mature.

Throughout this presentation, there have

been made references to a signifying

definition of the game, as a formative and

creative action, bearing a great importance

for the children's and adolescents’ life to

their gradually becoming mature. To an

equal degree, the game fulfills a functional

role of great significance in the life of

adults as well.

For an adult, the work on a daily basis

should not represent a mere obligation,

relative to the function that he has, for

which he is paid; work should be viewed,

instead, as a permanent creating activity

which might be interpreted as a superior

manner for the manifestation of game.

An occupation which lacks the emotional

background created by the permanent

addition of novelties, progressively added

to the process of the daily activity from a

particular field, (the addition of novelties

means creative work), will degrade in time.

If one limits himself to the operations

based on a daily routine, he will end

performing an activity which lacks

satisfaction, a necessary feature in the

process of work.

On the other hand, active adults, as well

as retired people, have during their free

time vital energies. These need to be

consumed to avoid boredom, which is a

psychically extremely dangerous

phenomenon. The free time of an adult

should be filled with different challenging

preoccupations of a creative type; adults

could also get involved into society or

sports games with a festive character

which have the purpose of bringing joy

and satisfaction.

Nireşteanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education …

39

A special category of games is

represented by gambles. These ones, by

their nature, have a double effect: either

the euphoria of the gain, or the failure

which can trigger personal dramas in

association to drugs, or even to dramatic,

sometimes, fatal actions.

From here the necessity of finding an

occupation for one's spare time, and of

consuming supplementary energy, by

choosing creative actions, such as society

games, which have the benefit of inducing

a state favorable to creative work,

rightfully considered as happiness.

For adults, the game has also an

important function, for their daily

professional activities, in emphasizing

other features: fun and entertainment,

relaxation after work, the escape from the

influence of preoccupations that may

negatively affect a person's sensitivity.

These games can be categorized as: society

games, artistic-musical or sportive games,

destined to the satisfaction of one’s desire

to win in fair competitions, according to

some precise rules among groups of

partners participating in the game.

One can argue that the totality of the

spiritual and material productions, as

consequences of the human mind and

effort, have been born within processes of

creative work, which, at times, may be

taken for the game itself, the latter thus

becoming the most moral human activity,

the most serious ‘child of work’.

The creative game is the type of game by

which the child builds, draws, models,

sings, dances, plays different musical

instruments, etc. By getting familiar with

different working materials, from different

activity fields, in the process of playing a

game, the child will perform the practical

exercises which correspond to their use.

Thus, the child prepares for activities far

more complex, getting prepared to attend

school.

During school, the creative games

change gradually into practical activities,

creating thus a consciously created

product. This represents the stage where

we can already talk about an equivalence

of games and creative work.

The different types of games played at

different school ages actively participate in

the development of the creative initiatives

of the pupils.

The importance of the educative value of

the musical game consists of the fact that,

because of the emotional states that it

induces, it can become an efficient method

in the harmonious development of the

human psyche at all ages. This is why we

stress the necessity of using modern

teaching procedures, inspired from the vast

field of instructive games, in the

instructive-educational process. It is worth

mentioning the vital energy comprised in

the musical games; this energy stimulates

valuable creative performances.

Unlike other games, the musical game, as

a dynamic form of instructive games, will

influence a child more strongly in his

educational development, due to the

strengthening of the transfer qualities of

music.

Musical games carry different aesthetic

values which become materialized in:

songs, different rhythms, polyphonies,

catchy lyrics, adequate to the actions

linked to the children’s age, songs,

associated to physical movements,

choreography, the use of school musical

instruments, etc. These values promote the

development of the pupils’ creativity on

several levels.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII

40

The several reflections related to the

creativity of the musical game reveal the

great importance of the musical game in

the socialization of pupils; the musical

game proves to be, thus, a major factor in

the education of pupils.

References

1. Munteanu, G. Jocul în educaŃia

muzicală. Bucureşti: Editura

UniversităŃii NaŃionale de Muzică.

2. Vasile, V. Metodica educaŃiei

muzicale. In: Muzica. Bucureşti:

Editura Muzicală, 2004.

3. Ivăşcanu, A. Jocul muzical cu cântec.

ContribuŃii la educaŃia muzicală

preşcolară. Cluj-Napoca: Academia de

Muzică „Gh.Dima”, 1969.

4. Niedermayer, A. EducaŃia muzicală

modernă. ConcepŃia pedagogică şi

instrumentarul Orff. Sibiu: Editura

Hora, 1999.


PAUL CONSTANTINESCU –

A REPRESENTATIVE OF

THE ROMANIAN MODERN

COMPOSITION SCHOOL

Roxana PEPELEA1

Abstract: Paul Constantinescu distinguishes himself as a representative of the folk trend as well as the father of the Romanian Byzantine style; he also

discovered the comic stream of Romanian spirituality and acquired a

prominent place among the neoclassic Romanian composers. These four

directions outline the stylistic tendencies reflected in his creation.

Key words: Paul Constantinescu, modal, neo-modal, diatonic, chromatic.


1. Introduction

The entire modern national school of

composition is centred on the folk-

Byzantine axis that sets its traditional

nuances, being permeable to worldwide

trends like the Expressionism or the

Neoclassicism. Displaying a unitary

character, Paul Constantinescu’s creation

sets itself in this traditional reality by

particular aspects.

2. Content

The folk direction goes along the steps of

Enescu’s creation, from using the

quotation, through the creation in folk or

Byzantine vein, to the stage of essentials

and extraction of archetypes. With P.

Constantinescu, the existence, between

these steps, of some transition phases

related to the elaboration level of folk data

is to be noted: the harmonization of folk

melody (the Romanian Suite, the

Symphonic dances, Three Pieces for the

Piano), its utilization as a theme generator

for larger forms (Symphonietta), the

amplification of folk motif by pasting other

citations or personal motives (the

Romanian Suite, the Concerto for the

String Orchestra), the creation of some

more complex modal melo-rhythmic

structures (the Symphony), the formation of

melodic profiles of folk essence based on

the utilization of the whole-step and half-

step structure (the Concerto for the String

Orchestra, the Piano Concerto), the

application of the cyclic principle (the

Symphony), the exploitation of the modal

archetypal cell as a generating element (the

Triple Concerto).

The Byzantine direction registers only

the first two steps of processing (the same

as with folk music). If the folk creation

follows a method towards complexity, the

Byzantine one comes to simplification,

from the instrumentalism and

chromaticism of the Two Byzantine Studies

to the diatonic aspect of the Byzantine

Variations for Cello and Orchestra and the

Byzantine Sonata for Cello Solo, finally

reaching the vocal style of the Psaltic


42

Liturgy. Thus, the peak of this direction,

the Oratorios in Byzantine style, represents

the most faithful expression of the

composer’s modal diatonicism. The

utilization of a common potential of

intonations, with cantus firmus

individuality, taken over, probably, from

Macarie, is remarkable for proving the

unitary character of the Byzantine style.

The neoclassic direction originates, on

the one hand, in the recovering of some

classical valences (symmetry, equilibrium)

of the Eastern European folklore, and

harmonizes, on the other hand, with a

worldwide tendency of the epoch –

recovering and applying the classic

composition forms and techniques to the

Romanian ethos. The Neoclassicism in

Constantinescu’s creation belongs to the

area of syntheses: between the neoclassic

(neo-baroque) style and the folk one

(Three Pieces for the Piano, Symphonietta,

Prelude for the Piano Solo) – a synthesis

achieved by most Romanian creators in

this epoch; between the neoclassic and the

Byzantine style (Liturgy, Oratorios) – an

unusual synthesis in the Romanian musical

creation, but typical of the world music –

as, for example, the fusion between the

neoclassic (neo-baroque) and the

Gregorian intonation (Respighi,

Hindemith, Stravinsky etc.); between the

traditional form and the innovative modal

language involved by the folk-Byzantine

direction (Symphony, concertos). The expressionist direction, for Paul

Constantinescu, is another modality of

expression of a basic folk mode, as

opposed to other composers who, within

this esthetics, also conceived works that

generally lack the Romanian element (M.

Jora, Joujoux pour Ma Dame). The works

belonging to this direction are either

melodies with a text, or they are based on a

literary theme or a programme argument.

One feature of this direction is the comic

nuance, which for Constantinescu takes on

separate expressions: the humorous, the

grotesque, the transcendental comic (with

a view to philosophy). The humorous

expression (caricature) refers to a

miniature type programme music (Four

Fables for the Piano), or it is in Arghezi’s

manner (Cântece pentru voce şi pian,

lyrics by Arghezi, or Ciurezu). The

grotesque receives tragic-comical, absurd

(Din cătănie, Gornistul, Şapte cântece din

uliŃa noastră), or frivolous, parodic,

realistic-critical nuances, or nuances in the

manner of Caragiale (O noapte

furtunoasă). The transcendent humour

directs the Balkan spirit to the border of

sublimated play; it is of ludicrous subtlety,

and combines elements of the Turkish

Orient (Isarlîk) with the philosophic

essence of Ion Barbu’s poetry (Riga

Crypto şi Lapona Enigel). Under the

influence of Anton Pann’s style, the source

of inspiration is confounded here with a

certain level of folklore (the urban type)

robustly coloured with the Greek-oriental

influences of the time (augmented second,

diminished third, rhythmic melismas), used

as fashionable quotation, often

superimposed in the palimpsest technique.

The tendencies of bringing out the value of

the artistic attributes of the folk song

require currently clearer and realistic

(even naturalistic) ways of perception,

encountered at the level of melodic

procedures and of harmonic-polyphonic, or

orchestral techniques (leitmotivs, violent harmonies, polymodality, ostinati,

mixtures, aggressive brass band sonorities

or folk instruments). The presence of the

programme argument oriented to

expressive spheres is observed in the songs

on lyrics by Eminescu, Şt. O. Iosif, and

C. Theodorescu, in which the composer

employs the following modal techniques:

the use of minimal scales, the

superimposition of the melody elements,

fourth chords, the modal

complementarity etc.

Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Composition School 43

Overall, the composer’s style

demonstrates a unitary aspect with a high

extent of musical language consistency.

The evolution of Paul Constantinescu’s

composition language had not undergone

spectacular changes of optics; it consists of

the steps he took on the modal domain,

from diatonicism towards chromaticism.

An attempt of dividing Constantinescu’s

creation into periods suggested in this

thesis will refer to the temporal

subdivisions, according to Vasile

Herman’s attempt of dividing the

Romanian music in Formă şi stil în noua

creaŃie românească (Editura muzicală,

Bucureşti, 1977). Therefore, the following

stages in the composer’s creation are

suggested: I. 1929-1938 – marks the

opening of directions and establishing the

parameters of genuine creation. II. 1939-

1948 – rounds up the final affirmation of

his creation. III. 1949-1956 – settles the

maturity of his style and language. IV.

1957-1963 – marks the delimitation of a

new vision on the modal treatment. The

first period represents, besides his debut,

the moment of certain openings – within

the modal spheres of the folk and

Byzantine style, even with touching some

stability points (the Psaltic Liturgy, 1936),

or anticipations (Nuntă în CarpaŃi,1938),

marks an apogee (O noapte furtunoasă,

1934) and a final point (Riga Crypto and

Lapona Enigel, 1936) of the comic

tendency, musically doubled by expressionist techniques, anticipates

neoclassical tendencies (Sonatina, 1933,

Symphonietta, 1937, Prelude for the Piano

Solo, 1934 and Burlesque for the Piano,

1938). The second period represents the

fulfilment of a creation cycle of Byzantine

inspiration (the composer will only once

come back this direction, in 1963, with The

Triple Concerto for the Violin, Cello,

Piano and Orchestra, but in a new mode),

and the masterly opening of the performing

section of his creation, the most important

from now on. The third period is that of

“compromises” that the composer makes

on the ground of accessibility, to educate

the “taste” of the masses, on the aesthetic

patterns of the newly-installed regime in

power (the dances for the orchestra, the

instrumental and choral pieces). In the

following concerto literature, we notice an

evolution of the modal language towards

chromaticism (The Piano Concerto, 1952).

The fourth period, containing the

composer’s last opus – The Triple

Concerto for the Violin, Cello, Piano and

Orchestra - overtakes the prerogatives of

the culminating moment of his whole

creation, the synthesis of all composition

procedures, excepting the comic aspect.

The unity of Paul Constantinescu’s

creation is determined, first, by the

tendency towards a common specific

potential of intonation, which marks the

constants of the inspiration sources of the

theme. Based on these constants, works

belonging to different expressive spheres,

or to different style directions, achieve the

unifying element, reaching, through

generalities, the possibility of establishing

certain parameters, between which

Constantinescu’s modal thinking retains

certain melodic types. This common

potential of intonation can be detected in:

I. the melodic source of Anton Pann

(quotation from Spitalul amorului or

Cântece de lume) – a unifying element

between the folk and the Byzantine Neoclassicism and the comic-parody

creation with Greek-oriental nuances; II.

Macarie’s Irmologhion – a unifying

element inside the Byzantine creation (the

Byzantine Studies, the Oratorios and the

Liturgy); III. the occasional folk species,

for example Doina recrutului; in the comic

creation (Din cătănie, O noapte

furtunoasă), and also in the neoclassical

creation (The Piano Concerto); IV. the

melo-rhythmic style, common for themes

proceeding from an archaic folk level,


44

developing an identical ascending-

descending tetrachordal profile (the slow

parts from Symphonietta, the Concerto for

the Violin and the Concerto for the Harp);

V. the archaic type of melody, laid on

octosyllabic meter, used for outlining epic

themes; VI. the improvisatory type of

melody, illustrating the rubato principle,

polyphonically distributed in unison or

octave, regarding the atmosphere of slow

movements (the Concerto for the String

Orchestra, the Triple Concerto); VII. the

Dorian-Phrygian cell in association with

the subtonic relation of modal harmony – a

unifying element placed above the

thematic spheres or style directions (with

examples from MioriŃa or Riga Crypto şi

Lapona Enigel).

3. Conclusions

Constantinescu’s contribution to the

progress of the Romanian composition

school registers two stages: one of an

absolute genuineness, in which the

composer has the upper hand, and a second

one, displaying him as the initiator of the

modern direction promoting the Byzantine

background. The second stage also

displays him as a creator of the Romanian

comical opera, having his own vision in

approaching the folk direction - through

new modalities of carrying out folk music

at a high (melodic, harmonic, polyphonic,

instrumental-orchestral, formal) level. In close connection with the style directions,

the field of modal innovation oscillates,

and affects one or another parameter of the

musical flow.

Therefore, following the new stylistic

directions, the composer’s mind probes in

the depth of modal monody, while other

directions represent (in his modal

conception) the domain of harmonic,

polyphonic or instrumental–orchestral

innovation. Therefore, the conclusion is

that the originality of Paul

Constantinescu’s creation regarded from

the perspective of the analyzed melodic,

harmonic, and polyphonic parameters

becomes real in enlarging the processing

area of the folk music regarding the

contemporary folk trend, in building the

foundation of his creation in Byzantine

style, in sensing the peculiarities regarding

the comic musical elements and in molding

this material into forms and types specific

to the cultured art, by processing

techniques adequate for a personalized

modal language.

References

1. Constantinescu, Paul. Despre „poezia”

muzicii. Ploieşti: Editura Premier,

2004.

2. Firca, Cl. L. DirecŃii în muzica

românească 1900-1930. Bucureşti:

Editura Academiei, 1974.

3. Giuleanu, V. Melodica bizantină.

Bucureşti: Editura muzicală, 1982.

4. Vancea, Zeno. CreaŃia muzicală

românească, sec.XIX-XX, vol. II.

Bucureşti: Editura muzicală, 1978. 5. Tomescu, Vasile. Paul

Constantinescu. Bucureşti: Editura

muzicală, 1967.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) – 2009 Series VIII: Art • Sport

1. Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Music, Musical Interpretation Department.

ROBERT WILSON OR TIME AND IMMOVABILITY

Alexandru-Radu PETRESCU

1

Abstract: Being convinced that “we should set the traditional school of theatre on fire”, Wilson troubled the strong tradition of Western theatre,

founded on the idolatry of the word. His options unveil his affinity to mystery,

symbol, ritual and the sonorous beaches on which he uses to superpose his

unique imagistic scenic vision, the slowed down motions and elaborated

lights.

Key words: image, light, ritual, opera management.

Nowadays, one rarely finds time to think

about TIME. This is, though, what Robert

Wilson succeeds in his shows,

transforming the scenic space in temporal

images.

Robert Wilson (b.1941) first studied

business management at the University of

Texas (1959-1962), afterwards he studied

the art of painting in Paris and then

architecture, interior design and painting

(again) in New-York. He has not attended

a school of theatre. As major influences

which have affected his creation, he

mentions, beside the activity developed

with disabled children, the avant-garde

group formed by Martha Graham, Merce

Cunningham and John Cage. This group

has experienced different stylistic

orientations, it has moved away from

serialism and electronic music to graphism

and qualified sonorous constructions, and

was labeled by Sorin Lerescu as free from

any constraint. The musical creations of

the group use to shock through the

originality of the language, the exploitation

of new manners of attack and the

employed instrumental techniques. Cage

supports the idea that one can choreograph

any music and also dance to it (see his

compositions directed as motion shows,

during the period 1940-1960, most of them

in Cunningham’s choreography).

Robert Wilson’s creation for the stage

has been immense, since his first motion

shows were held at the end of the 60-ies,

and the last ones in 2005. His shows were

named by certain critics tableaux vivants.

Just to name a few: the Life and Times of

Joseph Stalin (1973), Einstein on the

Beach by Philip Glass, Leonce and Lena

by Georg Büchner and Peer Gynt by

Henrik Ibsen (2005). As regards opera

stage management, he produced Médée by

Charpentier, presented together with the

music version by Bryars (1984); Salomée

by Richard Strauss at Scala of Milan

(1987); Pelléas et Mélisande (1997); Le

Martyre de Saint Sébastien by Debussy;

Die Zauberflöte by Mozart (1991, 1995,

1999); Parsifal by Wagner la Hamburg

(1991); Madame Butterfly by Puccini

(1993, 1994, 1997); The Castle of Blue-

Beard by Bártok; Erwartung by Schönberg

in Salzburg (1995); Oedipus rex by

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII 46

Stravinski (1996); Alceste by Gluck at

Théâtre Châtelet in Paris (1996); Lohengrin

by Wagner at Metropolitan Opera in New-

York (1998 and 2006); Der Ring des

Nibelungen by Wagner at the opera in Paris

(2002) and at the opera in Zürich (2006);

Osud (Destiny) by Leoš Janáček in Prague.

In 1992, Wilson founded the Watermill

Center, a “laboratory” in which the didactic

activity interweaves with the activity of

production and of archiving his

achievements. Wilson has been distinguished

with numerous prizes.

For Robert Wilson’s temporal

communication the second is the most

important time unit: “Every second is

perpetually something else, very different

(...). The only constant thing is change”

[8, p. 473-474]. Every cliché, every second

has its own space in time – for Wilson, it is

much dilated – so that the message should

find its time to be both exposed and

received. It is, if the comparison is

allowed, like watching photographs of our

childhood, in which there is comprised not

only an immovable image, but a

succession of images – known only by us –

that only we, the watchers, can „remake”

with the eyes of the mind and of the soul.

In the very same way, Wilson’s shots

succeed, leaving us the time to receive the

succession of his intentions through our

own perceptions. Wilson does not submit

image to music, he uses music to create

images. Even if, in theory, the images

might be deemed in conflict with the

dramatic musical developments (how

could we imagine a static allegro vivo?),

they submit to the latter through the very

imagistic construction which supports the

images of musical dynamics (not in the

sense attributed by Music Theory, which is

the sum of the indications with respect to

the intensity of the musical sonority, but in

the sense of the evolution of musical

discourse as a whole). It is like the

difference between (dynamic)

instantaneous photographs and (static)

family photographs from the time of our

grandparents, in sepia colours, that we

surely still have, forgotten, in a drawer of

old furniture.

It is said that an image makes a thousand

words. If we were to decipher and describe

every image in any of his settings and if we

multiplied them by one hundred, we would

discover a story which could not be

displayed in days. This is the case of his very

first shows, King of Spain (1969) - 3 hours,

Deafman Glance (1970) - 7 hours, Overture

(1972) - 24 hours, KA Mountain and

Guardenia Terrace (1972) - 7 days and

7 nights. For instance, in Overture, only the

passage of a procession from one part of the

stage to the other lasted an hour – “the

advancement is imperceptible, like an

immobile painting in space and time” [2].

Quite similar, in The Life and Times of

Sigmund Freud, on a beach full of sand we

could see “a turtle which traversed the

stage in 34 minutes, [and] a runner which

traversed the stage in approximately 7 or 8

seconds – different actions which were

performed according to different rhythms,

[and] different speeds” [1].

The development of Wilson’s studies

with reference to the relations sound-image

and space-time in the scenic space

originates in the communication that he

has developed with the children he

adopted: Raymond Andrews – a deaf-mute

child – whom he met in 1967, and with

Christopher Knowles – an autistic child –

whom Wilson met in 1971.

Because of their handicaps, each of the

children had a different perception on the

communication with the environment,

being much more sensitive in receiving the

“messages” coming from the exterior.

Wilson noted that the scale of shading,

Petrescu, A.R.: Robert Wilson or „Time and Immovability”

1.

47

graduation and differentiation of the

stimuli was much more sensitive as

compared to the one of a normal person,

giving this way birth to a wider diversity of

reactions-responses. This fact led to the

development of the system of

communication stimulus-reception-

stimulus (through feedback), based on

“codes” of images and sounds. Up to the

framing of the “code” within a structure of

space-time there was but a step, a necessity

appeared from the attempt at quantifying

the dimension (as form) and the time that it

needs to be perceived and understood.

Based on this (nonverbal)

communicational alphabet, Wilson,

starting from the dramatic and musical

text, substantiated and developed a new

“formula”, a new modality of scenic

communication based on visual codes.

These had to be explicit as to be

deciphered by anyone, even by

handicapped people, who might, only by

seeing the shows, understand them. The

codes had to possess a universal character,

to exceed linguistic and cultural barriers.

In this way, as I have shown above, to

every “cliché” in the stage manager’s

settings there should be attributed a form

and a dimension, which has to be placed in

a space and which has to contain their own

time interval (an interval necessary to

perception).

It is argued that Robert Wilson is a

continuator of Gordon Craig, since the

actors playing in his settings turn into

marionettes. The manager’s (Wilson’s)

work with the actors focuses on the

architectural dimension of the corporal

design, the precision and expression as

synthesized and direct as possible,

determined by the moment of the situation

in which the character finds himself in the

respective context. “He does not want

actors or singers; he wants models,

patterns” [6]. In this way, corporal-

expressive mini-structures are created and

integrated within a mega-structure of

image. This happens because Wilson does

not “present” humans and human passions,

but, using this ballet in images with a cold,

glacial, non-real appearance, with an

almost non-human precision of

movements, he proposes a series of

esthetical-moral and scientific values

which are only created by human bodies,

values which do not need a real “time”

frame but which exist within a spatial

temporality.

An aspect which has a deep impact on

the audience is Wilson's use of light; with

its help he creates the spatial dimension of

the stage. An empty stage, with no light, is

static and frozen.

Whoever steps onto a stage with no light,

in complete darkness, is acquainted with a

non-time sensation. Wilson considers that

time “flows” on a horizontal surface and

space (light) on a vertical surface; the

intersection of the two axes space-time

creates what he calls “tension”. The

dimension of this dramatic tension is

deciphered by the stage manager on the

basis of what we call musical dramaturgy.

According to this dimension, he constructs

every shot, every “cliché”, developing

relations of complementariness among the

drama, the musical discourse and the

scenic image. The fragmentation of the

actors’ movements and characters is like a

“dissection” of the whole creation, up to

words, syllables, and sounds, its

reconstruction and transformation into

scenic composition ensuing afterwards.

Being convinced that “we should set

the traditional school of theatre on fire”

[5], Wilson has troubled the strong

tradition of Western theatre, founded on

the idolatry of the word. Wilson has also

changed the way in which the theatre


looks like and sounds” [3, p. 76].

This deeply creative stage manager, whose

name has often been associated with

innovation in art, has succeeded in

bringing out a unique vision on theatre and

opera shows. Wilson's interpretations of

Wagner’s and Gluck’s works (two

reformers of the genre who “acknowledged

the priority of the drama, but [who]

flooded the stage with symphonic

commentaries” [4, p. 31]) unveil his

affinity to mystery, symbol, ritual and the

sonorous beaches on which he uses to

superpose his unique imagistic scenic

vision, the slowed down motions and

elaborated lights.

Although a controversial artist, Wilson

hopes that his inheritance will be “a footnote

in the history of theatre”, being aware of the

uniqueness of his artistic approach and of the

influence it exercises on humankind [7].

References

1. Entretien avec Robert Wilson. In:

Résonance no.11 (1997). Available at:

http://mediatheque.ircam.fr/articles/te

xtes/Ircam97b. Accessed: 30-08-2008.

2. Hernandez Andrade, L. Robert

Wilson. Available at:

http://classes.design.ucla.edu.

Accessed: 17-08-2008.

3. Holmberg, A. The Theatre of Robert

Wilson. Cambridge & New-York:

Cambridge University Press, 1996.

4. Ionescu Arbore, A. Realizarea

spectacolului liric. Bucureşti:

Muzicală Publishing House, 1992.

5. Lupu, Gabriela; Wilson, Robert. Ar

trebui să dăm foc şcolii de teatru

tradiŃional. In: Cotidianul (1 May 2008).

Available at: www.cotidianul.ro.

Accessed: 7-05-2008.

6. Robert Wilson’s „Butterfly” poses in

L.A. Available at:

http://www.operawest.com/index.php

?option=com_content&task=view&id

=18&Itemid=9. Accessed: 1-10-2008.

7. Stuart, R.B. The Extraordinary Life of

Multi-Media Artist Robert Wilson.

Available at:

http://www.hamptons.com/detail.php?

articleID=1858. Accessed: 3-09-2008.

8. Tonitza Iordache, M. and Banu, G.

Art of Theatre, Second Edition revised

and completed. Bucharest: Nemira

Publishing House, 2004.


1 Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Music.

SONOROUS HYPOSTASES FOR

A TANKA POEM

Cezara Florentina PETRESCU1

Abstract: The vocal miniatures pertaining to the composers Theodor Grigoriu and Dan Dediu, on which we make a series of analytical

considerations, prove the richness of the musical means through whose

intermediary there may be associated the word and the music. The lyrics

offer an original interpenetration between Zen and Christianity; there will be

insisted on the diversity of the two aphoristic sonorous hypostases, one based

on sonorous metaphors, the other one based on metastylism.

Key words: haiku, Romanian lieder, analytical landmark.

“To write vocal music means, after all, to

create relations between a multitude of

words and a multitude of musical sounds”

[5, p. 51]; the manner in which these

relations are built pertains to every

composer’s style. The lied, the supreme

sign for the musical refinement of a

culture, is a complex genre, with certain

features of structure and attitude, in which

the sounds express themselves, beside the

words, even more than poetry can do by

itself, as the sonorous completeness is

being built in connection to the meanings

of the text with whom it inseparably

merges for ever.

In an exposé dedicated to the Romanian

lied, the composer Carmen Petra

Basacopol stated that “the basic element of

lied is poetry” [4], also quoting the opinion

of the essayist Nicolae Steinhardt: “poetry

is not a simple genre. It is a state of mind, of the psycho-somatic complex, of the

temperamental disposition. It is in the most

obvious manner a state of grace (…) it is a

manner of knowledge analogous to

intuition or revelation, therefore

unutterably deeper, more precious, more

fragile” [4].

The lieder we submit for analysis belong to

Theodor Grigoriu (b.1926) and Dan Dediu

(b. 1968), two reference names of the

Romanian school of composition. The text

was written by the poet Şerban Codrin (b.

1945), who, through his lyrical creation of

Japanese type, inscribes in the “austere sign,

Zen, of the high altitude poetry”[1, p. 71].

It is about the third stanza in Agnus Dei

from Missa Requiem in which the poet,

adapting the Oriental fixed forms to the

spirit and letters of the Romanian

language, manages an interpenetration of

maximum originality, beyond the

doctrines, between Zen and Christianity,

leaving free way to interpretation, in a

waltz of spirit through symbols. „Missa

requiem unifies gunsaku and sequences on

the tissue of ideas in the Christian hymn of the Middle Ages. The suggestions of the

verses in Latin melt in a few dozens of

tanka and haiku, where Buddha seems

forgotten, there being accepted God’s

kingdom instead of the path towards

nirvana, or inversely, which is the very


same thing” [2, p. 235]. The poems haiku

and tanka by Şerban Codrin have also

“lured” other Romanian composers

(Eduard Térenyi, Vasile Spătărelu,

Cornelia Tăutu), but those who opted for

the lyrics “Thorns and wild roses / grow

red around / a wood triptych - / bleeding

once more / the crucified body” are

(according to the information we hold for

the time being) only Theodor Grigoriu and

Dan Dediu.

The lied composed by Theodor Grigoriu

is part of the cycle of 9 haikus for voice

and piano Dincolo de tăcere, Iisus [Beyond

Silence, Jesus]. Its lyrics are chosen after

an anthological criterion and follow a

central idea. Dan Dediu’s lied belongs to

the cycle Wolfiana op.59, unified

especially through the metastylistic manner

of musical treatment. Although it is an

important element, we will not discuss as

follows every cycle of lieder integrally and

the elements of musical dramaturgy it

contains, but we will try – through

revealing formal aspects as well as aspects

of musical language – to decode the

“interpretation” that each composer gave

to the same poem, and the different manner

in which each master translated through

music the signification of the words.

Both lieder, created on a poem of only

three lines are likewise of small

dimensions – 17 measures at Theodor

Grigoriu and 10 measures at Dan Dediu –

having as possible model Weber’s aphoristic creations; the composers did not

feel the need to bring an instrumental

“supplement”, of music without text,

except an intervention for the piano

(measures 4-6) in Dan Dediu’s musical

piece. Both creations unfold in a unique

measure of 4/4 and in a unique tempo

which suggests for the interpreters rather

an atmosphere, a state, then a developing

speed (Quasi lento at Grigoriu’s lied, and

Malincolico at Dediu’s lied). There is to be

mentioned that in the first case there do not

appear terms of expression, beside the

numerous rallentandos (measures 4-5;

measures 8-9; measures 12-13; measures

16-17) followed by the return to the initial

tempo, while in the second case there are

doloroso, sostenuto, dolce, but there are no

rallentandos or ritenutos, the composer

seemingly leaving at the interpreters’ will

the eventual – and minimal – fluctuations

of the unfolding speed that he proposes

(the crotchet ~ 80). Dediu’s lied, globally

seen, is seemingly more alert than the one

of Theodor Grigoriu, especially due to the

values of the notes which are being used

(subject on which we will return) and to

the “fugitive vision” on Jesus on the cross,

made iridescent by the transparent

sonorities used in small and very small

nuances by the younger composer whose

creative approach is marked by the speed

typical of the century.

As formal structure, the square shaped

construction created by Theodor Grigoriu

brings a little form with reprise, based on

the varied resumption of the segment

(phrase) b and a small evolution (the

segment/phrase c). The segmentation of

the musical articulation is generally

modelled by the poetical text, the

composer enhancing the text and creating a

certain expression through intuition and

imagination, through delving into

substance, and not through technical

means.

Dan Dediu’s lied proposes the formal structure a av. In phrase a (measures 1-4),

it is like an homage in metastylistic

manner brought to the “Cantor from

Leipzig”, the symbol BACH is well

incrusted in the piano accompaniment. The

series of seven descending perfect fifths

(measure 4), articulated in groups of two,

which lead to a movement of crotchets in

the grave register of the piano, with a

melodic motion from phrase a are to be

noted. With small modifications, phrase a

v (measures 7-10) is the shift upwards of

Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem

51

the first two measures of phrase a; the

accompaniment undergoes an inferior

chromatic translation which produces on

the expressive plan a more accentuated

darkening of the atmosphere generated by

the view of the Crucified body. In the last

two measures, the piano brings the symbol

BACH once more to the right hand;

afterwards, the left hand closes the lied

with two ascending fifths in the acute

register of the piano. (END).

Unlike Dan Dediu, who successively

brings (at the piano) the sounds of the

interval of fifths, both during the musical

piece (ex.1) and in its end (ex.2).

Ex. 1

Ex. 2

Theodor Grigoriu exploits the sonorous

effect created by simultaneously bringing out the acoustic potential of the interval

sounds, both in some moments during the

lied (ex.3), and in its end (ex.4), bathed by the sonority of the same interval.


Both lieder undergoing the analysis are

deprived of dimensioned piano

introductions, the instrument is the one

which “advances” the sonority: through a

single sound at Grigoriu (ex.5), through

accord structures at Dediu (ex.6).

As regards the type of writing, Theodor

Grigoriu resorts to a unique solution,

which is the harmonized (choral) carol.

The main melody, entrusted to the voice,

has a Byzantine „scent”, seemingly

invoking Jesus’ sacrifice for every mortal.

The vocal melodic line, unfolded in a

relatively restrained range (re1

- re2)

,

„sounds” in a si minor with mobile steps (II, VI, VII), but it is practically

neutralized by stereotyped accords of the

piano, which „glide” on parallel

sextaccords in a likewise restrained range,

between re - la2, all notes being

distributed, according to the writing, to be

executed with a single hand. This is one

moment in which the pianist is required

maximum expressivity and a

differentiation of the manners of attack,

control and safety on the fingers, to render

with a single hand the three voices of the

accompaniment.

Likewise, the pedalling – extremely

diversified and adapted both to the

instrument one disposes of during the

execution and to the expected (desired)

sonority – is an element which will give

the measure of the instrument’s qualities.

Dan Dediu creates a page of music with orchestral valences through a generous

musical range (Do1 – lab4), resorting to

elements of suggestion and symbol,

without doing this however directly,

preferring to submit a modal atmosphere

strongly diluted by bringing the chromatic

completeness ever since the very

beginning. The profile of his melodic lines,

completely different from the linearity of

those of Theodor Grigoriu, sends our

thought to the dodecaphonic manner of

treatment: almost in zigzag, in which

Ex. 4

Ex. 6

Ex. 3

Ex. 5

Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem

53

prevail the increased and diminished

intervals, beside the frequent exchange of

instrumental registers. The voice unfolds in

a comfortable range re1 – mi

2, but the

interpreter is required greater self-

assurance and ability because of the

intonation difficulty of the intervals and of

the frequent exchange of the sonorous

registers in the general sonority brought by

the piano.

As regards the set of intervals resorted

to, it seems interesting to mention that

Theodor Grigoriu pre-eminently uses (in

the melody of the voice) the intervals of

seconds (13 Big seconds 9 small seconds,

especially in a descending sense, although

from the expressive standpoint there is an

„equilibrium” masterly created through

compensating the descending intervals

with an almost equal number of ascending

intervals or of perfect primes, situations in

which there is resorted to the „effect”

given by intervals used a single time along

the musical piece (3m, 3M, 4p, 6M).

Rhythm, the fundamental parameter of the

musical discourse is approached in a

different manner by the two composers.

The vocal line created by Grigoriu is pre-

eminently constructed with values of

crotchets, minims or minims with point, in

close correlation with the text; the

segmentation of the musical articulation is

generally modelled by the poetical text, the

composer enhancing the word and creating

a certain expression through intuition and

imagination, through delving into

substance. The piano especially has

minims, complete notes and crotchets,

which creates conditions for the sonorities

to „live”, to develop themselves. The

distribution at a single hand of the piano

accompaniment does not constitute an

impediment for enhancing the pluriphonic

syntax but, on the contrary, stands for an

interpretative challenge in aphoristic

manner launched by the composer. The

two plans, the voice and piano

accompaniment, do not seem to merge,

giving the impression of a permanent

„discordance”, although, separately, each

may justify itself through the prism of the

consonance concept.

Dan Dediu resorts to a higher diversity

of intervals, both in the vocal and

instrumental part using, for instance, in the

melody of the vocal part 2m,3m, 4-, 2M,

3M, 1p, 6M, and also increased and

decreased intervals, in a pre-eminently

descending evolution starting in the high

points of the vocal range.

To exemplify this view, the two

important elements in the poetic text, the

„wood triptych” (ex. 7 and ex. 8) and the

„crucified body” (ex. 9 and ex. 10) are

dealt with in a different manner by the two

composers, concerning the melody of the

vocal part (intervals, sense of

development, rhythm).

Th. Grigoriu

Dediu


Th.Grigoriu

Dan Dediu

And about the piano part, in both cases

there exists a complementariness of the

senses.

For both musical pages, the relation

music-poetical text may seem surprising at

a first research. The composer Dan Dediu

puts aside sonorities obtained through a

metastylistic language to a poem of the

oriental type, tributary as aesthetics to elements taken over from Zen thinking.

The composer Theodor Grigoriu

considers that Japanese poetry is capable

of being associated to the reduction of the

range of expression means up to a

minimum level, which offers however an infinity of interpretative solutions. The

master provokes the interpreters to search

perpetually for something „else” in the art

of interpreting the lied and to recompose

not only the musical signs of the score, but

also their spirit, their inferred meaning, the

„unsaid”, decoding the signification

contained in the „richness of nuances and

indications with respect to expression,

which model the sonorous discourse, (...)

with a finely dosed charge of the sentiment

expressed through music” [3, p. 247].

References

1. Basa, V. Merii în floare. Eseu despre

structura poeziei lui Şerban Codrin. ConstanŃa: Ex Ponto Publishing

House, 2002.

2. Codrin, Ş. Marea tăcere. Slobozia:

Star Tipp Publishing House, 2001.

3. Cosma, V. Muzicieni din România,

vol.3. Bucureşti: Muzicală Publishing House, 2000.

4. Simpozion dedicat liedului românesc

în context universal Festivalul şi

concursul liedului românesc. Braşov:

October 2006.

5. Vieru, A. Cuvinte despre sunete.

Bucharest: Cartea Românească




THE SINGING PEDAGOGUE (part II)

A parallel between vocal therapy

exercises and vocalization

Claudia POP

1

Abstract: As a vocal pedagogue, I am trying to create a school to promote a safe pedagogy, to prevent the damage of the voice. Moreover, if the voice is damaged, I try

to cure it through non-medical methods, together with the vocal therapist and the

phoniatrician.

Keywords: Vocal therapy exercises, vocal exercises, vocalization.

1. Introduction

First, if the voice is already damaged,

we, the team formed with a

phoniatrician, recommend to determine

the vocal range of the dysphonic voice, comparing it to the medium of the

speaking voice (by the way, Dr. Bogdan

is the first phoniatrician in Romania; he

developed an original method to recover

the speaking voice. I have taken over and

researched, building a method to recover the singing voice, based on Dr. Bogdan's

exercises. I have included these exercises

in my everyday singing lessons).

Usually, for a healthy voice, the

“medium tone” is a note between C1 (the

central C is C1) and F

1. For a dysphonic

voice, this medium tone is lower or

higher than normal, so we will try to

higher it up or lower it down, according

to the phoniatric evaluation.

If the voice is healthy, I recommend to

start the vocalization with the “medium

tone” of speaking, meaning C1 for mezzo-

sopranos or altos, and D1 for sopranos. For

masculine voices, B for baritones and

basses, and E flat for tenors.

2. Exercises for Resonance

The goal:

• To lift the vocal sound into the

superior resonance system, especially

into the nasal cavity, by the activation

of the soft palate. One gets then a “nasal

resonance” or a “honky” muffled

sound [34].

Means of doing: • The student will stand up and inhale

slowly, keeping in mind the correct posture

and breathing technique. The exhalation

will be only through the nose, trying to

phonate using the “[h]m” consonants with

the mouth opened;

• The larynx will be comfortably low,

the pharynx is large, the tongue is relaxed

and lifted posteriorly, the velum is relaxed

and the mouth large opened;

• The placement of the sound should be

localized in the anterior facial bones;

• The emotional atmosphere should be

relaxed, the student should picture a

perfect day, exclaiming in mind: “hm-hm-

hm-hm, what a wonderful day!”

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII 56

• The glottal attack will be aspirate,

firm, light, with the “imaginary h”

(meaning a rate of air flowing through

the nose, before the sound is heard);

• The student sings the sound “[h]m”,

shortly, repeating it 5-10 times, on

different notes, from semitone to

semitone, focusing on the forward

placement of the nasal sound and the

abdominal “appoggio”. Then s/he will

sing a sustained tone;

Not to forget:

• The glottal attack should be clear,

firm, light, with the “imaginary [h]”, and

the forward placement of the sound

resonance into the anterior facial bones

and the feeling of the abdominal

“appoggio”.

This is somehow similar to the “yawn-

sigh” technique used in vocal therapy.

The various ways to use the “yawn-sigh” in a regular vocalization for resonance

may be summarized in the following

notations:

Fig. 1. Range for all exercises

Fig. 2. A vocalization for resonance

These exercises can be continued as followed:

Fig. 3. A vocalization for resonance in major second

Fig. 4. A vocalization for resonance in major third

Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue 57

Fig. 5. A vocalization for resonance in perfect fifth

3. Exercises which Combine the Consonant

m with the Vowels a, e, i, o, u:

The goal: To obtain the relaxation of the

pharyngeal muscles, the “open the throat”-

movement for the vocal expression of the

vowels a, e, i, o, u, without any effort,

means to display a larger pharyngeal

resonance cavity. It is known that the nasal

consonants and the plosives can discipline

the soft palate, since arching the velum is

necessary for the implosion phase.

Means of doing: This exercise is like taking inventory of

one’s voice.

The pharynx should be enlarged, to

acquire freedom of phonation,

pronouncing [h]m (an imaginary h, for the

light glottal attack) about 3-4 seconds, then

lightly pronouncing the vowels a, e, i, o, u.

[h] M – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM;

[h] M – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM;

[h] M – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM;

[h] M – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM;

[h] M – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM;

[h] M – MM – MA – MM – ME – MM – MI – MM – MO – MM – MU – MU – MM.

The jaw will be moderately low, being a

guarantee for a low larynx, trying the “yawn-sigh” sensation, by picturing the “interior smile”. This avoids the muscular tension which can appear in the tongue, pharynx and larynx; � The subject must be sure to get a deep

breath before the attack of the tone, to sustain the phonation;

� The articulation of each vowel will be soft and clear, avoiding the hard glottal attack, having in mind a good breath control, a forward and high placement of the vowels, as nearly as possible in the same place as the consonant m, the so-called “mask” resonance; This exercise can be repeated 5-6 times,

each time in a much higher key, and can be transposed upward and downward, from

semitone to semitone, depending on the range of the individual subject.

Not to forget:

• The vocal sound should have both “pointed and round” qualities; • The glottal attack should be firm and light in the same time, using the “imaginary [h]”; • The abdominal support and the resonance placement of the vowels as well as for the consonant [m] should be as near as possible.

Fig. 6. Range for all exercises


Fig. 7. A vocalization for the relaxation of the pharyngeal muscles

Fig. 8. An enumeration exercise, using legato and the intonation of only one sound,

counting from one to ten

This exercise continues from semitone to

semitone within the recommended range.

Fig. 9. An enumeration exercise of the days

of the weeks, from Monday to Sunday,

using legato and the intonation of only one

sound

This exercise will also continue from

semitone to semitone within the

recommended range.

All these exercises present the physical

part of the “work itself”. I believe that beyond the exercises, the individual work

with a subject means to focus also one's

particular attention on the education of the

student’s mind, the student’s soul and the

student’s body. Paraphrasing Novalis (who

was the pseudonym of Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (May 2,

1772 - March 25, 1801, an author and

philosopher of early German

Romanticism), [35], the fusion of all the

above mentioned aspects creates the

“magic of the pedagogical art”, which

consists in “using arbitrarily the world of

the sensibilities”.

Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue 59

Thus, if we, the singing teachers, the vocal

coaches, the vocal therapists or, the vocal

retrievals, named by me singing pedagogues, use a proper vocal technique, based on or

related to the phoniatric exercises, we will not

only succeed on the vocal field, keeping the

voice healthy, but also train the singers'

minds, preventing the illness of the voice, and

offering an alternative for a healthy and long-

living voice.

In the first and second part of this study,

I firmly recommend not to respect the

dictum: “just relax and sing naturally”,

because that can induce the laziness of the

whole mechanism which produces the

singing voice.

My opinion is that this is a matter of

muscular independence which is necessary

for any delicate skill. The extrinsic

laryngeal musculature, the neck muscles

have to be consciously controlled and the

intrinsic musculature, which is largely

unconscious, must be activated. Only then,

we can have the sensation of the

“resonance” or the sensation of the

forward placement of the sound. This

means the perfect coordination between

diaphragmatic action and the vocal cord

activity during the process of emission of

the singing voice.

We, the singing pedagogues, will always

be concerned with freedom and natural

voice production, acquired through years of

assiduous and conscious professor-student

work. The real development of vocal technic comes not only with a stronger and louder

voice, but with the addition of freedom,

agility, brilliance and beauty to the voice.

We will also succeed to acquire a healthier,

professional voice, both in speaking and in

singing.

Singing is one of the most competitive

professions. In my point of view, the

knowledge of the mechanism which

produces the voice, the correct body

posture, the breathing technique, the

phonation, the vocalization, and the

training of the speaking voice are the

foundation of an objective singing

pedagogy and mastery of the vocal technic,

both of the singing and speaking voice, it

is the sovereignty of a singing pedagogue.

References

1. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Results of

Experiments with Human Larynxes.

In: Practica Oto–Rhino Laryngdegica,

1959.

2. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Données

nouvelles sur la function laryngee. In:

J. Franç. O.R.L., 1959.

3. Cohen, A. L'Art de bien chanter, 1666,

of Jean Millet. France, 1969.

4. Bogdan, C-tin. Foniatrie clinică. In:

ViaŃa Medicală Românească.

Bucharest: Publishing House, 2001.

5. Bica, N. The phoniatria in a

conductor’s vision. The Doctorate

Thesis, Cluj, 2000.

6. Brodnitz, Fr. Keep your voice healthy.

New York: Harper & Brothers


7. Brown, R. The Singing Voice. New

York: Macmillan Publishing House,

1966.

8. Cernei, E. Enigme ale vocii umane.

Bucharest: Litera Publishing House,

1982.

9. Cleall, Ch. Voice Production in Vocal

Technique. Paris: Alphonse Leduc

Publishing House, 1937. 10. Curry, R. The Mechanism of the

Human Voice. New York: Ed.

Longmans Green, 1960.

11. Deyoung, R. The Singer’s Art.

Chicago: DePaul University, 1958,

litography.

12. Dupon-Tersen, Y. Physiologie et

psychophysiologie de la phonation.

In : La Voix, cours International de

Phonologie et de Phoniatrie. Paris:

Librairie Maloine Publishing House,

1953.


13. Eckert-Mobius, H. C. A. Lehrbuch der

Hals - Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde.

Leipzig: Georg Theime Publishing

House, 1964.

14. Fucks, V. The Art of Singing and Voice

Technique. New York: Ed. London

House & Maxwell, 1964.

15. Fugére, L. Nouvelle Methode Pratique

de Chant. Paris: Enoch De Cre


16. Garde, E. Le monophassage de la voix

parlée. Bordeaux: Studii, 1979.

17. Garzanti della Musica Encyclopedia.

Available at:

http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/887469

18. Gârbea, Şt.; Cotul, G. Fonoaudiologia.

Bucharest: Didactical and Pedagogical


19. Gârbea, Şt., Pitiş, M. Patologia vocală.

Bucharest: Didactical and Pedagogical


20. Gould, J. W. The Clinical Voice

Laboratory: Clinical Application of

Voice Research. In: Journal of Voice,

1988.

21. Grant, J. C. An Atlas of Anatomy.

London: Ed. Bailliere. Tindall & Cox,

1962.

22. Husson, R. Vocea cîntată. Bucureşti:

Ed. Muzicală a Uniunii

Compozitorilor, 1960.

23. Lawson, F. The Human Voice: A

Concise Manual on Training the

Speaking and Singing Voice. New

York: Ed. Harper & Brothers, 1964.

24. Lewis, J. Singing Without Tears.

London: Ed. Ascherberg, Hopwood

and Crew, 1970.

25. Marchesi, M. Ten Singing Lessons.

New York: Macmillan, 1901.

26. Miller, F. E. Vocal Art-Science. New

York: G. Schimmer, Inc.1917.

27. Petrescu, L. RespiraŃia, vorbirea, şi

viaŃa. Bucureşti: Editura Tineretului.

28. Pop, I. ŞtiinŃa, Arta şi Pedagogia

cântului. Bucharest:. Music Academy,

1996.

29. Perelló, J. The Break of the Singing

Voice. Folia Phoniatrica, 1993.

30. Pommez, J. Les disphonies

fonctionnelles. Bordeaux: Studies,

1972.

31. Raskin, J. American Bel canto. In:

Opera News, Jan.15, 1966.

32. Ross, K. Final report of the voice

teachers’ survey. In: Research Comm.

N.A.T.S., 1947.

33. Sarafoleanu, D.; Sarafoleanu, C.

Compendiu O.R.L. Bucharest: National


34. Vennard, W. Singing: the Mechanism

and the Technic. Carl Fisher, Inc.

1967.

35. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism


TRADITION AND CONTEMPORANEITY

IN DRĂGAICA

Mădălina RUCSANDA1

Abstract: Drăgaica (Midsummer’s Day) is a custom specific to the summer period and integrated into the group of customs and songs which anticipate

or accompany picking the harvest; it is celebrated on the 24th of June, on the

eve of the summer solstice, and it both means the protective agrarian divinity

of the eared cornfields, cattle and married women, being the equivalent of

Sânziana1 (St. John’s Day), and the ritual which refers to the prosperity and

protection of grain crops. Nowadays, the custom has disappeared, but sporadically it is still performed in the areas of Buzău and Teleorman. The

custom is also known by the Slav peoples: Polish people, Ukrainian people

and Bulgarian people.

Key words: Custom, songs, prosperity, protection, grain crops.


Customs should be known in their

beauties and splendour, as besides their

spectacular character, they also embrace

the human valences embedded, by

harmoniously combining ritual acts and

ceremonies, juridical and economical acts,

moral values and aesthetic expressions, old

myths and knowledge provided by the

people’s experience. All these are

syncretically expressed by poetry, music

and dance. Independently of their name or

manner of performance, the customs do

not belong only to the village in which

they are performed, but to the nation, to the

whole country due to the echo felt in the

cultural life and the place they take in the

contemporary Romanian culture.

Nowadays, songs and dances have become

cultural goods by including them into

shows, TV programmes, radio programmes

or concerts, as unlike other times, they are

not produced for the needs of those who

dance the dances or sing the songs, they

are especially produced for the outside

audience. As regards customs, things are

slightly different: a great part of them are

integrated into the people’s everyday life

and their important moments in life, which

have not changed.

Drăgaica (Midsummer’s Day) is a

custom specific to the summer period and

integrated into the group of customs and

songs which anticipate or accompany

picking the harvest; it is celebrated on the

24th

of June, on the eve of the summer

solstice and it both means the protective

agrarian divinity of the eared cornfields,

cattle and married women, being the

equivalent of Sânziana1 (St. John’s Day),

and the ritual which refers to the prosperity

and protection of grain crops.

Etymologically, Drăgaica (Midsummer’s

Day) – an autochthonous custom whose

Dacian native name has been lost – is also

the equivalent of Sânziana (St. John’s

Day), a word which comes from the

Romans from Sancta Diana (which is also

common nowadays in Transylvania) and it


62

is also known under this name in Oltenia,

the Banat, Transylvania, Maramuresh,

Bucovina; it is also known under the

following names: Dârdaică, Împărăteasă

(Empress), Stăpâna Surorilor (Mistress of

the Sisters), Regina Holdelor (Queen of the

Grain Crops), Mireasă (Bride), Sora cea

Mare (Elder Sister). In the groups of

people in which Drăgaica is accompanied

by a girl dressed like a boy, the custom is

called Drăgan, Drăgănoi, Mire (Groom),

BăieŃoi (Big Boy).

Nowadays the custom has disappeared,

but sporadically it is still performed in the

areas of Buzău and Teleorman.

For the first time, this custom was

mentioned by Dimitrie Cantemir in the

work Descrierea Moldovei (Description of

Moldavia), where he identified the

character Drăgaica with Ceres, the Roman

agrarian goddess: ”Drăgaica seems to

represent the goddess Ceres. Indeed, when

the grains begin to ripen, all the girls in

the neighbourhood villages select the most

beautiful and good-looking one, whom they

call Drăgaica. They crown her with an ear

wreath, ornamented with many finely

embroidered head kerchiefs, with the keys

of the granaries suspended on her hands

and accompany her with great ceremony

on the fields. In such ornaments, with the

arms unfolded and the head kerchiefs

against the wind, as if she were flying,

Drăgaica gets back home, singing and

dancing, while she passes through all the villages she passed before with the great

train of people and surrounded by all the

other girls who often call her their sister

and mistress in very nice songs. Moldavian

girls, who live in the countryside, are

willing to be honoured like this, although

an eternal tradition states that the girl who

performs the role of Drăgaica does not

marry for the next three years".

The customs, beliefs and the Romanian

folklore of Drăgaica trace back to a

Neolithic goddess, a lunar, equinoctial and

agrarian divinity, a counterpart of Diana and

Iuno in The Roman Pantheon and of Hera

and Artemis in the Greek Pantheon; in the

popular belief it is considered that Drăgaica

would walk on ears or float in the air during

the summer solstice and would enjoy

singing and dancing over fields and forests,

accompanied by her bridal train of virgin

deities and beautiful girls.

It is also considered that Drăgaica is

born on the 9th of March, the spring

equinox in The Julian Calendar, the day

when Mother Dochia died; she

miraculously grows up and becomes

mature until 24th

June, the day of the

summer solstice in The Gregorian

Calendar, when Sânziana (Our Lady’s

Bedstraw) or Drăgaica, the plant which

bears her name, is in bloom. She is also

invoked by virgins at marriage age and by

wives holding their children in arms during

the wedding dance.

In Teleorman, the custom is performed

as a show presented at the housekeepers’

houses on 24th

June by a group of 5-7 girls

aged between 14 and 19, dressed in white,

with a veil on their faces, on which flowers

of Our Lady’s Bedstraw are pinned. The

girls hold a scythe in their hands and their

meaning is to announce the forthcoming

harvest and the symbolic death of the spirit

of wheat. One of them is selected to be

Drăgaica, who is wreathed with wheat

ears. In the groups of people in the south of

Muntenia, the girl who performs the role of the divinity is dressed like a bride, in a

white dress, wearing an Our Lady’s

Bedstraw wreath on her head.

A few weeks before the event, the bride

(Drăgaica) and the groom (Drăgan,

Drăgăicoi, BăieŃoi) are selected. In

Dobrogea, girls use to wear men masks.

The scythe is an important object, which

girls with men masks and other female

participants hold in their hands; in

Teleorman there is a banner ornamented

with garlic, coloured ribbons and flowers

Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica 63

(similar to those used by the căluş

dancers). Once set up, Drăgaica’s train of

virgins goes to the village or over the

fields; at stopping places or crossroads, the

girls get into a circle singing and

performing a lively dance whose

movements draw up a cross.

An important element of the dance of

Drăgaice is the imitation of a scythe fight,

which uses to happen especially when two

groups of people meet; in old times, this

custom used to cause much pain, as it was

a kind of bravery, similar to a duel2. After

the dance, the girls receive gifts from the

owner of the grain crops for whom the

girls dance and sing and, in some places in

Dobrogea, they are also offered honey. All

the people whose grain crops have been

passed through by Drăgaice believe that

their harvest will be rich and protected

from drought and hail. The group of girls

wanders in the village accompanied by a

child who is holding a banner (on which

ears, garlic, absinth, Our Lady’s Bedstraw

flowers are pinned), a whistler (who

accompanies the girls’ song and dance by

playing the flute, the bagpipe or the

clarinet) and sometimes by a drums player.

The ritual song of Drăgaica is followed

by Hora drăgăicii (Drăgaica’s Hora),

which is usually a dance tune, and by other

two, three dances, specific to the custom:

Brâu and Geamparale or Cârligu and

Floricica (in Brânceni village) or BăluŃa

and Floricica in Beiu village (always present in the ritual dance of the Căluşari)

or Buceacul (in Poroschia).

Among other ritual acts, Drăgaicele use

to tear strips of their handkerchiefs or head

kerchiefs and give them away to the hosts

while the women who attend the

performance use to give them in return

items of their children’s clothes to be

pinned on the banner. Children are often

hold by Drăgaice in their arms to be

dandled. Although in Moldavia and in

some counties of Muntenia and Oltenia

fights among the groups of Drăgaice armed

with sticks, sickles or scythes have not

been attested, they are mentioned in the

folk expression with reference to fight,

scuffle, wrestle, tussle: ”Iată Drăgaica"

(Here is Drăgaica ),”A căpătat Drăgaica"

(They received Drăgaica), ”S-a făcut

Drăgaică" (He/She became Drăgaică) -

(Dolj, Prahova, Râmnicu Sărat, Putna,

Suceava).

In Transylvania, on 24th June, the girls

pick up Our Lady’s Bedstraw; they make

up bunches and plash circular and cross-

shaped wreaths on the musical background

performed by the country lads and their

extempore songs. These wreaths and

bunches are brought to the village, where

they are hung on gates, doors, windows,

sheds, beehives and even on vegetable

beds or thrown over houses and leant

against eaves; people believe that they will

protect their house and household against

evil forces, and they will also bring good

luck, health and wealth to people, animals

and crops.

From a musical point of view, the lyrics

of the song are made on an octosyllabic

catalectic or acatalectic pattern, by the

appearance of the completion vowels (like

u, in example no.1 or î, in example no. 2);

the melody is generally syllabic,

unornamented, the profile is sinuously

descending.

The loss of the initial ritual character

allowed the amplification of the lyrics with new, satirical, moralising elements.

The aksak rhythm is characteristic to the

vocal melody of Drăgaica, which is based

on the identical repetition of the same

specific formula (see examples no. 1, 3):

The sonorous patterns are varied, from

the hemitonic tetrachord system in which


64

the fourth step is situated at an increased

fourth interval as compared with the

fundamental chord (like in the example

no. 1).

Tetra chord system

Anhemitonic pentatonic system type 1

The anhemitonic pentatonic chord-

system of type 1, with a crenellated profile,

is in favour of the perfect fourth intervals

and the great third (e.g. no. 2) and the

modes like the Doric-Mixolydian

heptatonic chord system with increased

second between the steps III-IV; here, the

characteristic is the presence of the great

third, which is ascendant on the

fundamental and the perfectly ascending jump of the fourth to step I at the end of

the melodic stanza (example no. 3).

Chromatic mode 1

The architectonic pattern is fixed, and

binary; the song has two melodic lines,

which are similar in terms of content; the

second line or both lines are repeated: in example no. 2, the pattern is ABBv, in

song no. 3, the pattern is AAvBBv.

The custom is also known by the Slav

peoples: Polish people, Ukrainian people

and Bulgarian people.

In the Romanian mythology, Drăgaica is a special name given to a certain category

of female aerial spirits dressed in white

and appearing at night to bewitch men

(Iele), who according to the folkloric

superstition, take revenge on people

scalding them with boiled water. People in

villages state that Drăgaica (Midsummer’s

Day) is an ”evil” feast; in case they do not

celebrate it, they could have many

misfortunes: for example, the ones who

ignore the feast, continuing to perform

their daily chores, could die by drowning

or be struck by lightening.

Old people also believe that the girls

who want to get married soon have to turn

somersaults naked in grass and wash

themselves with dew early in the morning.

Married women can also perform this

ritual to be loved by their husbands all year

long and have healthy and beautiful

children. The dew in the Midsummer’s

Eve has mysterious qualities; in many parts

of the world it is believed that if you

sprinkle with it all over your body it will

become attractive and fit, and if you wash

your face with it, you will become good-

looking and haughty.

On Drăgaica it is believed that medicinal

plants can be successfully picked up in the

forests. Many of the flowers and plants

picked on this day to be used as remedies

are brought to church to be consecrated

and thus purified of the negative influences

of Rusalii/ Iele (Whitsuntide/Female Aerial

Spirits), the evil fairies of the forests. The

laurel leaves and the plants picked before the first rays of the sun, still covered with

dew (then dried and kept in a white silk

sachet) get magical properties.

Sânzienele are also considered by the

young girls a way to find their predestined

husband and the time they are supposed to

marry. The men’s cross-shaped wreaths

and the girls’ circle-shaped wreaths are

thrown over their houses. If they get stuck

on the roof, this is a sign of wedding,

otherwise the predestined man or woman

still have to be expected. In some villages,

Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica 65

there is another custom: on their way back

home, the girls watch through the wreath,

and the age and the physical appearance of

the person they can see are signs of the

moral qualities of their future husband.

If on Drăgaica’s Eve, the girls put

untwined Our Lady’s Bedstraw under their

pillow, at night they will dream their

predestined husband; if the flower is

pinned in their hair by virgins or young

wives, they will become attractive and

lovable.

After Drăgaica, there are first signs that

summer turns to winter: days become

shorter, and nights become longer, the

wheat’s root gets dried and grains get

ripen, the hen constellation (the Pleiades)

is visible, flowers lose their perfume and

their healing power decreases, cuckoos

stop singing, fireflies start roaming in

forests, the leaves in the elm tree, poplar

tree and lime tree turn upside down. The

cultured country or mountainous feasts to

celebrate the agrarian goddess have

become opportunities for young people to

meet each other in view of marriage.

1. DRĂGAICA

2. HAI, DRĂGAICĂ, SĂ SĂRIM

Muntenia, Teleorman


66

3. DRĂGAICA

Poroschia, Teleorman

References

1. Petriceicu Haşdeu, B.: Etymologicum

Magnum Romaniae. DicŃionarul

limbii istorice şi poporane a

românilor, vol. I-II. Bucureşti: Editura

Minerva, 1972-1974, p. 490.

2. Nicola, Ioan R. et al. Curs de folclor

muzical, part I. Bucureşti: Editura

Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1963, p. 192.

3. Oprea, G.; Agapie, L. Folclor muzical

românesc. Bucureşti: Editura

Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1983, p.172.

1 Our Lady’s Bedstraw is a yellow-golden

flowered plant, nicely perfumed, which grows in the lawn, in grasslands, in forest edges and

glades.


THE FUNCTIONAL PYRAMID IN

BACHIAN MUSIC

Ciprian łUłU1

Abstract: Being at the border between the polyphonic and the harmonic

period, J.S. Bach’s creation represents a synthesis of the values of past and

the referential founding of the classic harmony. The exploitation of the field

of his creation reveals the multitude of parametric nuances which the author combines in each opus, exquisitely offering a valuable simplicity, enriched by

spirit and love. This study proposes a review of the functional presences and

of their continuation in different hypostases, imagined under the form of a

pyramid of harmonies, part of Bach’s spectromorphologic universe.

Key words: harmony, parametric nuance, pyramid of harmonies,

spectromorphology, functional coloring, functional cellularity.


The spectromorphology has as object of

study the revelation of the multitude of

facets that a musical entity may contain,

the “multiplicity” that they can exist into.

Permanently submitted to an influx of

multi-parametric selections, the analysis

focuses on the different segmental paths

which compose the architectural spectral

“multiplicity”, starting from the detail of

the uniqueness and going to complex

sonorous constructions.

The multiple existence of an entity is

perceived at the level of two basic

standards:

a. “the actant” which represents the

main, active and explicit level where the

information is directly presented;

b. “the adjuvant” which represents the

passive, shadowed, implicit level,

companion of the main level, where the

information is latently present, waiting for

the appropriate context for manifesting and

explaining.

The spectromorphology presupposes

formal launchings in the analysis of a song

focalized on several levels, starting from

the explicit level (the analysis according to

the “classic” parameters: rhythm, melody,

polyphony, harmony, heterophony, etc.)

and continuing with more refined analyses.

The latter part implies a collection of the

analytic material and a division into plain

samples of specific or connective inter-

parametric particularities as well as a

pyramidal structuring of the sonorous

material.

It is this type of structuring that I intend

to focus on by reviewing their functional

presences and their manifestations in

different, singular or complex hypostases

on different contextual levels. This fact

triggers a complex spectrum which

demands organizing rules for the

functional typologies and their

classification. These typologies and their

classification are established according to

the pyramidal model under the form of

“absorbing columns of functional


68

consistencies whose organizing sight

projects against a referential scale which

derives, in a different manner, from the

very typological development of all

classifications with conjectural-parametric

fulfillment”[3]. At the same time, the

analytic focalization on the functional

detail, latently or explicitly formulated,

imposes a detached approach by the proof

of a real pyramid of vertical, multi-layered

harmonies.

A. THE FUNCTIONAL COLORING

In the tonal-functional system (musical

system based on the gravitation of sounds

towards a tonal centre) any accord can

reveal its functionality, according to its

“relationship” to the tonal centre, where its

contribution to the support of the

gravitation is tributary to a pre-established

hierarchy. On the one hand, the accord, as

a functional cell, manifests in different

hypostases, revealing its valences

according to ornamental-functional

criteria.

1. The simple functional cell (blank) –

the zero accord: is a “pure”, unique accord,

free of any dissonance (element that does

not belong to the accord) which supports

by its own power, more exactly, by its

constitutive elements (tierce, quint,

dominant seventh or, as the case may be,

lowered seventh).

Fig. 1. Three-part invention in B minor, m.

3 (the second thematic motive)

2. The simple functional cell

(ornamental) – the colored accord:

consists in ornamentations of unique

accords by the help of an isolated

melodious note (passage, embroidery, etc).

Fig. 2. Two-part invention in D minor (the

theme)

3. The complex functional cell: it is

noticed by functional launchings in more

complex hypostases, charged with

ornamental accords (with coloring

functions) whose composition comes from

the cooperation of the foreign sounds

among them, or by the conversion of a

base component. The functional units

which compose the functional cell are: the

main accord (referential) and those of

ornamental coloring. There are several

types of composed functional cells, starting

from the palette of the melodious-

ornamental formulas by rapport to the

main accord. Thus, each ornamental

accord “acts” according to the model

imposed by the corresponding melodious-

ornamental formula.

COLORING FUNCTIONS,

COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLEX

FUNCTIONAL CELL

a. Passage-coloring function: Ax B

Fig. 3

There are two different main functions

(A and B), and the coloring function (x)

placed, by substitution, at the end of the

first accord (A), is related (by the help of

the passage) to the second accord (B).

łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music 69

Thus, there are involved three functional

units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the

formula of the passage, Ax B, within two

functional cells, one complex (Ax) and one

simple or complex (B).

Fig. 4. WK I, Prelude in G-sharp minor,

m. 3-4

b. Embroidery-coloring function: A x A

Fig. 5

There is one main function (A), and the

coloring function (x) placed, by

substitution, inside the pylon accord (A).

Thus, there are involved two functional units (pylon-ornament-pylon), which, by

the repetition of the former, justifies the

embroidery function (type A x A) within a

single complex functional cell (A x A).

Fig. 6. WK I, Fugue in A-flat major,

(the theme, m. 1-2)

c. Appoggiatura-coloring function: A xB

Fig. 7

There are two main different functions

(A and B) and the coloring function (x)

placed, by substitution, at the beginning of

the second main accord (B).



formula of the appoggiatura, AxB, within

two functional cells, a simple or complex

one (A) and a complex one (xB).

Fig. 8. WK II, Fugue in B-flat major,

thematic answer (fragment, m. 7-8)

d. Anticipation-coloring function: Ab B

Fig. 9


(A and B), and the coloring function (b)

placed, by substitution, at the end of the

first accord (A), which has an anticipatory

function for the second accord (B).




70

formula of the anticipation, Ab B, within

two functional cells, a complex one (Ab)

and a simple or complex one (B).

Fig. 10. Piano Partita no. 3 in A minor

(Fantasia), m. 10-11

e. Delaying-coloring function: A aB

Fig. 11


(A and B), and the coloring function (a)

placed, by substitution, at the beginning of

the base accord (B), as a lengthening of the

first functional pylon on the territory of B,

which suggests the already-known pattern

of the delaying formula.



specific formula of the delay, A aB, within

two functional cells, a simple or complex

one (A) and a complex one (aB).

Fig. 12. WK II, Prelude in D minor,

m. 3-4 (the theme)

B. THE FUNCTIONAL CELLULARITY

As it was pointed out in the previous

pages, in Bach’s composition the

functional cell is presented in two

hypostases:

- the simple functional cell, which has a

single accord, as main unit equivalent from

a dimensional-metric point of view to the

cell itself.

- the complex functional cell, which is

denser than the simple cell, and marked by

the presence of some secondary functions

of an ornamental coloring, whose

contribution increases proportionally to

their dimension and linear consistency.

Some further explanations shall clarify

the proposed terminology.

1. The main function represents a main

functional unit, a pylon accord, a harmonious

resistance structure which sustains the

melodic, harmonic, polyphonic and

heterophonic paths (see example 1 - 12).

2. The additional function refers to any

coloring accord which, usually, substitutes

a main functional unit; more exactly, it is

about the replacement of one segment in

the development of the main function with

a supplementary accord, different from this one. This additional functional unit appears

because of the cooperation of notes that are

exterior to the main functional unit (see

example 1 - 12).

The components of an additional

function cooperate either for the definition

of an accord or for the confirmation of the

accord’s identity: either both elements are

exterior to the base accord, or an element

of the main function cohabitates with an

element exterior to it.

As a consequence, the addition function

can be expressed differently, more

precisely or more ambiguously, depending

on the degree of detachment to the

reference accord, such as:

łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music 71

a. The real additional function of sounds

exterior to the main functional unit (see

example 6).

b. The ambiguous additional function

which is composed of hybrid elements: at

least one exterior sound and, respectively,

one component of the main functional unit

(see example 4).

c. The ornamental additional function (the

ornamental function) which is composed

of sounds exterior to the main accord,

which have, each, melodious-ornamental

and expressive formulas.

Fig. 13. WK I, Fugue in A minor, .m.49

d. The additional function is composed of

sounds exterior to the main accord, which

enter the composition of this additional

function, isolated sounds whose

functionality cannot be inserted in the

already-known formulas.

3. Particularizations of the additional

function

As it was pointed out before, the additional function, localized within the

functional cell, is to be found in five

variants, differentiated by the involvement

manner in correlation with the pylon, the

supporting accords. Each of these state

their affiliation to or their detachment from

the main function by the status of sounds

which compose them, as exterior notes to

the main accord pylon which they can

ignore or to which they can adhere under

the form of a known melodious formula

(ornamental or expressive) as functions of

the ornamental addition.

By cumulating these two categories, an

entire vision on the ornamental addition

results, which is mixed on the grouping of

the five types of functional coloring:

• Passage addition functions –

ornamental

• Embroidery addition functions -

ornamental

• Appoggiatura addition functions –

ornamental

• Anticipation addition functions –

ornamental

• Delaying addition functions –

ornamental

4. The typology of the functional cellularity

The variety of the functional

particularizations on a determined temporal-metric unit forms a rich typological palette of

functional cells, starting from a simple accord

to most elaborate formulas resulted from the

interference with the additional units, with

multi-layered productions according to the

cumulative densities, in direct or latent expressions.

Bach’s harmonic recipes rely on three

categories of constituents:

a. The simple functional cell is made of a

single accord – the main function,

dimensionally equivalent to the cell itself,

which we can find in two variants

previously presented:

• The blank functional cell, where the

zero accord is expressed in exclusive

formulations by only its basic

constituents (see example 1);

• The colored functional cell, whose

main function is enriched by

melodious-ornamental, expressive,

unique notes, without having the intention of deriving from an

additional accord (see example 2).


72

b. The compound functional cell is made

of two functional entities, a main,

referential one, and an additional one. The

typology of the compound functional cells

derives from the nomenclature of the

additional cells which enter their

constituency:

• Ornamental compound functional

cells: of passage, of embroidery, of anticipation, of appoggiatura,

of delay;

• Additional functional cells: of

passage, of embroidery, of

anticipation, of appoggiatura, of

delay.

c. The complex functional cell is made of a

minimum of three functional units (a main

one and additional ones) whose linear and

between-level combinations generate a

typological pyramid which is much more

elastic and complex than the previous one.

Fig. 13. Goldberg Variations, var.21,

Canone alla Settimana, m. 8

Known as “melodic note”, the melodic

dissonance does not belong to the

composition of the accords [2]. The

traditional harmony accords them a special

treatment. At the opposite side of this

vertical harmonic concept is the linear

concept promoted by Ernst Kurth [1], who

assigns an absolute priority to the melodic

vector, considering the harmonic

parameter a “secondary phenomenon”.

The bachian style is positioned at the

crossing of both orientations (the

horizontal and the vertical one), as a

symbiosis of the harmonic concept and the

melodic/polyphonic one.

References

1. Kurth, E. Grundlagen des linearen

Kontrapunkts, Bachs melodische

Polyphonie. Bern, 1917.

2. ToduŃă, S. Formele muzicale ale

barocului în operele lui J.S. Bach, vol. I.

Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1969.

3. łuŃuianu, T. Spectromorfii în partituri

palestriniene şi bachiene. Bucureşti:

Editura Vergiliu, 2005.


THE HEXACHORD AND HEPTACHORD

MODAL SYSTEMS IN T. CIORTEA’S

PIANO COMPOSITIONS

Petre-Marcel VÂRLAN1

Abstract: In his piano music, the composer Tudor Ciortea used different types of modes, extracted from the Romanian folk music or from the music of other

cultures. Some of these modes have up to seven intonation elements, a feature

which, according to T. Ciortea, represents the Romanian national musical spirit.

Key words: Ciortea, hexachord, heptachord, modes, piano.


The piano works represent an important

part of Tudor Ciortea’s compositions; they

consist of 42 piano works, grouped into

suites like Suita pentru pian pe teme

populare târnăvene, Suită pentru pian (on

folk themes from the Banat collected by S.

Drăgoi), Patru cântece maramureşene

pentru pian or into cycles like six piano

sketches De-ale copiilor, Trei piese

(Elegie, Capriciu, Poveste) or self

independent plays like Cântec de joc and

Cântec (based on input collected by Bela

Bartok in Bihor), Colind (collected by

S. Drăgoi in Banat), Toconelile (children’s

song in Gorj), Preludiu, Rondoletto,

Toccatina, RomanŃă or the symphonic play

VariaŃiuni pentru pian şi orchestră pe o

temă populară. Three sonatas for piano

and a sonatina are added to the plays

mentioned above.

The composer Tudor Ciortea resorts to

the modes specific to the Romanian

folklore in a great part of his piano work,

as they are a resource to capitalize the folk

inspiration for piano, moreover, in other

plays, the composer uses the particular

expression of the modes due to the

sonorous charm they give to the musical

discourse.

The hexachords used in the plays are

both major and minor. In case of this

modal formation one can notice the

cadences on various sounds as well as the

mobile steps which appear against a

harmonic background. In case of the

example mentioned in Cântec (collected

by B. Bartók in Bihor), measure 1-7, the

cadence requires two sonorous centers

(G and C) due to the formation of two

chord layers:


74

E.g. 1

The composer develops heptachord

formations [1] of the Dorian type with

fixed and mobile steps (E.g. 2 – a: Cântec

from Suita pe teme bănăŃene) and of the

Aeolian type (with the seventh step

mobile) from hexachords by the

appearance of a new sound in the harmonic

background (E.g. 2 – b):

E.g. 2

The hexatonic scale is used in the piano

play Elegie (measures 6-14 from Trei piese

pentru pian) in a structure of three harmonic-

tonal layers – the hexatonic modal system

with the double third (F, F #) / the hexatonic

mode in transposition 1/minor chord on E b:

E.g. 3

The hexatonic mode is also used in other

works like Joc (Voiniceşte) in Suita pe

teme târnăvene or Rondoletto:

Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano…. 75

E.g. 4

In Bocet (Suita pe teme bănăŃene), this

mode appears with a changing note which

does not interfere with its structural profile

(the sound C appears only in measure 8 as

a changing note):

E.g. 5

The following examples will present the

heptachord modes used under varied types,

diatonic, with fixed or mobile steps, like the

Ionian mode (a) the Ionian mode with

acoustic 1 agreement (b), the Ionian mode

with acoustic 2 agreement (c), the Ionian

mode with acoustic 5 agreement (d) and

others like the Dorian mode, the Dorian

mode with Istrian agreement or the

chromatic mode [2] 1a agreement, the

Dorian mode with Aeolian agreement, the

Phrygian mode, the Lydian mode, the

Mixolydian mode, the Mixolydian mode

with Doric agreement, the Aeolian mode,

the Aeolian mode with acoustic agreements

2, the Aeolian mode with Doric agreement,

the Aeolian mode with Istrian agreement,

the Locrian mode, acoustic mode 1,

acoustic mode 2:


76

E.g. 6

In case d, mentioned above, (Cântec la clacă de tors), the mode consists of two

tetrachord submodes, which in fact coincide with the tetrachords of the heptachord mode

(in E.g. 6: *it is sharp in the score; we consider it B flat because it shows the mobility of

the modal third; **it appears only at the end as a Mixolydian characteristic).

The composer also uses chromatic heptachord modes, out of which some also have

mobile steps, like in the following example – the chromatic 1a (a), structure b (b) and

structure d (c) or the agreements of the structures a and b (e):

E.g. 7

An octachord mode is also found, which

is the result of the combination of the

tetratonics of the melodic conduct – to be

noticed in the example no. 2 – and the

harmonic background:

E.g. 8

The acoustic modes (E.g. 9) are well

displayed by the uses with or without

modified steps – acoustic 1 (a) and

acoustic 2, acoustic 1 with Doric

agreement (b) and other modes with

agreement – acoustic 1 with Lydian

agreement, acoustic 1 with Mixolydian

agreement – some of them with a cadence

on various steps:

Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano…. 77

E.g. 9

The acoustic 2 appears in the following

cases without agreements (a), with

chromatic 2a agreement (b) or with Aeolic

agreement:

E. g. 10

The acoustics 5 and 6 appear in the plays

Joc (Pe loc and Călniceana) and Colindă

in Suita pe teme bănăŃene and in Piano

Sonata no. 1:

E.g. 11

Mode 2 is also used, with limited

transposition (in second transposition – a,

and in first transposition – b) [3]:

E.g. 12

In Piano Sonata no. 1 the composer used

the second and third transposition, while in Piano Sonatas no. 2 and no. 3 he used the

first and the third transposition. This mode

also has mobile steps (E.g. 13 - *mode 2

with limited transposition in transposition

3, with marked inconsistencies which appear sporadically and create harmonic

layers):

E.g. 13


78

In Preludiu, which reflects the

composer’s apprenticeship period, we can

identify an application of the wheel

principle (trohos) in the Byzantine music,

as a system of modal construction and

melody composition, based on chromatic

tetrachords, by placing their modal centers

on other pitches rather than on the initial

one. The connection among the respective

centers is made by a common sound like

the Greek sinaphé.

The following example shows the

application of the principle according to

the fourth wheel (tetrachord, 4 sound

micro mode) against the chromatic mode 6

in the modal system of the Byzantine

music:

E.g. 14

The plays called Preludiu and Piano

Sonata no. 1 (part I, measure 84) are plays

in which the composer resorts to the

inverted chromatic formula, which is also

an aspect of the mobility of steps, a

resonance of the Byzantine music, but

especially of folklore. The following

example shows this case by a gravitational

stratification C/ F [4]:

E.g. 15

References

1. Giuleanu, V. Tratat de teoria muzicii.

Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1986.

2. Oprea, Gh.; Agapie, L. Folclor

muzical românesc. Bucureşti: Editura

Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1983.

3. Messiaen, O. Technique de mon

langage musical. Paris: Edition

Musicales, Leduc, 1944.

4. Terényi, E. Armonia muzicii moderne

(1900-1950). Cluj-Napoca: Editura

MediaMusica, 2001.

SPORT STUDIES


THE SUFFERING MUSICIAN A POSITION

PAPER ON MUSIC-RELATED INJURIES

AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO

SPORTS INJURIES

Eugen ALBULESCU1

Abstract: This paper is a modern vision of training both technical and physical way in musician work art .For the musician I think that this vision is the key to achieving a good technique and to being able to keep performing for long periods of time without complications. Between musical performing and sport performing it is a strong connexion because the psychological war with oneself is very similar. The elevation of adrenaline levels is common to both musicians and sports players. In order to understand injury in the music word, one needs to study the commonalities and the differences between the music world and the sports world.

Key words: technique, instrument, musician, holistic, sport.

1 Associate Professor, Lehigh University, Bethlehem PA, USA.

1. Introduction

Musicians get plenty of training in technique, the ability to deliver the best rendition on their instrument. We also get training in interpretation, music history, expressivity, large formal architecture, musicianship, teamwork, and a host of other qualities. Musicians often experience pain associated with making music. The pain often is emotional, due to the work performed, but often the pain is more physical, and quite real. In dealing with this pain one often encounters common and trendy diagnoses such as Tendonitis, RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury), Carpal Tunnel, etc. The problem is that the way in which these diagnoses are given often reflects the likening of musical activity with that of typing (hence the commonality of RSI in musicians and typists in the 1980’s) and more recent, to computer work (hence the commonality of Carpal Tunnel

in both heavy computer users and musicians in the most recent decades).

This likening is useful, but limited in scope. Musicians do not repeat motions in the same way computer users do. We repeat actions in the service of a musical idiom – often some ostinato passage that repeats feverishly, and there is an emotional context in which our muscles are dependent on amounts of tension and release. Often the tension and release is part of the musical language, and cannot be dissociated through a simple “relax your muscles as you play” mantra, the way a computer user might.

As a performing pianist I have encountered injury often. In fact, being able to discern between a simple sprain and a more complicated inflammation of one’s tendons is key to achieving a good technique, and to being able to keep performing for long periods of time without complications. In piano technique it is essential to understand the way in


82

which muscles act. Although one could talk about sophisticated phrases –specific motions that shape a musical idea, there are two basic types of motion in piano technique. There is an upward motion and a downward motion. Every muscle reacts either pulling away from the key or pushing toward the key. Contrary to common perception, piano technique is more concerned with the upward motion of our muscles. This is the motion through which we lift our fingers giving amplitude to our downward motion that usually follows.

The downward motion is marked by a few elements. First, any amplitude from the surface of the key makes the downward motion easier, and less exhaustive physically.

This is due to the creation of momentum, and the inertia that occurs when the finger bumps the key. Secondly, we are helped by gravity, as well as the elasticity of our fingers on this downward movement.

The result is that with a good upward preparation, the downward movement is relatively easy. The injury occurs when pianists do not understand the basic physics of piano playing. On one hand, they are taught to keep fingers close to the keyboard. This unfortunately prevents the necessary amplitude from occurring. The fingers start moving together with the piano key, as opposed to already being in motion when the finger makes downward motion do double duty as both moving themselves from a resting point to full speed, as well as doing the same to the entire mechanism of the piano key.

The resulting injuries are common, and unfortunately the research has been insufficient in dealing with this type of injury. Most common, the injury becomes something of a stigma on the performer. Their technique is deemed inadequate when there are injuries prevalent. This leads many musicians to hide their injuries, so as not to prejudice presenters from hiring them, and even potential students from studying with them. This is unfortunate, because it assumes that there is a right way for all technique.

Technique in fact is individual for every person. The right way is the way in which the performer is in touch with their body. Every mechanical aspect hinges on our understanding of how our own physical systems work.

The Sports Analogy Now it is time to offer a new perspective on musicians and physical injury. Instead of looking at ways in which to make music analogous with other repetitive tasks, we should perhaps look at endeavors that stress our muscles to their limit in a similar way. Perhaps such an endeavor is the world of sports. There are many similarities, as well as differences. For starters, just like sports, music making is often competitive – most young performers start their careers through competitions. The music world often bestows instant fame for young and able performers, and the younger and more able, the better. Hence there is an implicit race towards the ability to deliver technical wizardry, often at the cost of musical individualism and stylistic relevance. Still, many schools push the notion of technique for technique’s sake. The race is for better, faster, more bombastic, more accurate, and usually more “flashy.” In the race to do this, often young musicians reach an unrealistic potential with the added cost of long-term injury. The major differences between music and sports are obvious. Music does fulfill a more artistic ideal, and competition is incidental. Another not so obvious difference is that the music world is not as holistic as the sports world is when it comes to injury. We do not have trainers who coach us on our movements, we do not have designated doctors that stand by at our concerts and massage our arms or fingers. Our injuries are often kept from our audiences and often from other musicians.

However there are many reasons why the two fields – music and sports should be researched collectively when it comes to physical injury. First, the nature of injuries a pianist experiences would be very similar to the types of injury a tennis player would. We do a similar level of repetitive tasks in our training and in our

Albulescu, E.: The Suffering Musician a Position Paper on Music –Related … 83

performances. What is different is that a tennis player is in a constant battle with him/herself for a faster serve, for an error-less point, and is in a constant psychological war with their own selfsabotaging mechanisms, not to mention with their opponent. A concert pianist is also in a battle with him/herself for a faster/better technical delivery of the music. The psychological war with oneself is very similar, and self-sabotaging elements occur just as vividly. On top of this, we contend with the act of interpreting a great work; our psychological attitude reflects also that of the composer, and whatever competitive “edge” we may want over other artists as we play a concert, we are in a constant fight to tame an instrument that is usually foreign to us (not many pianists travel with their own instruments as in the old days, Horowitz ,Michelangeli and others did). Tennis players need the crowd on their side. One can safely assume their playing will be extra tense muscularly if the public roots for their opponent.By comparison, a performing pianist also needs the crowd on their side as well. But this is so that the music achieves a closed circuit between the performer and his/her audience, in which mutual inspiration occurs. Usually the better energy this abstract circuit generates, the less damaging tension occurs in a pianists’ body. The Big Elephant in the Room

When dealing with injury in the music field, as well as in the sports field, one has to contend with chemical modifiers that put immense pressure on our physical systems. As mentioned previously, injuries stemming from piano playing have been assigned historically as RSI and Carpal Tunnel – in the same way these conditions surfaced in typists and data entry computer operators. The problem is that when typing or doing computer work, one does not feel sorrow, or ecstasy or angst, in the same way one does within a musical composition. One also does not get the thrill or the pain from opening one’s soul in front of a live audience. Hence

classifying physical injuries as stemming from the same set of repetitive tasks invalidates the central tenet of a musical context.

When musicians tense up, they are tense for individual reasons. Perhaps their physique demands it – a small hand needs more tension to stretch for instance. Perhaps their performance anxiety manifests in a tensing of muscles that in turn triggers long or shortterm injury. Perhaps the way they react to passion present in the music they interpret, is to tense up physically. Simply assigning their injury as stemming from repetitive motion is short sighted. The big elephant in the room, the central modifier for our tension points in front of an audience is the secretion of adrenalin. Amongst its many functions, it has the physiological effect to contract our muscles faster and to heighten their tension, and disregard pain in the process. Perhaps this is one of our evolutionary holdovers – the “fight or flight” response. Our bodies evolved to secrete large quantities of this substance in our anthropological past when we faced predators. Even though we are never in physical danger when playing music or sports, we still experience the same chemical instinctual secretion, and this is not something we can shake off, though many use betablockers and other chemical/ psychological devices (alcohol, affirmations, etc). In fact, in both music and sports, adrenalin is one of the key ingredients that gives us the upper edge. This exhilarating substance is one of the reasons ironically that we love both music and sports.

The elevation of adrenaline levels is common to both musicians and sports players. In order to understand injury in the music word, one needs to study the commonalities and the differences between the music world and the sports world. In many ways music is athletic. In order to deliver the amounts of notes to an audience, musicians need to have their muscles toned. Pianists, for instance, need a clear understanding of the hinges that act to create the sound on the piano. The common tendons, as well as the


84

flexing of the joints ranging from the smallest at the tip of the fingers, and moving back to the wrist, the elbow, the shoulder, as well as every vertebrae on our spinal column. Sounds on the piano can be created from flexing any one of these joints. Working in synergy, these joints create an effortless technique. Muscles need to be trained at every level for this to happen. Certain toning and conditioning is key for the prolonged tension that these muscles need to exert in he space of a concert. Without the proper toning, adrenalin stops being exhilarating, and rather becomes a poison. Even in the sports world, professional players often have to deal with the fact that in practicing a tennis serve for instance, one does not experience the adrenalin present in front of an audience in Wimbledon. Once muscles contract differently in that new “live” condition, often the element of precision changes dramatically, and the possibility for other adverse effects like cramping, trembling, etc., also becomes imminent. Further research is needed to form the basis for a cohesive understanding of the crosscurrents and benefits of treating musical injuries as a sport injury.

2. Conclusions

This research needs to emanate from the medical profession, and needs to take in consideration the adrenal gland’s effect on muscle contracting and how this triggers such conditions as tendonitis. My conclusion from the perspective of a performing pianist is based on the empirical experience from my own performing career, of and from teaching students up to university level. What is needed from the performers is a serious attitude towards injuries. Our proneness to injury, minor and serious, should be a given, not the exception reserved for those with “poor technique”. In order to fully appreciate one’s own physical aptitude, and to relate it to a betterment of the ability to deliver a musical composition to the

public, an artist needs to take a serious and long-term approach to physical injury. This approach needs to be exploratory, well guided by an expert in sports injuries, and monitored dynamically. At least some of the monitoring has to take place in the context of a live performance, as only then do some of the conditions leading to injury occur. Musicians need to be fully conversant in the injury advances and diagnoses in the sports fields. They also need to think of this as an ongoing holistic approach, rather than a crisis mode prompted by a condition that makes their continuation of “business as usual” impossible. Medical research and even rudimentary analysis of musicians by “trainers” will be unfortunately be hampered by commercial unfeasibility. Sports injury is a true industry because of the economics of professional sports. Music will never attain the critical mass when it will be commercially advantageous to study those injuries to be on par with sports. However one may hope that researchers into sports injury may also learn more about sports injuries by studying what happens to musicians, given the different types of stressors that are incumbent on musicians, as described above. References

1. Billings, Andrew C. Olympic Media.

Inside the Biggest Show on Television, Published by Routledge, UK, 2008.

2. Fuller, Linda. Sports casters/Sports casting. Principles and Practices. Published by Routledge, UK, 2008.

3. Sport, Media, Culture Global and Local Dimensions. Edited by Alina Bernstein, Neil Blain, UK, 2002.

4. Sport in the City. Cultural Connections. Edited by Michael Sam, John E. Hughson. Published by Routledge, UK, Publication Date: 30/03/2010.

5. Sporting Sounds Relationships between Sport and Music. Editors: Anthony Bateman; John Bale Publisher, Routledge, UK, 2008.


THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON

HEALTH – A CURRENT PROBLEM

S. CIOROIU1 E. MOLDOVAN

2

Abstract: Through this work we try to draw an alarm signal, in our

country, on a change in the individual life of today’s society, with important

repercussions on the health and quality of life. The lack of physical exercise

is a major risk factor for many diseases, a fact that is shown by multiple

WHO analyses, through the increase of morbidity and mortality due to these illnesses. We are trying to help by presenting the advantages of swimming,

which can be a used as a solution, as many European countries believe.

Key words: physical activities, health, swimming.

1 Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov. 2 Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.

1. Introduction

The importance of physical exercise for a

healthy life has been highly appreciated

since ancient times. The following Indian

quotation is very significant "Body activity

that is designed to increase body power

and strength is called physical exercise. It

should be practiced regularly and in a

correct manner. Physical fitness, body

firmness, work capacity, physical

resistance to weight lifting, eliminating

physiological disorders and stimulating

digestive functions can be effectively

achieved through correctly done exercise.

In contrast, enhanced effort leads to

fatigue, exhaustion, or may give rise to

other body weaknesses" [24].

Where health is seen not only as a state

characterized by the absence of disease but

as a positive concept, encompassing

physical, social and emotional wellness,

the importance of physical activity for

health is already clearly established and

quite well known [23].

An important, though unwelcome, feature

of modern life is that physical activity has a

low level. Due to the many technical means

available in modern human life,

opportunities which may require the body to

perform physical exercise have been

considerably reduced [17].

Current epidemiological studies have

shown that sedentary living and the obesity

associated with it are important factors

contributing to the emergence of serious

diseases with a significant impact on health

and the quality of life, such as diabetes and

atherosclerosis. Currently, the coexistence

of these two diseases is a frequent cause of

mortality and morbidity [24].

It is a truism today that physical

inactivity, sedentariness, is a great danger

for the individual. For example, WHO

estimates that physical inactivity is

annually responsible for 1.9 million

premature deaths in the whole world, and


86

that 600 000 (something less than 1/3) of

these occur in the European Region, in the

53 countries that belong to this region

[7, p. 53-57].

Among the projects initiated by the

European Union, some are mentioned in

the following:

The European Network on Nutrition and

Physical Activity - NPA is a network

established by the European Commission in

2003, which included experts nominated by

EU Member States and WHO [23]. The

first meeting of its members took place

on 30.06 - 01.07.2003, [20] and on 15

September 2003 was issued material on

the NPA "mandate", which noted that

"the network was initiated to provide a

forum for discussion and exchange of

views on the contribution of nutrition and

physical activity to improve and maintain

health" [22].

The role of NPA is to advise the

European Commission on nutrition and

physical activity problems, providing

material for the annual work plans of the

CAP FPH (2003 to 2008) (Community

Action Program in the Field of Public

Health) and will be maintained throughout

the action of this program. At the first

meeting of the NPA Network,

representatives of several EU countries

presented studies that focused on our

country and were meant to bring about a

positive and constructive attitude of those

responsible [3].

The EU Platform for Action - Diet,

Physical Activity and Health was launched

on 15 March 2005 and is also an initiative

that sought to accelerate and improve the

effectiveness of CAP FPH actions (2003 to

2008).The launching initiative belongs to

the European Commission, its purpose

being "to provide a common forum for all

stakeholders at European level interested

in preventing and tackling obesity through

diet and physical activity" [14]. The

platform offers possibilities to:

• submit plans to improve nutrition and

increase the number of those who do

exercise;

• analyze the effectiveness of these plans

and programs, to have a better record of

examples of good practice [14].

2. Benefits of Exercise

– developing the heart muscle;

– improving blood circulation through

blood vessels;

– normalizing the blood pressure - high

pressure tends to decrease, while the

lower one tends to increase;

– strengthening the bones in order to

sustain body weight;

– improvement of the immune defense

system by increasing the number of

circulating red blood cells, lymphocytes

and neutrophils; by stimulating the

production of beta-endorphin at brain

level the anti-tumoral activity of NK

cells (natural killer) increases; one

picogram (the billionth part of a gram) of

beta-endorphin increases the activity of

NK cells against tumors by 42%;

– lung development by stimulating deep

breathing;

– reduction of negative emotional

experience, improving the self-image by

reducing anger and frustration;

– improved digestion and stimulated

intestinal activities, reducing the

production of gas and constipation;

– -developing muscle, bone and connective

tissue;

– improving the beauty of the body;

– increasing the systolic flow;

– slowing down the aging process;

– ensuring a good quality sleep

[8], [13-14], [16], [25].

Cioroiu, S. et al.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health … 87

The concern of authorities, and the

various professional organizations’ worries

for tendencies manifested in health in

general, and the various indicators of

health in particular are based on a huge

amount of information that results in

significant figures.

Further studies and epidemiological data

collected within them are those which

draw attention to a continuing increase in

the proportion of sedentariness, an

alarming decrease in the percentage of

those who manage to accumulate a

sufficient amount (for the benefit of

favorable effects) of motion, of physical

activity, per week. Thus, statistics show

that 17% of the world’s adult population is

totally inactive physically, and a rate of

41% of it are adults who do a slight form

of activity - insufficient for them to benefit

from its effects [7, p. 53-57]. Of the

multitude of existing data and statistics

about what happens to the European

population and, especially, the population

of children and young people, a study from

England is mentioned, done in 1989 on

over 10 000 children aged between 9 and

15 years: the average number of hours of

exercise - regardless of sex - was 4.7 hours

/ week, also including physical activity at

school. As always, boys, compared to girls,

accumulated a greater number of hours of

physical activity [13].

Design and implementation in schools of

programs characterized by a genuine

openness to educational content,

promoting the practice of various

systematic exercise would contribute to the

success of the school and the family

regarding a harmonious physical

development of young people [9, p.42-43].

There are many types of exercise. The

most beneficial to health are those from

which the body benefits the most. The

human body is endowed with 650 muscles,

which give it the ability to move. If not

used, these muscles begin to lose their

shape and function and, if remaining

inactive for a long time they can become

useless [25].

Swimming is one of the special sports,

since it doesn’t show the typical

restrictions of most sports. Swimming is

addressed to all age categories, can be

practiced regardless of physical condition

does not require special equipment or

"team-mates" and can also be practiced by

pregnant women without any risk [19].

Some people can practice swimming

alternating high intensity exercises with

low intensity ones, while others can only

see it as a means of relaxation [27].

Swimming has been known since

prehistoric times, the earliest swimming

records, according to Stone Age

paintings, are about 7000 years old.

Written references date back to 2000 BC.

Some of the earliest references include

the Gilgamesh, the Iliad, the Odyssey, the

Bible, Beowulf and other epopees. In

1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, of German

origin, wrote the first book on swimming,

a dialogue on the art to swim (Der

Schwimmer oder ein Zwiegespräch über

die Schwimmkunst) [16].

In the next section of the work we

present the strengths of this sport and

why it should be practiced by many of us.

3. The Influence of Swimming on the

Locomotory System

The greatest advantage of swimming is

that muscles and joints work without

having to bear any weight. Thus, over two

thirds of the entire muscle mass grows

without joints having to suffer. Ligaments


88

become stronger and develop their

flexibility.

Swimming does not only ensure the

maintenance of good condition but also a

harmonious physical development,

movements made in immersion processes

detensioning all muscle groups, in

particular the para-vertebral muscles.

An adequate combination of static

exercises with dynamic ones determines a

good blood circulation and a good

maintenance of muscular structures,

having positive effects on the body

position.

By symmetrical movements, axial-

symmetric in "back" and "crawl" and

central-symmetrical in "butterfly" and

"breaststroke", swimming ensures the

adoption of proper positions and remedies

any orthopedic deficiencies.

Adopting a horizontal position in water,

the bone and joint system is freed of

tension and has positive effects upon

growth [2, p. 45-57].

American physiologists even determined

an increase of the STH hormone which

intensifies protein development and

synthesis. In association with other

pituitary hormones (ACTH and

thyrotropin), thyroid and gonadal ones

with an anabolic role, STH stimulates the

growth process in height.

[5, p.234-239].

Used for therapeutic purposes,

swimming assures the healing of neuro-

motor, bone and joint affections, and

prevents affections such as spinal cord

deviations, physical deficiencies or

metabolic problems (obesity).

In the morpho-functional recovery

program, swimming is the most common

therapeutic factor, even used in

hydrokinetotherapy (under-water

movement therapy) [21].


Cardio-Vascular System

The particularities of the effort made in

swimming, the position of the body under

water, water pressure on the thoracic box

and low body weight are just some

elements that enhance the functionality of

vital importance for the organism: the

cardio-vascular and the respiratory

systems.

Related to the cardiac function,

swimming practiced regularly leads to the

development of the heart – hyperthrophia.

In general, a sport that requires intense

effort from the thorax (gymnastics,

wrestling, weight lifting, boxing and

swimming) favors the right half

development of the heart; however,

depending on the degree of adaptation of

the heart muscle and on the specific effort,

on the training methodology used

[1, p. 227-228], the heart may be right, left

or entirely hypertrophiated. Once having

given up on competitive activities,

regressive or nonregressive phenomena

occur on a functional level for the right or

the left heart, apparently depending on the

specific type of effort

[11, p. 98-102].

Swimming switches from the

quantitative engagement of the heart,

tachycardia, to a commitment to quality,

bradycardia, with fewer heart revolutions

per minute. Bradycardia training provides

a biologically reduced consumption in

resting. Therefore there is a controlling

expansion of heart cavities. Heart muscle

elasticity associates swimming with

longevity. Swimming opposes cardio-

vascular morbidity and risk factors of this

system: excessive weight, hypertension,

hypercholesterolemia, aterosclerosis, high

neuro-psychological intensity.


In 1999, Italy, a complex of hypo-

aerobic and hydro-aerobic exercises with

moderate intensity were applied by a group

of researchers to a sample of young

women (aged 15-30) for one month, in

daily 20 minute meetings. Devices such as

the portable spirometer and the telemetric

heart monitor were used, which

highlighted adaptive changes and allowed

data comparison. There were statistically

significant differences only in the group

that practiced in water. And Japanese

researchers in comparative studies of

various exercises carried out on land and in

water, concluded that myocardial

adaptations occur in particular due to water

pressure on the thorax that intensely

stimulates pressure receptors and

intensifies venous circulation in particular

by chest suction.


Respiratory System

The use of oxygen, differences between

arterial and venous blood or decreasing the

effort of the contracting muscle are the

functions that best benefit from swimming

[6, p. 67-69].

There is an adaptation period of time

when people begin to swim, when oxygen

consumption is greater than its admission.

In this period the body meets its energy

requirements in particular by providing

anaerobic energy processes, and increasing

the capacity of absorbing and using oxygen

is achieved through training as a result of

increasing the vital capacity, the heart flow

(volume range) and an optimal adaptation

of the circulatory system.

Enhancing the use of oxygen, increasing

the capacity of tolerance to oxygen deficit,

improving irrigation blood, gradually

develops the respiratory system. Therefore,

when initiating swimming in sports

particular attention should be given to

respiration [12, p. 45-48].

A correct technique of aquatic

respiration is used curatively for people

with respiratory, heart or circulatory

problems.

The rhythm of breathing, properly

synchronized with the pace of

implementation of various movements and

beating water pressure, has a positive

influence on such diseases.

Voluntary influence on respiratory

phases is possible because breathing is a

cortical function; voluntarily, it may be

temporarily halted – apnea, can be

accelerated (hyperventilation) or slowed

down (hypopnea).


Neuromuscular System

Swimming develops sensitivity to

sensations as a signal function through the

transformation of internal and external

influences on the body. This sport

develops psychomotric skills by the

prioritary processing and integration of the

spatial parameters of movement (direction,

shape, amplitude), and then the temporal

ones. Unlike other sports, except for

gymnastics, swimming helps the mind

form body schemes by developing

impressions about the body [10, p. 64-67].

7. The Influence of Swimming on

Metabolism

As for the sensory interference,

continuous adaptation to water temperature

and humid air from the pool improves

thermal sensitivity. Water temperatures

between 24-26 Celsius degrees represent

strong stimuli that induce the constriction


90

of blood vessels. As a consequence, a

greater quantity of heat is produced and

circulation and energy metabolism are

intensified.


Nervous System

By perceiving a lower weight than in

reality, the effects of aquatic exercises on

relaxation or therapeutic practices go

beyond the anatomic-functional scope, and

swimming, in association with natural

environmental factors, ensures the mental

health of the individual, stabilizing the

psycho-affective and the neuro-vegetative

balances.

Swimming in the Netherlands is

required. Children from ages 4 or 6 go

swimming twice a week. Swimming

diplomas are listed A, B and C. A and B

diplomas are required. Those who want a

C swimming diploma can do this

optionally. To obtain such swimming

diplomas a period of 2 years is needed [4].

Practice in Denmark is one hour of

swimming per week in grades IV to VI [8].

9. Conclusions

Prevention of diseases has become a

trend in today’s medicine, and everybody

in Romania tries to change things in this

regard. Specialists in the field recognize,

after decades of experience, that it is more

useful to prevent a disease than to treat it,

firstly in terms of life-quality and secondly

from an economic point of view, since the

costs are considerably reduced over time.

Many illnesses can be avoided by lifestyle

changes: physical activity, diet, tobacco,

alcohol, etc.

In the present work we wanted to

emphasize the impact of physical activity

in society. I chose swimming because it is

a complete sport, with very few side

effects and more benefits and advantages

than other sports. Our view is that

Romania could follow the example of

other countries regarding the introduction

of swimming as a compulsory or optional

subject in primary school.

The role of empowered people in this

regard is essential, and the general interest

should be maximal. Reducing the waiting

time in front of medicine cabinets,

reducing the number of patients, a decrease

in the number of obese children, a decrease

in the number of people with disabilities,

are ethical problems that we all need to

solve, whether we are teachers, doctors,

kinetotherapists, sports instructors,

nutritionists etc. Many of us are first of all

parents and our children's future health is

uncertain. Certainly, to a lesser or greater

extent, we all have the means to do

something, we just need to be aware of

them and to start using them!

References

1. Cioroiu, S. Efecte ale înotului de

performanŃă asupra organismului

uman. Teză de doctorat, Universitatea

din Piteşti, 2007.

2. Dragnea, A. Antrenamentul sportiv.

Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi

Pedagogică, 1996.

3. Dumitru, G. Activitatea fizică - factor

de promovare a sănătăŃii în

Europa(I), 2006. Available at:

http://www.medicinasportiva.ro/sport/

articole/Activitatea%20fizica%20in%

20Europa%20I.html

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2008. Available at:

http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/mami-

e-prea-greu.html


5. Guyton, A.C. Fiziologie. Bucureşti:

Editura Medicală Amalteea, 1999.

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de texte de specializare vol. I.

Bucureşti: Centrul de multiplicare

A.N.E.F.S., 1992.

7. Martin, B.W.; Kahlmeier, S.;

Racioppi, F. et al. Evidence-based

physical activity – HEPA Europe, The

European Network for the Promotion

of Health-Enhancing Physical

Activity. In: J Public Health 14,

2006.

8. Mita, B.; Miclescu, L. Dezvoltarea

spiritului competiŃiei sau dezvoltarea in

spiritul competiŃiei (eseu). In: Stiinta

Sportului, nr.1, 2003. Available at:

http://www.sportscience.ro/html/revist

e_2003_37-7.html

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în natură şi în alte arii cognitiv-

formative. Braşov: Editura

UniversităŃii Transilvania din Braşov,

2007.

10. Monciu, I. Fiziologia EducaŃiei fizice

şi sportului. Bucureşti: Editura

Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1997.

11. Mureşan, E. Înot – Sinteză. Bucureşti:

Editura FundaŃiei România de Mâine,

2000.

12. Todea, S. ExerciŃiul fizic în educaŃia

fizică şi kinetoterapie. Bucureşti:

Editura FundaŃiei România de Mâine,

2003.

13. Benefits of Swimming - Health

Benefits. Available at:

http://www.benefitsofswimming.com/

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avoidable chronic diseases.

Available at:

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2003/action3/action3_2003_04_en.htm

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ticle.php?id=64

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e-benefits-of-swimming.html

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update 5. Physical Activity. London:

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f_swimming

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http://www.ipaq.ki.se/ipaq.htm

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welness/inotul/

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network first meeting. Luxembourg, 30

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n.htm


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de-sanatate.html*articleID_420-articol

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2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Swimming?Open

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Pittsburgh: National Center for

Chronic Diseases Prevention and

Health Promotion, 1996.


TECHNICAL TRAINING –

A FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT

OF SPORTS TRAINING IN THE

BASKETBALL GAME

Mihaela CHICOMBAN

1

Abstract: The technique of a sports branch includes all the motor actions

ideally executed from the point of view of their efficiency. The technique

implies the rational and economic execution of a type of movements specific

to sport branches. It includes a specialized system of motor structures

established according to the regulations of the basketball game in order to

obtain the optimum efficiency in competition.

Key words: technique, technical training, components of the technique,

style, technical procedure, technical elements.

1. Introduction

1 Dep. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.

The content of sports training became

more and more complex as sport

performances evolved and as the work

methodology for each sports branch was

outlined and established. Due to such

progress, it became necessary to

systematize the content of sports training

according to well-defined rules, among

which those related to the purpose or the

effects physical exercises have on various

elements of the athlete’s training.

Therefore, physical exercises –

differentiated according to their specificity

and addressability, applied according to

price rules - represent the content elements

of sports training.

The fields such exercises address are: the

technique, the tactics, the effort capacity,

the mental, theoretical, artistic and

biological sphere. Nowadays, sports

training is based on: technical training,

tactical training, physical training,

psychological training, artistic training and

biological training for competition.

Technical training is a fundamental

component of sports training.

The technique of a sports branch

includes all the motor actions ideally

executed from the point of view of their

efficiency. The technique implies the

rational and economic execution of a type

of moves specific to sport branches. It

includes a specialized system of motor

structures established according to the

regulations of the basketball game in order

to obtain the optimum efficiency in

competition [5, p. 234].

The technique of the basketball game

represents all the specific moves executed

by an athlete while playing the game,

according to the rules and duties imposed

by his/her team playing in a competition.


94

Technique differentiates sports branches

from one another: the basketball technique

is different from the tennis technique, the

ski technique or wrestling technique and so

on, each having specific systems of motor

structures.

2. Technical Training

The technique is conditioned by the

other components of the sports training,

especially by the physical training. When

training beginners, we must make sure of

the physical availabilities that shall

represent the fundamentals of their

technical training, consisting of various

repeats (in order to become skills). The

development of the effort capacity at an

inappropriate level leads to faulty

technique. In sports games, technique

influences in a priority manner the solution

of complex game situations and conditions

and the economy of the movements.

The level of technical training of an

athlete greatly depends on his/her initial

level and on his/her motor experience, a

fact that determines appropriate methodical

measures. Thus, for beginners, the training

process aims at enlarging the motor basis

that shall include means from the running

class, jumping class, throwing the ball etc.,

while for trained athletes the specialization

is a strict one. The appropriation of a sum

of motor abilities and skills stresses the

sensorial system to a larger extent –

comparing the internal information with

the external information and relating them

to the verbal one – thus favoring the

appropriation of the move.

3. Components of the Technique

Analyzing the technique and the

technical training, the scholars point out

the following components:

1. The technical element is a

fundamental motor structure substantiating

the practice of a sports branch (passing,

throwing the ball through the basket). The

technical element is an abstract notion, as

the passing is executed by certain well-

defined motor structures.

2. The technical procedure designates a

concrete motor structure or a particular

way of executing the technical element.

For example, throwing through the basket

from the semi distance jump is a concrete

technical procedure designed to execute a

characteristic action of the basketball game

with maximum of efficiency.

The technical procedures in each

particular sport exist due to various factors,

among which the coach and the athlete

creating new models of efficient

procedures: the morpho-functional and

mental particularities of athletes who leave

their mark on the execution of a certain

technical procedure, the quality of the

sports materials (boards, baskets etc.).

3. The style represents the particular way

(the personal mark) of executing a

technical procedure. It shows in high class

athletes and its result is the efficient

execution of a certain procedure. As far as

beginners are concerned, the style is out of

the question, as it is well known that in

various phases of forming motor skills,

moves with direction are not always the

best.

4. The fundamental mechanism of the

technical procedure is made up of a logical

series of motor actions, objectively

necessary to efficiently execute this

procedure. Running, stamping on one foot,

detaching, throwing and landing represent

the fundamental mechanism of throwing

the ball through the basket while moving.

To this mechanism we must also associate

the spatial-temporal and dynamic features

of that particular procedure, namely the

position of the body or of its segments

Chicomban, M: Technical Training – Fundamental Component of the Sports Training … 95

during the execution of the exercise

(procedure), the final efforts or the

emphasis of different moments of the

action execution. Consequently, the

fundamental mechanism of a technical

procedure needs to be understood as a

system of strongly connected (spatial,

temporal, dynamic and energetic) factors

determining an increase in efficiency.

The fundamental mechanism of the

technical procedure is featured by:

� Spatial – temporal aspects

− distance

− amplitude

− position

− direction

− duration

− rhythm

� Dynamic – energetic aspects

− of force

− of speed

− of coordination

− of precision

− of balance

− of internal and external force

that result in the efficient performance of

the muscles.

3. Learning the Technical Procedures

The laws and the steps of learning the

motor acts and actions substantiate

learning the technical procedures, with

certain specific, differential notes,

determined by the particularities of each

sport.

“Sports skills” are formed by long-term

practice, with and without self-control, and

they are influenced by tiredness, by the

variety of the performance conditions etc.

Thus, it results that the skills are not

exclusively motor, they are formed by the

participation of the second signaling

system, turning into complex abilities.

Learning the moves in sport [3, p. 207] is

special because performance is

materialized in the quality level of the

execution itself. If objects are used (for the

sports games), these are intermediate tools

to achieve and assess force, speed or

resistance features of such moves. In sport

we learn how to conduct our own body

movements in unusual conditions -

jumping, unbalance – coordination that

requires a complex system of abilities.

The requirements of the competition

regulations related to the display of the

motor and effort capacities, also determine

the particularities of learning a technique

in sport (the duration of the attack in

basketball is of 24 sec).

Learning a sport technique consists of

three types that determine as many types of

technical abilities.

1. The perceptive motor (or sensor-

motor) learning resides in changing the

conduct depending on the actual conditions

emerging during training or competitions.

The athlete reacts by a preferred answer

that may be perfected from the

coordination, precision or finesse point of

view (e.g. launching the ball on the counter

attack). This type of technical ability is

executed by the spatial-temporal

organization of the directly perceived

“external events”. The perceptive images

program and adjust the motor actions,

correcting them (when appropriate) by

several interventions until obtaining a

synchronization between the anticipated

image and the efficient action [3, p. 135].

2. The motor learning results in the

abilities on the grounds of the sensor,

kinesthetic or proprioceptive components,

in which the end of a move is the sign for

initiating the next move. The abilities

attain the final level of the fluency,

precision, coordination and tempo by

stereotype repeats.


96

3. The intelligent motor learning is

determinant in the training process of the

“heuristic” sport branches techniques - like

wrestling, box, sports games, fencing – in

which the opponent is opposive and

inventive, its actions being executed in

high uncertainty conditions.

The technical procedures pertaining to

the sports branches belonging to this

category are also called tactical or

“technical – tactical” (underline the

content of the learned elements for tactical

application purposes).

The steps of technical learning need to

be passed through for the technical

procedures and they have certain

particularities determined by the specific

rules of certain sports branches –

regulations – and they are set depending

on it.

The steps of technical learning are the

following:

I. The step of information and of

representation formation, is the step in

which the athlete creates his/her

conception and the fundamentals of the

process that is to be learned – on the

grounds of explanations and intuitive

means. The athletes elaborate a section

project (on the grounds of their previous

motor experience) depending on the motor

qualities, on the effort capacity and on the

observation spirit they have.

II. The step of the "raw" or insufficiently

differentiated moves is featured by the first

practical executions of that particular

technical process in which the verbal

indications of the coach represent the main

information received by the athlete. The

phenomena featuring this step are:

excessive effort, jerky (improper) rhythm,

decreased amplitude, precision and so on.

If the motor acts are appropriated with

mistakes, such mistakes will be difficult to

correct at a future time. For these reasons,

particular motor measures (using the

necessary means, executing the procedures

with restriction) and methods favoring

correct practice are imposed, mainly

referring to the components of the

fundamental mechanism of the technical

procedure.

III. The step of fine coordination and of

technical procedure consolidation is

essentially featured by the correct

execution of the move, generally in

varied standard or "stereotype"

conditions: the execution with increased

speed and force rates and in resistance

conditions, fluent execution, with correct

rhythm, precision and amplitude. The

information is meant to "finish" and

improve the execution of the previously

learned procedure.

IV. The step of improving and

overlearning the technical procedure is

featured by its execution in various

conditions with superior efficiency rates

(coordination, precision, fluency and so

on). The athlete is able to anytime adapt

the executions to the most varied external

conditions created by the opponent, the

atmosphere, the field, the public and so

on. Overlearning is an effect and a

condition determined by the need for an

increased number of repeats, and it is

determined by each type of sport. In

basketball, overlearning has massive

intellectual participation as its

valorization (throwing the ball through

the basket from 3 points) requires a

thorough mental analysis of the effective

circumstances in which the shoot is

executed (opponent, field, viewers).

Learning all the technical procedure is

done on the grounds of certain models set

by specialists after numerous and

comprehensive studies that mainly refer

to the fundamental mechanism of the

procedure and also of the execution

details specific of various styles.


Important competitions provide the best

conditions to study the technique at the

highest level. Accordingly, the

competition organizers or the methodic

forums of the international or national

bodies organize technical data collection.

The audio-video means are located in

various positions to include all the

trajectories of the body and of its

segments, and are highly important in the

technique analysis. Such cameras are

installed at least in three points in order to

provide the analyst with a

multidimensional picture (horizontal,

lateral, frontal), and they are equipped with

hi-fi chronometers and chronographers

which precisely offer the duration of each

move sequence.

Studying the technique and elaborating

its rules results in the increase of the

execution speeds, optimum coordination,

mistake correction etc.

Going through the learning steps implies

the permanent comparison of the execution

to the model, analyzing the positive and

negative aspects of the execution and the

setting of corrective measures: circuit

(feed-back) that may be repeated until the

overlearning step.

Feed-back has three phases:

a. The premotor phase (corresponds to

the first learning step) when the subject

acknowledges the objectives of learning,

depending on which intention appears, and

a project containing the execution desired

parameters is set.

b. the motor phase (corresponds to the

second step) when the subject passes to the

effective execution of the procedure with

mistakes that cannot be avoided.

c. The post-motor phase of the

execution’s appreciation (afferent to steps

III and IV), in which the athlete’s mental

scheme is compared to the model shown

by the coach.

4. Methodic Priorities Related to

Learning a Sports Technique

Although the techniques in sport are

quite varied, we may emphasize some

common traits of their learning

organization as follows:

1. Establishing the basis of the technical

training (for each training level –

beginners, advanced, performance) is

equivalent to the action of specifying the

main technical procedures that shall

represent the objective of those particular

athletes’ training. The coaches are

supposed to establish the technical

procedures to be appropriated and

improved (during a certain period of time)

on the grounds of the requirements of each

quality level of the athletes [4, p. 203].

As far as the beginners are concerned,

the essential requirement shall be the

correct and thorough appropriation of the

main technical procedures, acknowledging

that they may be efficiently applied in the

competition activity. The fundamental

condition of appropriating in due time the

technical procedures scheduled for certain

training periods is to provide an increased

volume of work materialized in numerous

repeats.

2. Maximal valorization of the athlete’s

availability to obtain technical virtuosities

may be found at all training levels and it is

carried out at the same time as the solid

appropriation of the scheduled technical

procedures. Therefore, the coach must take

into account the personal inclinations and

options of the subjects related to some

technical exercises. Hence, the technique is

not a pattern including the non-

differentiated training of all athletes, yet it

is an instrument for optimizing the activity

of each separate athlete.

3. For all training levels, technique

appropriation is strongly related to the

complex requirements of competitions.


98

Considering the effective requirements

of the contest, technique may be scheduled

in adversity conditions depending on the

circumstances that may appear during the

sports contests, thus specifying a

competition technique and not an abstract

technique, segregated from the concrete,

multiple and permanently changing needs

of a competition.

4. The individualization of training is the

best method to appropriate and improve

technique. As not all athletes have the

same qualities, (some of them have better

joints mobility, other better speed or better

ability etc.) individualizing technique

appropriation represents a rule of training.

5. The tendencies towards "technical

exaggerations" need to be stopped as such

exercises cannot be applied in

competitions and they are not efficient.

Such attitudes are mostly shown within the

beginners groups, as they do not realize the

requirements of the true virtuosities of the

competition technique, thus being tempted

to appeal to meaningless tricks.

6. The action system necessary for each

technical procedure is set by the coaches,

who specify a set of exercise structures

afferent to learning that particular

procedure quickly and thoroughly. To

attain such objectives, we must also take

into account the development of the motor

qualities needed to optimize their

execution. The algorithm shall be repeated

systematically and for a long time, until

obtaining the desired outcome of the

repetition. Related to learning evolution,

coaches may change the exercise

structures, replacing them with other, more

efficient ones for the new circumstances,

even more interesting in order to fight

monotony.

7. Independent exercise of the technical

procedures or of some of their structures

has an important role, yet it must be

continuously doubled by repeats made in

circumstances similar to the competition

ones, as they are not learned as a purpose

itself, but to be easily and efficiently

applied in competitions. For the better and

more correct appropriation of such

procedures, coaches resort to various

methods, among which making their

execution easier (e.g. throwing the ball

through the basket at the sound signal,

regardless of the position of the player

when the signal is heard).

In the contemporary concept of technical

training, practicing in conditions that are

analogous or identical to the competition is

highly important, being able to validate the

effects and efficiency of training

[1, p. 187].

8. Periodic evaluation of the technical

training by means of control norms and

tests.

Specialized teachers establish some

exercise structures, depending on the

specific nature of each sport, that are

highly significant to emphasize the level of

the technical training (e.g. executing a

certain number of throws through the

basket in limited time and with a certain

percentage for scoring).

5. Causes Leading to the Stagnation of

Technical Evolution

Learning a sports technique, as all

processes of motor learning is not a linear,

ascending process, but follows the path of

a discontinuous curve, featured by

ascending parts and by still times.

The main causes determining “still

times” in learning are:

1. Too much information provided by

the coach – such as explanations and

demonstrations – that the athlete cannot

assimilate. In the initial phases of motor

learning, attention is stressed to a larger

extent, leading to accentuated mental

tiredness, and due to the large number of


repeats, physical tiredness installs. Too

much information, considering the already

existing tiredness, causes the normal

reaction of the body shown by lack of

coordination and precision, faulty

fundamental mechanism of the move etc.

Reducing the quantity of information and

optimum time pauses between repeats may

prevent tiredness (both mental and

physical). Thus it is important to carefully

analyze the indications, specifying only

those related to the moments of executing

the technical procedure.

2. Accentuated physical tiredness, shown

by the decrease of the effort capacities, of

the general coordination reduces the

control capacity. Therefore, the athlete

must be permanently monitored and when

tiredness symptoms appear, repeats must

be ceased.

3. Incomplete information (verbal and

intuitive) that does not create a clear

representation of the ability or action to be

learned.

4. A subject’s lack of motivation

consequently entails insufficient attention,

low will etc.

5. The incongruity between the

aspiration level and the athlete’s capacities

at a certain time requires the development

of the factors conditioning learning and the

improvement of the technical abilities

(force, speed, resistance indicators etc.).

6. Using inappropriate materials and

equipment from the quality point of view,

which may determine incorrect learning of

the procedures.

6. The Evolutional Character of Sports

Technique

The technique of various sports branches

overdeveloped in the last 15-20 years due

to the following causes:

1. Collaboration between the coach and

scholars of other fields (biomechanics,

aerodynamics, ballistics, electronics).

2. High technicality rates of the sports

materials and equipments. For example, in

basketball, the balls, the boards with rings,

and last but not least the footwear, play an

important part. The materials they are

manufactured from overthrow many of the

precepts of past technique and help to

attain high performance.

3. The innovative search of athletes and

coaches is the effect of the existence of

more competitions, both internal and

international, and aims at finding and

promoting novelty to surprise the

opponents and to ensure sport success.

Higher technical executions appear in

each important competition (European and

World championships, Olympic Games) in

sports games.

Due to the fact that all that is presently

promoted at an international level – as far as

techniques are concerned, may be relatively

easy to accomplish (assimilate), the scholars

in the field are concerned with renewing

them. Yet, the future belongs to technicians

and athletes able to create new models,

superior to the presently known ones. The

personal mark of the athlete in executing a

technical procedure is highly important in

establishing new technical procedures and

needs to be maximally valorized as they

favor the creation of particularly efficient

motor structures to gain success.

There is no doubt that sports techniques

are continuously evolving, constantly

improving from one step to another,

changing in a spectacular manner. Because

of this, scholars are permanently concerned

with studying all the technique

(continuous) improvement possibilities,

thus orienting athletes’ training both to the

inheritance from the past as well as to the

perspective of the future requirements of

sports development.


100

References

1. Alexe, N. Antrenamentul Sportiv

Modern. Bucureşti: Editura Editis,

1993.

2. Dîrjan, C.; Hrişcă, A.; Predescu, T.

Baschet la copii şi juniori. Bucureşti:

Editura Sport – Turism, 1995.

3. Epuran, M. Metodologia cercetării

activităŃilor corporale, Volumes I

and II. Bucureşti: ANEFS, 1992.

4. Ionescu, St.; Dârjan, C. Instruire şi

performanŃă în baschet la copii şi

juniori. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi

Pedagogică R.A, 1997.

5. Negulescu, C.; Popescu, F.;

Moanta, A. et al. Metodica învăŃării şi

perfecŃionării tehnicii şi tacticii

jocului de baschet. Bucureşti:

ANEFS, 1997.


DRIBBLE IMPROVEMENTS IN THE

BASKETBALL GAME THROUGH

MULTIMEDIA MEANS

R. ENOIU1 R.S. ENOIU

2

Abstract: This paper is a modern training instrument by which small athletes are attracted to learning, strengthening and improving the dribbling map in

basketball, using techniques and computer multimedia. The CD that resulted

from this work contains no less than 100 drills for learning and strengthening

the technical element, presented in a software application for PC.

Key words: basketball, dribbling, skill, PC application, improving.

1 Department of Collective Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Braşov. 2 Department of Individual Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Braşov.

1. Introduction

Modern technology penetrates

increasingly more and increasingly fast in

all fields of science. In Romania, sports’

training is an area in which computer technology and multimedia is used quite

little, and this happens only at major sports

clubs. Multimedia applications for PC and

tapes / DVDs used in training are often

"imported", production is almost

nonexistent. This paper is meant as an

incentive and also a modest contribution to

the guideline for creating new local

applications, enriching and improving

methods of training.

"The first of the basics of the basketball

game that you need to train, as it is processed

individually, is driving the ball," said Oscar

Robertson, one of the best professional

offensive basketball players in the U.S.,

quoted by Vasile Popescu in 1969

[1, p. 371-374]. “Why is dribble ranked

more important before throw?" Simply

because before shooting you need to know

how to approach. To become a

professional, you should be an excellent

dribbler. Later you will learn not to abuse

by dribbling. Dribble must be learned and

perfected without watching the ball, and

the ball must be driven with the same

dexterity with both hands", concluded the

same great player [2, p. 52-54].

2. Objectives

In this context, the work is meant to be a

modern training instrument by which small

athletes are attracted to learning,

strengthening and improving the dribble

map in basketball, using techniques and

computer multimedia. The CD that

accompanies the paper contains no less

than 100 exercises for learning and

strengthening the technical element,

presented in a software application for PC.

Exercises are specifically selected and

structured so that they can be completed

according to the principles of the theory of

sport and physical education, from easy to

difficult, from simple to complex

[3, p. 220], [4, p. 170]. The program

includes videos of all exercises and a

selection of materials in video format,


102

selected research bibliography on the

Internet.

Basically, the multimedia CD can be

used successfully in junior training.

Statistical data from research results show

an improvement from the training obtained

by uncompromising modern techniques.

The application for PC can be used for

any other component of the game of

basketball training, so it can achieve a

whole set of CDs for each technical

element, or technical process action tactics.

The aim of the paper is to propose using

multimedia means in preparing the young

for the future of operating systems.

Acquiring dribbling at an early age is

actually launching the great performance,

and must be allocated due importance

[5], [6, p. 141-145], [7, p. 64-68].

Using modern technology is primordial in

the future to obtain competitive results at

European level and also internationally

[8, p. 34-37].

3. Material and Methods

Practice has shown that to achieve a high

degree of skill in basketball, a period of 8-

10 years of training is necessary [9, p. 27].

Starting from this reality, to achieve the

purpose, we have established the main

problems and tasks arising from this,

namely:

• What is skill and how it is manifested in

juniors;

• By what methods and means can skills

develop through dribbling at the junior

age.

To solve these problems, the tasks

required are:

• Documentation for skills development by

strengthening the dribbling of juniors;

• Formulating the paper’s hypotheses;

• Selection and development of the

methods and means to strengthen and

improve the dribble, which can develop

skills;

• Establishing the methodology for using

these methods and means in the practice

of juniors;

• The experimentation of means can

develop skills;

• The video recording of gross selected

exercises;

• Processing and editing a recorded video

material;

• Creating a design and program interface

for PC;

• Bringing together all elements and

achieving a final application;

• Conclusions and recommendations.

For this work we have established the

following research hypothesis: the

application of multimedia means to

strengthen and improve the dribble, for a

period of approximately 200 days,

determine improvement in the event skill

indices, following the tests used to check

the specific skill to assess progress (or

regress) made in conducting the

experiment.

The duration of the research deployment

has stretched over a period of approx. eight

months.

The Junior II and III samples researched

were divided into two groups. One group,

called witness group, continued training

exactly the same as before. A second

group, called experiment group, performed

using this preparation for systems and

methods of operation proposed by us.

Observing that there were 20 in a lot of

team players, we have formed groups, each

having 10 players.

Dividing the two groups was done after

ranking the initial testing. The first was

distributed in the first group, the second in

the second group, the third in the first

group, the fourth in the second group and

so on with all 20 players.

In the experiment, we tried to operate

with a variable (the independent variable), represented by the training on the

strengthening and improvement of dribble

Enoiu, R. et al.: Dribble Improvements in the Basketball Game through Multimedia Means 103

in the basketball game by means of

multimedia, to see what happens to the

variable effect (dependent variable),

represented by the development of

coordinative ability, achieved at the end of

the research. If changes occur at the

accumulation level of quality, power,

"skill", and the psycho-motor level, then

the variable can assume that we have

handled it a product changes. We can

therefore say that we have established a

cause-effect relationship between the two

variables. This was the logic by which we

designed the experiment.

Thus, at the beginning of the

experimental period we tested all the 20

players. This was the initial testing and

found in 3 control tests made to see the

skill level and degree of mastery in

dribbling. At the end of the experimental

period we performed the same series of

tests, following which we found an

improvement in the results of the

experiment group compared to the witness.

The details of the computer application

were carried out by a former student in the

final year of the Faculty of Physical

Education and Sport - Bogdan Cojocaru. The

application on the CD "Learn to dribble" is a

form of multimedia presentation of the 100

exercises proposed for learning / improving

dribble. This multimedia CD was used in the

experiment group for this exercise. It is in a

video format and is included in a PC. Photos

and graphics, sounds, video sequences are made entirely with free software available on

the Internet.

Videos were recorded using a Canon

camera and then were processed in

"Windows Movie Maker" (available on

any computer running Windows XP).

Images, buttons and all the graphics used

were edited using the free "GIMP". The

sound track of the film was made with the

help of VST Plug-in "DrumAndBase"

imported in the software Magix Music

Maker. All components have been

compiled into a menu with the auto run

program freeware "AutorunMaker. The

CD starts automatically when inserted in

the drive. The next step is to display the

top page, which is stationary for 15

seconds. One can continue pressing the

first button or click on the image anywhere

or wait 15 seconds. (Figure 1)

Next is Menu appearance (Figure 2).

This menu allows browsing through the

CD. On the first page are some general

data (Area 1) and the navigation menu

(Zone 2).

To view the contents of the CD press on

the left on "Exercises". Clicking this

button, the image that is joined will appear

(Figure 3).

Fig. 1

Fig. 2


104

At left are some general data and on the

right are 10 images that represent the

buttons that launch and last exercises. If

you have stationed a little more on an

image, a description block of exercises

appears next to your mouse cursor. By

clicking on the picture it opens the movie

in full screen (full screen) from its own

application. Each image opens about 10

exercises, grouped by category.

From the main menu, the second option

is the "Bonus". By clicking on it you can

watch a short video of 10 drills in plus.

The last menu option is "Record". This

world record was approved by the

Guinness Book of Records in 2003 for

"Most balls dribble at the same time"

The application may be terminated at any

time by clicking the 'X' shaped ball in the

right corner.

4. Results and Discussions

Control Tests used were:

• dribbling between the feet on a distance

of 35 m;

• milestone dribbling with changing

direction;

• dribbling with two balls on the long

field.

Presentation and interpretation of data

obtained from experiment (for lack of

space we will examine only one of three

control tests)

Control test 1

The difference in seconds between the initial and final testing on two groups, Table 1-2

Experiment group (TI-TF)

seconds

PO 1,9

RN 1,9

SO 2

TO 1,8

VM 2,2

SM 2

HE 2,1

JK 1,9

ZI 1,9

BV 2,2

Average 1,99

Standard deviation 0,14

Coefficient of

variance 6,89%

Witness group TI-TF

(seconds)

BA 1,2

AM 1,4

MA 1,2

CS 1,4

IM 1,5

CM 1,3

IC 1,2

UI 1

CO 1,4

AS 1,3

Average 1,29

Standard deviation 0,14

Coefficient of

variance 11,23%

Fig. 3

Enoiu, R. et al.: Dribble Improvements in the Basketball Game through Multimedia Means 105

As can be seen from the table, the

arithmetic mean of the differences

recorded between the initial and the final

testing on the experiment group is 1.99,

while on the control group it is only 1.29.

From this experiment it results that the

group had an overall performance

approximately 35% better than the control

group for the first test of control.

Chart 1

From the tables above and from Chart 1

it follows that the players in the

experiment group had an improvement in

average time by 8.16%, while the control

group of players had only 5.18%.

Analyzing the first tests we could come

with a partial conclusion: the application

experiment has succeeded in improving the

performance of the experimental group by

approximately 35% compared to the

control group, and thus the effectiveness

was demonstrated.

5. Conclusions

Based on the results obtained after using

the PC in the control samples and their

statistical interpretation, we reached the

following conclusions:

Indicators for coordinative ability and

the skill of driving have shown a real

progress, based on the results of final tests.

The kids involved in the experiment are

more aware of the importance of

improving coordination skills, pay greater

attention to the dribble and have greater

willingness to work independently.

Besides driving ability, moral-volitional

qualities have also been developed:

courage, perseverance, willingness,

ambition.

The various situations in which athletes

find themselves during the game, allowing

the development of creativity and

initiative, because you need an increased

rate of application and stages that follow

up rapidly, require a fast analysis. At the

same time, the education of thinking skills

was improved, as well as a sense of

orientation in space, and mobilization of

physical resources.

The multimedia application on CD has

proven effective and can be used

successfully in junior training. Statistical

Individual time improvement of TI and TF reported in

percentage points

9,3 8,9 8,9

7,5

9,1

8,1 8,2

7,1 6,8

7,7

6,0 6,4

5,2 5,8

6,0

5,1

4,6

3,6

4,7 4,3

2,0

2,5

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

5,0

5,5

6,0

6,5

7,0

7,5

8,0

8,5

9,0

9,5

10,0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Player

Per

form

ance

per

cen

tag

e


106

data from research results show an

improvement compared to the training

received by uncompromising modern

techniques.

References

1. Alexe, N. Antrenamentul sportiv

modern. Bucureşti: Editura Editis, 1993.

2. Bompa, T. Teoria şi metodica

antrenamentului. Periodizarea.

Bucureşti: Ex Ponto, 2002.

3. Chicomban, M. Pregătirea

baschetbaliştilor începători, proces

complex şi de lungă durată In:

International Scientific Conference -

New Educational Evolutions for Sports,

Management, Health Therapy and Free

Time in the European Context -

BRAŞOV 2009. Braşov: Transylvania

University of Braşov.

4. Cioroiu, S. Antrenamentul Pliometric

în Sport. In: International Scientific

Conference - New Educational

Evolutions for Sports, Management,

Health Therapy and Free Time in the

European Context - BRAŞOV 2009.

Braşov: Transylvania University of

Braşov.

5. Dragnea, A.; Mate-Teodorescu, S.

Teoria sportului. Bucureşti: FEST.

2002.

6. Enoiu, R. Baschet de la teorie la

practică. Braşov: Editura Univ.

Transilvania, Braşov 2008.

7. Enoiu, R.S.; Oancea, V. Fotbal –

ConsideraŃii asupra factorului fizic.

Braşov: Omnia UNI SAST, 2002.

8. Moldovan, E. Baschet. Braşov: Editura

Univ. “Transilvania” din Braşov, 2004.

9. Popescu, V. Baschetul în America.

Bucureşti: CNEFS, 1969.


1Faculty of Enterprise & Innovation, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College. 2 Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Braşov.

IMPROVING PUPILS' INITIATIVE-

TAKING CAPABILITIES THROUGH

PHYSICAL EDUCATION LESSONS

D. FEŞTEU

1 L. BALINT

2

Abstract. This article addresses the theme of personal and social

development through physical education and sport activities. The aim is to

present a possible solution to the problem of improving pupils’ ability of

taking initiative in activity. We started from the assumption that taking

initiative is a personal quality that is learned and could therefore be taught.

The approach is based on Goldstein’s (1981) method of social learning and

is different from what has been proposed so far. It is, within certain limits,

similar to the way concepts are taught in schools. It is mostly based on

explaining, questioning, demonstrating, reasoning, and reflecting. It could be

implemented as a group activity. Its implementation presupposes the

completion of a series of stages: concept learning, discrimination learning,

principle learning and problem solving.

Key words: antioxidants, non-nutrition, alpha-tocopherol.

1. Improving Pupils' Social Skills

The development of qualities such as

co-operation, honesty, communication,

initiative, responsibility, self-control is

part of the complex process of

maturation. Taking initiative is regarded

as important in the context of young

people’s social development. Taking

initiative to accomplish different tasks is

a quality that our society expects from its

members. The emergence of the new

informational society we are witnessing

at the beginning of the third millennium

shows that entrepreneurship and

intrapreneurship is becoming vital to the

new working environment. Taking

initiative has become a personal quality

that can no longer be expected from

leaders only but from ordinary people as

well. Taking initiative in tackling

problems in daily activity is crucial for

the working places of the future.

Initiative encompasses such qualities

such as the readiness to start a first step

in a process, willingness to be involved in

improving things around you,

confidentiality in your physical and

psychological resources, capability of

understanding what happens around you,

willingness to achieve success, readiness

to assume responsibility and take

reasonable risks.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov � Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

108

The problem is that people still need to

learn what taking initiative means, as

there is a widespread lack of knowledge

and practice. Young people are often

incapable of initiating an activity, and

many ignore the possibility of being

involved in an activity that can improve

things around them. Often, people are not

aware of their own physical and

psychological resources and are not

confident in their strengths. Not few

people lack the drive to understand what

the field forces are in their domain and

how forces act upon them. Many young

people dream of reaching success without

assuming responsibilities or working

hard. Many young people do not know

what taking reasonable risks means. Too

few young people experience success as a

result of taking initiative. In the new

informational society, more and more

individuals are expected to manifest

initiative and entrepreneurial attitude.

Initiative, responsibility and reliability are

crucial qualities in the global economy we

have just entered. In spite of the fact that

many subjects, modules and courses

taught in schools or universities

emphasize the need to encourage and

develop qualities such as team-work, co-

operation, leadership, decision making,

initiative, responsibility and others, little

has been done and the results are far from

being satisfactory. There seems to be no

subject matter in the school curriculum

aiming at systematically teaching the

concept and working to create the specific

associated skills.

There are, though, many outdoor

activities providers throughout the world

who do use specific activities to enhance

initiative, but their impact is limited as the

number of participants is still limited [7].

2. Improving Social Skills through

Physical Education

Education in general is expected to

encourage social skills, teach moral values,

form character, shape personality and

improve knowledge. The educational

factors in society work in a corroborative

manner; family, school, peers, television,

youth organizations, church and others,

all influence young people’s social

development. In my opinion, school should

play a leading role in enhancing young

peoples’ social capabilities, as school

represents for young people their local

society. The mini-society which is school

constitutes a somehow safe environment in

which pupils can learn and test a wide

range of social behaviors related to power

relationships, roles, peer pressure, social

rules, co-operation, conflict solving,

decision making, leadership and so on.

Physical education is one of the subject

areas within school that could substantially

contribute towards pupils’ personal and

social development, as activity in the gym

is inherently social and qualitatively

different from what occurs in the

classroom. Because movement is the

focus, many classroom formalities are

suspended. Within specified limits,

behavior that is unacceptable elsewhere is

here permitted, or even encouraged. For

example, touching and other forms of body

contact, loud and often chaotic

vocalization and spontaneous encounters

with others are all an integral part of many

physical education activities.

A vast literature mirrors the increasing

interest in and concern for using physical

education as a setting for enhancing the

socialization of young people. The trend to

ground educational interventions in

Festeu, D. et al.: Improving Pupils' Initiative-Taking Capabilities through Physical ...

109

physical education on theories from

psychology, sociology or ethics has

resulted in the employment of a wide range

of concepts. Some of the most frequently

used are: ‘socio-moral education' [9],

'socio-moral development' [12], 'socio-

moral growth' [11], 'social education'

[13], 'social skills' [8], 'moral growth'

[1], 'moral development' [4], 'value

development' [6], 'character

development' [10], 'character education'

[3] and 'affective development' [2].

3. How is Initiative to Be Learned through

Physical Education Lessons?

We start from the assumption that taking

initiative is a social process that is learned

and can therefore be taught. It is generally

admitted that the extent to which young

people are involved in co-operative

activities strongly influences their future

ability. Involving young people in

initiative taking activities is certainly

important, but equally important is that

they perceive participation as useful and

enjoyable. The way pupils perceive

initiative-taking situations determines the

likelihood of using initiative in a task-

solving situation.

The approach we propose to teachers

through this article is based on

Goldstein’s (1981) method of social

learning and is different from what has

been proposed so far. We have chosen to

use this model for a number of reasons:

first, this approach is, within certain

limits, similar to the way concepts are

taught in school. It is mostly based on

explaining, questioning, demonstrating,

reasoning, and reflecting. Second, it can

be implemented as a group activity. In

fact, the presence of the group is

essential. Third, its implementation

presupposes the completion of a series of

stages, which can be relatively easily

identified by the teacher. Fourth, the

results of its implementation can be quite

accurately assessed and do not demand

sophisticated psychological tests.

4. Some Suggestions on Teaching Initiative

-Taking through Physical Education

Lessons

1. Concept learning is the first step in

learning initiative-taking. Teachers may

ask pupils to express their opinions

regarding “taking initiative”, listen

carefully and then complete. Initiative is

the readiness to take the first step in a

process. The opposite is being inert (a

property by which matter does not change

or move). Some cues useful in defining the

concept are:

i. To initiate means to be willing to be

involved in improving things around

you.

ii. To initiate means to be confident in

your physical and psychological

resources.

iii. Initiate means to understand clearly

what happens around you.

iv. To initiate means to be more willing

to achieve success than being

frightened by failure.

v. To initiate means to assume

responsibility and take reasonable

risks.

The teacher must explain that initiative

may lead the individual to achieve

success in all kinds of activity. At the

same time, a team whose members act

expressing a high degree of initiative is

most likely to achieve success in solving

problems. The introductory part of

lessons may be used to discuss and define

the term. Teachers should encourage


110

pupils to think about the meanings and

discuss initiative. The goal of this stage is

to bring the concept to their attention and

specify its meaning. The ability to talk

about initiative and its meaning denotes a

good level of concept learning. (a set of

phrases such as “I’ll do that”, “I will take

care of it”, “We have to improve this”,

“This needs to be done”, etc.).

2. Discrimination learning of initiative-

taking is the next step and should mostly

focus on improving the perceptual

functions of consciousness and attention.

These functions should be developed to

enable the pupil to become more sensitive

and responsive to initiative-taking. This

means helping pupils distinguish initiative-

taking behaviors from inertial behaviors.

The teachers’ activity could include:

a) Encourage pupils observe group

activities and focus perception toward

actions, gestures and words that have a

certain significance for initiative-taking.

Observing how some pupils try to

understand problems around them, how

some propose things to be done, how some

assume tasks within a group, how some

come up with suggestions to improve

activity, how some assume certain risks to

carry on tasks, how some dare to do

something others do not, how some

volunteer to do something without being

asked, all these could enhance the

perception of responsible related

behaviors.

b) Direct pupils’ thoughts reveal the

meaning of other pupils' actions and

discuss them in relation to initiative. The

significance of behaviors during physical

education lessons could remain

undiscovered by pupils. In order to assist

pupils make sense of their behavior,

teachers could reveal the meaning of

certain activities. This could be done

during the activity, by highlighting

significant behaviors, or post-activity,

when the teacher could ask pupils recall

certain behaviors and discover their

significance in relation to initiative-taking.

Some questions will direct their thoughts:

Have they been sensible and concerned

about the team’s problems? Have they

tried to understand the team’s problems?

Have they tried to solve the problems? Did

they do something to improve activity

without being asked? Do they know what

their strengths are? Do they have

confidence in their strengths? Did they

dare to start an activity? Did anyone

become involved in the team’s problems

more than in his/her assignments?

c) Encourage pupils to take initiatives

within the group. Games, but individual

events as well, are good opportunities in

which pupils could be demanded to

volunteer to accomplish different tasks,

could be encouraged to take over roles

such as team leader, advice provider,

conflict solver, activity initiator and others.

At the beginning of a series of lessons the

teachers may announce that in addition to

technical skills and performance, initiative

taking will be evaluated. To encourage

pupils to take initiatives over normal

expectations, teachers should reward those

who take initiatives. The reward could

range from blinking an eye to tapping the

pupil’s shoulder, praising him/her in front

of the group and offering him/her decision

power during a certain activity.

d) Analyze pupils’ activity and express

feelings regarding the way in which those

who took initiatives have accomplished

their tasks. Focusing pupils’ attention and

thoughts on relevant behaviors during a

variety of physical activities enhances their

capability of attention in discriminating


111

stimuli. Other people’s behavior is a

complex stimulus difficult to perceive and

hard to attach correct significance to. By

analyzing how pupils are aware of their

strengths, how they try to solve problems,

how they dare to start an activity, how they

assume risks during games or play, how

they suggest new answers to problems,

how they seek to successfully accomplish

their tasks, by analyzing all this, pupils

could not only better understand what

taking initiative means but they could

become more capable of distinguishing

relevant behaviors. By increasing their

sensitivity to initiative-taking behaviors,

pupils could end by better understanding

what taking initiative means and by taking

initiative more often themselves.

3. Principle learning is the integration of

competent knowledge, values and conduct.

The aim of principle learning is to help

pupils create harmony and reciprocity

between what they know, what they value

and how they act. Principle learning should

be an exercise in value clarification and

validation in the process of personal

development. The teachers’ activity could

consist in:

a) Asking pupils to answer questions

such as: Is it good to acknowledge your

strengths? Is it good to use your strengths?

Is it good to start an activity? Is it

important to assume tasks within the

group? Is it good to try to understand what

is going on around you? Is it good to create

something new? Is it good to risk solving a

problem in a new way? In this way pupils

could be determined to understand and

define their values related to initiative-

taking.

b) Encouraging debate on topics such as

endeavor, risk-taking, starting something

new, assuming difficult tasks, willingness

and others. The debate should be grounded

on examples from the groups’ own activity

and refer to real situations and real people.

c) Encouraging pupils to clarify their

views and define their position regarding

initiative-taking. This could be done by

demanding pupils to recall their own

actions and the actions of peers that

illustrate desirable and undesirable

behaviors connected with specific aspects

of initiative-taking.

d) Organizing activities such as games,

contests, relay races, outdoor pursuits, in

which pupils are assessed against their

involvement in the group's problems,

willingness to take over tasks and

assignments, capability of organizing the

group, desire to achieve success, interest in

performing, drive to take the lead in the

activity, and other elements that define

initiative-taking behaviors. Peer

assessment is important to be done under

the teacher’s supervision, as pupils could

learn how to formulate opinions in a

constructive manner.

c) Asking pupils to formulate a set of

principles that they want to follow.

Teachers could not talk to each

individual pupil and pay attention to every

significant behavior, but frequently

bringing the above-mentioned issues to the

pupils’ attention and initiating debate is

very likely to produce significant effects

on pupils.

4. Problem solving could be the next step

in teaching pupils to take initiatives. It

does not mean the achievement of correct

solutions to conventional problems, but

rather the development of behaviors which

are useful in a world that presents

problems demanding creative as well as

conventional solutions. In generic terms,

the teacher’s helping role involves


112

management of the learning experience to

take place in a rewarding and effective

manner that takes account of the pupils’

motives, values, energies and capabilities.

In specific terms, the teacher could help

pupils to develop a strategy to solve their

personal problems caused by a lack of

awareness, misunderstanding, by lack of

skills or by lack of experience regarding

initiative-taking.

a) Teachers could firstly help pupils

identify whether the problems they

encounter while interacting with peers or

teachers have a certain connection with

initiative-taking. Pupils might have

problems related to their integration within

a group, gaining the group’s confidence,

losing the group’s support, feeling ignored

by the group, losing group sympathy,

being often blamed by peers, and others. If

the teachers see that the cause of such

problems resides in the area of initiative

taking, they should point out the specific

problem and help the individual define it.

b) Once the problem has been identified,

the teachers could assist pupils in

evaluating the situation and formulating

possible solutions. This could include

formulating principles for future behavior

that might help the individual face the

problem. Pupils could be encouraged to

formulate specific actions in specific

situations. For example, one could propose

being more actively involved in initiating

meetings, discussions, activities within the

group as a way to avoid being ignored by

the group.

c) In order to help pupils follow

principles, the teachers could discuss

possible consequences of specific

behaviors. By considering the

consequences, pupils could choose the

actions they think are more appropriate to

their purposes.

d) Further, in helping pupils solve

problems, teachers could encourage pupils

to test solutions in reality. For example, a

pupil encountering problems deriving from

'low status' within the group could try to

assume difficult tasks that the group has to

achieve. By assuming difficult tasks within

a group, one could gain support and

sympathy and reach the desired status.

e) Equally important to testing solutions

is evaluating consequences. We do not

learn by doing, we learn by doing and

realizing what has come out of what we

did. Teachers could direct pupils’

thoughts, but they should encourage

pupils to evaluate the outcomes of their

own actions. Taking initiative should be

seen by pupils as an effective way of

solving problems.

5. Issues Related to Program

Implementation

The method outlined here is an example

of a larger strategy aiming at enhancing

pupils’ socialization. The effects of this

program were assessed. Five groups of

between fourteen and seventeen year old

boys attended lessons in which the method

was introduced through physical education

lessons during one school year. There were

also five control, matching groups. In order

to assess the results of the program

implementation, direct observation,

questionnaires and socio-metric techniques

were used as part of a triangulation

procedure. The results show that the

intervention can successfully be used to

improve pupils’ initiative-taking abilities.

The aim of this article is to encourage

teachers to use this program. By choosing

to implement it, teachers might add value

to their work, pupils might gain knowledge

and skills that can help them improve their


113

lives. PE teachers will be teaching pupils

something that may not be taught

elsewhere in school, and the pupils' interest

in physical activity might be increased; last

but not least, teachers might benefit by

teaching initiative-taking.

The method can be implemented within

the existing PE curriculum. Co-operation

learning activities could be part of each

lesson during a period of six months. At

the beginning, planning is crucial and

includes proposing educational

objectives in close relation to PE’s

specific activities.

Working out the plan needs

commitment. Experience shows that you

might not succeed at the beginning, but

you will learn as you work. In early

stages you will do what you have

planned, after a while you will do what a

specific situation requires. The work

becomes more and more interesting and

more and more rewarding. Teaching

initiative-taking during your lessons will

become routine: you will plan, act,

observe, listen, judge and react.

Assessing behaviors is an important

part of the intervention. Taking initiative

should be judged as effective or

ineffective rather than good or bad.

Offering feedback to the group or to the

individual is also important and should

be done in the most constructive way.

References

1. Bredemeier, B.; Weiss, M.; Shields,

D. et al. Promoting moral growth in

the summer sports camp: The

implementation of theoretically

grounded instructional strategies. In:

Journal of Moral Education, 1986

(15), p. 212-220.

2. Cutforth, N.; Parker, M. Promoting

Affective Development in Physical

Education - The value of journal

writing. In: Journal of Physical

Education, Recreation and Dance,

September, 1996, p. 19-23.

3. Fisher, S. Developing and

implementing a K12 character

education program. In: Journal of

Physical Education Recreation and

Dance 1998, 69 (2), p. 21-23.

4. Gibbons, S.; Ebbeck, V. and Weiss, M.

Effects on the moral development of

children in physical education. In:

Research Quarterly for Exercise and

Sport 1995 (66), p. 247-255.

5. Goldstein, H. Social learning and

change. New York and London:

Tavistock Publications, 1981.

6. Hellison, D. and Georgiadis, A.

Teaching values through basketball.

In: Strategies, 1992 (5), p. 5-8.

7. Humberstone, B. Outdoor Education in

the National Curriculum. In:

Armstrong, N. (ed) New Directions in

Physical Education, Vol. 2; Toward a

National Curriculum, Champaigne, Il:

Humano Kinetics (1992), p.155-168.

8. Mc Hugh, E. Going beyond the

Physical: Social Skills and Physical

Education. In: Journal of Physical

Education, Recreation and Dance,

April 1995, p. 18-21.

9. Miller, S.; Bredemeier, B. and

Shields, D. Socio-moral Education

Through Physical Education With At-

Risk Children. In: Quest, 1997 (49),

p. 114-129.

10. Sage, G. Does Sport Affect Character

Development in Athletes? In: Journal

of Physical Education, Recreation and

Dance 1998, 69 (1), p.15-18.


114

11. Solomon, G. A model for the

enrichment of socio-moral growth. In:

Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,

1995, 7, (supplement), S109.

12. Solomon, D.; Watson, M.; Battistich,

S. et al.: Creating a caring community;

a school based program to promote

children’s socio-moral development.

Paper presented at the International

Symposium on Research on Effective

and Responsible Teaching. Fribourg:

Switzerland, 1990.

13. Underwood, M.; Williams, A. Personal

and social education through

gymnastics. In: British Journal of

Physical Education 1991, 22 (4),

p. 15-19.


1Fac. EFS Univ. Transilvania of Brasov.

FROM BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS

TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

EXPLOSIVE MUSCULAR FORCE

SPECIFIC OF THE SPRINTER

Dragoş IONESCU-BONDOC1

Abstract: At present, the importance of developing explosive muscular force in training the high performance sprinter is beyond discussion.

Practical experience has been consolidated from this standpoint for more

than a few decades. In exchange, the contents have considerably evolved for

the last years. Initially inspired, for the greatest part, from the bar bell

techniques, there have gradually appeared contents better adapted to the

characteristics of the activity and, consequently, more specific.

Key words: explosive muscular force, propulsive force, flying phase,

support phase, muscular chains.

1. Introduction

The objective of this presentation is to contribute to defining an assembly of

exercises aiming at developing specific

muscular force starting from a

biomechanical analysis.

Our attention will be directed, in the

present case, towards the phase of running

at full speed.

In general, the runner’s muscular activity

will be organized around three main

functional elements.

Propulsion: the runner acts upon the

ground through the intermediary of a

unilateral support (on a leg) During the interaction ground-sole, the

propulsive forces are applied to the runner,

and the muscular strain is maximal. The

development of the muscular force may be

deemed as a propitious means for

obtaining the best efficiency of the motion.

The present paper will mainly focus on the

analysis of this functional element.

Equilibration (development of the

muscular support pelvis –trunk) The rigidity of the connection pelvis-

trunk is determined as regards the

effectiveness of the support. As a matter of

fact, the runner has to be considered as a

deformable mechanical system. At the

moment of the support, the reaction forces

of the soil may cause the relative drive of

certain elements of this assembly, some in

relation to others. (basin-trunk).This effect

is undesirable to the extent that it may

totally or partially annul the dynamic effect

of the soil reaction, leading this way to an

objective aimed at. Driving the abdominal

dorsal-lumbar muscles may considerably

reduce the deformation of the pelvis-trunk

connection during the support phase, this

way contributing to a better effectiveness

of the support. Consequently, the exercises


116

of developing muscular force, of the so-

called “muscular support for the assembly

pelvis-trunk“, will constitute a constant

element of the specific work in sprint.

The dynamic equilibrium of the body in

motion and continuity (enlacement) of

the action During the support phase, the central

axis of the body carries out a rotation

movement around the support leg. This

rotation movement has to be at the same

time extremely quick forwards and stopped

at the end of the support for the

maintenance of the general equilibrium of

the body during the flight (aerial) stage

which will follow.

The free segments (in the first place, the

free, osculating leg and in the second place

the arms) ensure a great part of this double

function. In the framework of the

development of muscular force there has to

be taken into consideration the muscular

strain which ensured the sequence of return

forwards and of impending the free leg.

The amplitude, the frequency of the

running step and the “cycle of the step” stand

for the technical indicators most frequently

used in order to assess the effectiveness of

this step. The present study aims at

specifying the modifications of the cinematic

parameters of the running step in connection

with the optimization of the frequency and/or

of the amplitude during the running phase “at

full speed“ for the sprinters, and hence deduce the new requirements that should be

met by the muscular chains which ensure the

phase of support of the running. Eventually,

we will infer from this analysis a series of

organizational principles for the

development of the speed runner’s specific

muscular force.

2. Explosive Force Training in Sprinters

During the last 20 years, especially after

the PG years, the training of explosive force

in the sprinters has constituted one of the

most important factors in achieving

performance. In settling an optimal program,

there have to be taken into consideration

certain factors: the athlete’s chronological

age, his/her general physical development,

the years of practicing athletics, the level of

training, the period of training.

It was noted that, over the last years, many

trainers have used the same ideas and

theories. After 1977, a new system was used

in which exercises with dumb bells were

made, followed by multiple jumps which

ended with short sprints. This system was

used by the Italian trainer Carlo Viitori, and

it is deemed to be erroneous. However,

practice has proved the contrary, the results

not lingering, especially after it was adopted

in the USA.

The reason for this style of work is

simple: so that the sportsman should

manifest an explosion, he/she has to work at

maximal frequency during a long period of

time, also avoiding accidents. The

explanation for this system is the following:

when the training with dumb bells is

executed, the contractions are concentric,

therefore the muscle is rarely extended or

elongated. For this purpose it was resorted to

an experimental study upon the sprinters’

behaviour through the method of repeating

some series of quick grazing step, on

different distances.

The research was developed from

January 15th

to April 15th

2007 at L.P.S. Brasov.

All the eight subjects at the beginning of

the research were tested in the five events,

plus the one we proposed (50 m running

with quick grazing step):

• 30 m running downward start

• 30 m running launched start

• 100 m running downward start

• long jump without running start

• triple jump without running start

• 50 m running with quick grazing step

(proposed event)

Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of … 117

INITIAL TESTING

30 m 30 m 100 m Long jump triple 50 m running steps

NAMESUB. a.S.j a. S. l a.S.j no running no running Nr steps time

G.S. 4,32 sec 3,1 sec 11,8 sec 2,35 m 8,29 m 22 steps 8,9

S.Z. 4,35 sec 3,3 sec 12,0 sec 2,3 m 8,25 m 23 steps 9,01

B.A. 4,32 sec 3,24 sec 11,85 sec 2,35 m 8,27 m 22 steps 8,91

T.P. 4,2 sec 3,1 sec 11,5 sec 2,4 m 8,35 m 20 steps 8,89

H.I. 4,4 sec 3,3 sec 12,4 sec 2,34 m 7,93 m 23 steps 9,11

P.A. 4,3 sec 3,21 sec 11,75 sec 2,38 m 8,3 m 21 steps 8,9

C.R. 4,26 sec 3,1 sec 11,7 sec 2,4 m 8,3 m 21 steps 8,91

GHE.S. 4,2 sec 3,12 sec 11,5 sec 2,45 m 8,35 m 22 steps 8,9

FINAL TESTING

30 m 30 m 100 m Long jump triple 50 m running steps

NAME SUB. a.S.j a. S. l a.S.j no running No running Nr steps no running

G.S. 4,27 3,08 11,61 2,46 8,39 20 8,5

S.Z. 4,2 3,25 11,92 2,35 8,36 21 8,8

B.A. 4,28 3,21 11,63 2,41 8,39 21 8,7

T.P. 4,1 3,05 11,31 2,61 8,45 19 8,4

H.I. 4,27 3,27 12,05 2,39 8,2 21 8,8

P.A. 4,25 3,18 11,5 2,49 8,39 20 8,4

C.R. 4,2 3,07 11,45 2,5 8,4 20 8,7

GHE.S. 4,1 3,05 11,3 2,64 8,45 20 8,5

As we noted from the final testing, the

program submitted for the rationalization

and standardization of the working values

achieved the tasks proposed by:

- the working volume during the 4 months

used for the development of the force, of

the resistance, of the motric qualities

prevailing in the event.

- working intensity upon effort stages as

well as the speed for going through the

different distances of training; the

distances and the number of repetitions

during the training used for the

development of one of the motric

qualities mentioned.

Graphical representation of the results obtained during the initial testing and the final

testing in the event of 50 meters running quick grazing step

CHART SHOWING THE NO. OF QUICK GRAZING STEPS PERFORMED OVER A

DISTANCE OF 50M IN THE INITIAL TESTING

202224

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

NUMBER OF SUBJECTS

NU

MB

ER

OF

ST

EP

S


118

CHART SHOWING THE NUMBER OF

QUICK GRAZING STEPS PERFORMED

OVER A DISTANCE OF 50M IN THE FINAL

TESTING

152025

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

NUMBER OF SUBJECTS

NU

MB

ER

O

F

ST

EP

Comparative table of the results obtained following the application of the operative

model and the results presented in the Fischer Table, for a number of eight subjects.

EVENTS "t"according to"

Fischer" table

"t"obtained in

research

30 m.S.l. 3,49 5,31

100 m.S.j. 3,499 4,25

Lg jump no running start 3,49 3,66

Triple with no running start 3,499 4

50 m running quick step 3,499 4,14

No steps

50 m running quick step time 2,365 2,83

Calculating the significance of the

differences between the averages of the

correlated samplings, in the initial testing

and in the final testing, “t” calculated

seemed to be higher than the “t” present in

the ”Fischer Table of values”, which

confirms the working hypothesis and

rejects the void hypothesis, with a

percentage of probability of 99,99%.

References

1. Centre of Research for P.E.S.:

Antrenamentul sprinterilor în sportul

de performanŃă, nr.182.

2. Centre of Research for P.E.S.: Bazele

ştiinŃifice ale antrenamentului sportiv

(11), A.T.A.M. vol. XIII.

3. Centre of Research for P.E.S.: Ce ştim

despre viteză. Bucharest, 1971.

4. Centre of Research for P.E.S.:

ConŃinutul şi metodica

antrenamentului sportiv contemporan.

5. Pithip, V.; Rozumowski, U. Modelul

teoretic al antrenamentului

alergătorului.

6. Trouillon, P. Antrenamentul în

atletism – abordarea fiziologică în

sportul de performanŃă, nr.104.


1Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Braşov.

NON – NUTRITIONAL NATURAL

ANTIOXIDANTS

Alina MARTOMA

1

Abstract. Within this group are framed the substances which are found in vegetal and animal organisms, but do not represent components of human

alimentation, not being edible. They are found in great quantities, especially

in the vegetal regnum.

Key words: antioxidants, non-nutrition, alpha-tocopherol.

Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants

Antioxidants Sources Roles

Ubiquinone (Coenzyme

Q10)

In all cells of the body of

animal origin: fish

(salmon, macro, sardines),

heart and liver of bovines

– participates in the chain of

electronic transport

– antioxidant role in reduced form:

it protects the cellular

membranes, together with

vitamin E; it directly acts upon

the radicals R-OO or reduces the

tocopheroxyl radical to

tocopherol

– ubiquinolol-10, reduced form of

ubiquinone-10 is a strong

lipophilic AO

– ubiquinolol-10 protects human

LDL against lipoperoxidation

much more efficiently than

vitamin E; the plasmatic level of

ubiquinolol represents a faithful

index for the oxidative stress in

vivo

– CoQ10 protects the ventricular

function from lesions through

ischemia-reperfusion in animals

and in humans


120


Flavonoids - medicinal tree Ginkgo

Biloba contains

ginkgoflavonoids

(quercetin, cumaroil,

kemferol,

glucoramnosides)

- rind of the maritime pine

tree contains pycnogenol

(procyanidins)

- propolis contains the

natural balsam prepared

from honey

– strong AO agent in vitro, depurates

OH•, O2

• – , H2O2, NO

– in vivo were tracked the effects of the

therapy with the extract Egb 761; it

diminishes platelet aggregation and

stimulates the synthesis of

prostacyclin.

– it protects the myocardium from

lesions through ischemia -reperfusion

– tonic, role in increasing intellectual

capacity, tranquilizing, antitumoral,

antiviral, anti-inflammatory

– it diminishes the cholesterol level

and the formation of uric acid

– chronic treatment with ginseng raises

the HDL fraction, cAMP, stimulates

the biosynthesis of phospholipids

and of corticosteroid hormones.

– it depurates the free radicals (1O2, O2

•

–, OH

•, lipoperoxides, NO)

– it recycles the radicals ascor-

byl/tocopheryl economizing the

reserves of vitamin C and E

– it amplifies the activity of AO

enzymes (SOD, CAT, GSH)

– it stimulates endotelium-dependent

vasodilatation and it inhibits platelet

aggregation.

– it raises resistance to physical effort

through economizing the reserves of

AO, is cytoprotector, immune-

modulator, anti-inflammatory, anti-

edematous, it protects the skin from

UV radiations, has a venotonic action

in chronic venous insufficiency with

static oedema

– it has been proved that the ethanolic

propolis extract protects mice from

irradiation with γ rays

– bactericide properties, bacteriostatic

properties, antiseptic, cicatrisation

properties, haemostatic, anesthetic,

anti-inflammatory properties

– strong antioxidant effect:

depuration Η2Ο2, 1

Ο2, lipoperoxides

– depuration O2• –

is proportional to the

degree of polymerization of the

taniures

Martoma, A.: Non-Nutritional Natural Antioxidants

121


- the oak rind contains

taniures

- tea leaves, persimmon

leaves contain taninures

and phenylpropenoids

(cumarines)

– cumarines exercise anti-

inflammatory effects, through the

inhibition of the lipo-oxygenasic path

and cyclo-oxygenasic path of the

arachidonic acid and blocks the

generation of O2• –

Metallothionein (MT) - ubiquitary proteins

fixating transition metals

Cd, Zn, Cu, Hg, Bi

Obs. They occur under

the action of exogenous

inductive factors of SO:

radiations, hyperoxia,

cold, isolation, inanition,

physical effort

– MT are involved in numerous

intracellular functions: regulation of the

mineral homeostasis for Cu, Zn, Cd

through: control upon the expression of

the genes for the regulation, synthesis

and functional activity of the proteins

(metalloproteins) and of the metal-

dependent transcription factors

especially for Zn (Zn MT prevail in the

blood); control of the absorption of Zn

and Cu; deposit for essential metals such

as Zn and Cu and thereby contributes to

the prevention of toxicity of the metals

in case of antioxidants (Bi, Co, Cu, Zn,

Hg, Cd; donation of metals for water-

metal-proteins in physiological

conditions, a process which is facilitated

by GSH; control of the hepatic

metabolism of Zn and Cu; antioxidant

against SRO and SRN, with direct

action in vitro and indirect in vivo.

– . in vivo the protective action of MT

has been indirectly, experimentally

proved: through the supra-expression

of MT in transgenic mice they offer a

direct model for the physiological

role of MT; through the protection

offered against lesions induced by the

oxidative stress in cultures of

epithelial human cells (HE) and

mouse fibroblasts (C1 1D); through

protection against the oxidative stress

induced by radiations: ZnMT and

CdMT are depurators of OH• and O2

•

–; in the protective action are

involved 20 atoms SH of cysteine;

the effect is predominantly AO

against OH• and is 340-800 times

superior to GSH; through the

inhibition of the lipoperoxidation in

erythrocytes incubated with ZnMT

and CdMT


122


– in humans, there have been evinced

high values of MT in the liver and in

the kidneys, in some congenital

diseases such as Wilson disease and

Menke disease, during the gestation

and postnatal period, in some

pulmonary tumours and in cardiac

affections (ischemia-reperfusion

lesions, cardiac hypertrophy)

Superoxide-dismutase

(SOD)

CuZnSOD (SOD-1)

Extra-cellular CuZnSOD

(EC-SOD or SOD-3)

- liver, brain, lungs,

hematies

- plasma, lymph, synovial

liquid

– CuZnSOD plays a major role in the

first antioxidant line of defence,

through catalyzing the dismutation of

the radicals O2• –

– antioxidant action, ensured by the

enzymatic couple SOD + CAT; both

enzymes have high reaction speeds

– pharmacological effects depending

on the administered dose; small doses

have moderated protective effect

upon the extension of infarct in

rabbits; high doses (50 µg/kg) raise

the dimension of the infarct

– prevention of the formation of the

chemotactic factor for neutrophils,

the formation depending onO2• –

– the modification (inversion) of the

inhibiting effect of MDA upon the

relaxation of the arterial wall,

induced by Ach, on precontracted

veins with NA)

– protection of dehydrases, inhibition

of the formation of metHb through

the anions of O2• –

, inhibition of the

peroxidation PUFA

– anti-apoptotic role (SOD exercises an

indirect anti-apoptotic effect, through

the inhibition of the apoptotic effect

of H2O2

– rise of the production of NO on the

endothelial level of its activity

– role upon the neurobehavioral

functions; EC-SOD was involved in

the learning process: in mice, the

phenotypic expression of the

genotypic alterations of the

production of EC-SOD is

characteristic for spatial learning and

memory


123


– daily administration ameliorates

inflammatory cutaneous reactions

– SOD is involved in: allergy, cancer,

cardiovascular and arteriosclerosis

ischemic lesions, infections with

Helicobacter pylori, infections with

viruses, genetic diseases (Down

syndrome), neurodegenerative

diseases: Alzheimer disease,

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,

Huntington disease, Prion disease;

cataract

Catalase (CAT) - liver – detoxification H2O2

– role in growth and development

– oxidation of ethanol

– tumour protection evinced through

experimental studies

– inhibition of apoptosis

– CAT has been involved in cancer,

infections with viruses, genetic

diseases: chronic granulomatous

disease, diabetes, cataract

Glutathione (GSH) - liver – important depurator of OH• and

1O2

– regulation of the cellular sulphydryl

redox status

– role in growth and development

– regulation of the metabolism of the

leukotrienes and PG

– immune function

– it is involved in viral,

neurodegenerative, pulmonary

diseases

Ceruloplasmin – protein of acute phase, with an anti-

inflammatory role, against SRO

liberated by the macrophages and as

inhibitor of the reactions mediated by

SRO, through blocking the formation

of hydroxylanions and of

lipoperoxides

– it fixes Cu ions and prevents

reinitiating the reactions

– it acts as feroxidase, transforming

Fe2+

into Fe3+

Melatonin (ML) – the protective determinant role of ML

in oxidative stress may be:

– primary, direct, as direct depurator

OH•

; secondary, indirect through:

stimulating effect upon GSH-Px,


124


which decomposes H2O2;

stimulating effect upon SOD,

inhibiting the formation of 1O2 and

H2O2; inhibitor of lipoperoxidation

– anti-apoptotic effect proved through

the reduction of the DNA

fragmentation

– inhibitor of 5-lipooxigenase, enzyme

involved in the synthesis of the

leukotrienes

– it suppresses the NOS activity,

probably through coupling the

calmodulin

– favorable effects in

neurodegenerative diseases,

protective effects towards paraquat

and CCl4, ionizing radiations

– potential remedy for HIV due to the

inhibiting action against NF-kB

induced by the cytokines, mitogens

and ionizing reactions

– it inhibits the LDL oxidation at

supra-physiological concentrations

– favourable effects upon cardiac

arrhythmia, the nefrotoxicity induced

by cyclosporine A and gentamicin

– favourable influences upon the cellular

and humoural immune response

Estrogens – it inhibits the peroxidation of fats (lipids: estrona 11, estradiol 12 and 2-OH-E213)

– 17 β-estradiol has AO activity at physiological concentrations

– the administration at supra-physiological concentrations reduces the lipoperoxidation lesions in the myocardium and in the skeletal muscle

both in vitro and in vivo

Polyamines - liver: putresceine,

spermidine, spermine

– antilipoperoxidating action through

the capacity to fix on the membranal

phospholipid

– spermine stabilizes α-tocopherol l,

carotenoids

– anti-inflammatory action (it chelates

the metals, it inhibits the proliferation

of lymphocytes, diminishing the

secretion of IL-2


125


– high affinity for Fe, protecting the

tissues in inflammatory processes

– anti-radiation action

– anti-mutageneous action (protector

effect of spermine upon DNA

exposed to SO)

– useful in neurodegenerative diseases,

they prevent the toxicity of the

paraquat

α-lipoic acid - it was evinced in the

form of lipoil-lysine in

different natural sources,

especially in vegetal stuff:

spinach > flower buds of

broccoli > tomatoes >

peas and Brussels

cabbage > rice bran; in

animal tissues, lipoil-

lisine has been evinced in

bovines, in kidneys >

heart > liver > spleen >

brain > pancreas > lungs

– depuration effect of the free radicals

(OH•, HOCl, chelation of the

transition metals, especially Fe and

Cu)

– regeneration of other AO (C vitamin,

α-tocopherol, GSH, ubiquinolol)

– inhibition of NF-kB activation, with

favorable effects in HIV,

arteriosclerosis, diabetes

– lipoate presents in clinics a special

importance as tiol regenerator and

redox modulator agent; it intervenes

in producing energy and in reducing

equivalents

– it has been evinced that the treatment

with lipoate selectively facilitates the

death of the cancerous cells through

intensifying the inductible activity of

capsase 3, the protease of death

– the unique property of the lipoate is

metabolic AO

Adenosine – it inhibits the production of O2• –

by

the human neutrophils in culture with

FMLP

– protective against lesions with

postischemic re-oxygenation

Nicotinamide – prolonged ingestion of the nicotinic

acid leads to the rise of NAD+ in the

circulating lymphocytes, determining

resistance to the oxidative aggression

Lactoferrin - human secretions (milk,

saliva, tears, nasal

secretions)

– protein fixating the Fe ions, is an

endogeneous acid AO on the level of

the mucous membranes

Arginine – it is the precursor of NO

– Arginine ameliorates the reperfusion

lesions after the ischemia of the

myocardium

– inhibits the liberation of O2• –


126


Potassium – it inhibits the generation of O2• –

by

monocyit-macrophage cells and

PMN circulation

Copper – organic complexes of Cu, they have

anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-

diabetic, anticonvulsive, anti-

ulcerous, anti-carcinogeneous effects

References

1. Biasi, F.; Chiarpotto, E.; Poli, G.

Molecular basis of antioxidants. In: Int. Acad. Biomed. Drug&Res. Basel, 1994,

vol. 7, p. 138-143.

2. Bonorden, W.R.; Pariza, M.W.

Antioxidant nutrients and portection

from free radicals. In: Raven Press,

1994, p. 19-47. 3. Dejica, D. AntioxidanŃi naturali. In:

AntioxidanŃi şi terapie antioxidantă.

Dejica D. (sub red.). Cluj-Napoca: Casa

CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă, 2001, p. 105-148.

4. Olinescu, R. Radicali liberi în

fiziopatologia umană. Bucureşti: Editura

Tehnică, 1994.

5. Olinescu, R.; Gruia, M.I. and

Mihăescu, Gh. De ce şi cum

îmbătrânim. Bucureşti: Editura

Cermaprint, 2004. 6. Sies, H. Oxidative stress. In: Oxidative

stress. Oxidants and antioxidants. Sies

H. (Ed). Acad. Press, 1991, p.15-25.

7. Tache, S. AntioxidanŃii endogeni. In:

AntioxidanŃi şi terapie antioxidantă.

Dejica D. (red.). Cluj-Napoca: Casa CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă, 2001, p. 23-70.

8. Tache, S. Capacitatea antioxidantă a

organismului. In: AntioxidanŃi şi

terapie antioxidantă. Dejica D. (red.).

Cluj-Napoca: Casa CărŃii de ŞtiinŃă,

2001, p. 71-104.


PHYSICAL DEFICIENCIES AND HYDRO-

KINESTHETIC THERAPY IN THEIR

CORRECTION

E. MOLDOVAN1 S. CIOROIU

2

Abstract: This paper is meant to offer more information about the beneficial effects

of kinesthetic therapy and orthopedics in the treatment of scoliosis, a treatment

which should be followed by swimming in a constant and systematic manner. In the case of those who suffer of scoliosis, swimming should be practiced for several years

in order to have a good effect. In swimming, the patient shall practice various arts of

swimming, namely: backstroke, bras and butterfly. This is an excellent active way of

self-control and rebalancing of the backbone and of the pelvis, and sustains the

harmonious development of the chest.

Key words: physical deficiencies, hydro-kinesthetic therapy.

1 Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov. 2 Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.

1. Introduction

Physical deficiencies are being studied

not only because they are quite frequent,

but especially related to the consequences

they have on the body. The emergence of

vertebral deviations before starting

attending school requires special investigation of the vertebral column,

establishing both the etiology of the

vertebral deviations and particularly their

evolution, taking into consideration that

their prognosis is more serious if they

emerge at a younger age.

Vertebral deviations found in school

age children are considered as vertebral

statics imbalances, accompanied by

changes of the minimal vertebral

structure, which in time determine and

cause the emergence not only of statics

disorders of the intra-thorax viscera, but

also aesthetic changes of the body.

Vertebral deviations found at school age

are faulty positions (habitual at the work

desk, during the execution of certain

professional abilities etc.), as well as differences between the development of

the bone support - the vertebral column

and the muscles-ligaments support,

determined by permanentization. Thus,

vertebral deviations at school age cause,

besides aesthetic inconveniences (asymmetry of the shoulders and of the

shoulder blades, of the thorax and of the

abdomen), also functional troubles

(especially of the vertebral column that

highly depends on the function of the

internal organs in the thorax and abdominal

inlets [4, p. 87-90].

Accordingly, the specialty literature

underlines the need to precociously track

down vertebral deviations by initial and

timely check-ups that are mandatory

carried out at all levels of education.

Physical deficiencies are acquired

pathological aspects of the human body,

determined by genetic factors or by

microbial factors or that emerged as a


consequence of defective, incorrect

positions of vertebral statics, walking,

global or segmental posture in daily

attitudes (orthostatism, sitting, at the

writing desk, walking). A physical

deficiency represents a change from the

normal of the form and function of the

musculoskeletal system that negatively

influences the body and that may totally or

segmentarily change the body form or its

functions. Physical deficiencies are the

result of a hypo or of a hyper-function, of

an imbalance or of the non-coordination of

the musculoskeletal system functions.

Pathological physical deficiencies are

determined by structural changes of the

elements making up the musculoskeletal

system [6, p. 56-58].

- Adrian N. Ionescu described four

groups of pupils classified on the grounds

of the seriousness of the deficiency.

- Group I includes children without any

physical, organic or mental deficiencies,

with a harmoniously developed body, with

a good nutrition condition, having a correct

posture of the body and of its segments.

All these pupils execute the tasks

stipulated in the physical education

curriculum and take part in all forms of

physical exercise at school.

- Group II includes pupils with minor

physical deficiencies (deficient attitudes)

that may concern the whole body or only

certain segments and that, by the execution

of the corrective move – functional test, are corrected and hyper-corrected (correct

= partial remedy of the global or segment

deficiency is carried out; hypercorrect =

when we obtain not only the position

rectification, but also the opposite aspect

of the deficiency). These children do not

show weight troubles or marks of organic

or mental diseases. They are not exempted

from physical education and, on the

contrary, they are recommended additional

exercises to remedy those deficiencies.

Consequently, it would be advisable to

organize special moments of kinesics

prophylaxis including 3-5 corrective and

straightening exercises during the class or

even special corrective lessons.

- Group III includes pupils with average

deficiencies, showing stationary or slow

evolution of morphological and functional

faults, which are partially corrected or stay

the same according to the functional test.

Most of the average deficiencies are

segmentary. These children are not

exempted from physical education either,

but only from certain exercises and moves

that might aggravate the existing

deficiency. They shall not take part in

contests. The pupils showing average

deficiencies shall follow a special life

regime where the most important are the

corrective physical exercises. By

conforming both at school and at home to

the recommendations of the physician and

of the physical education teacher related to

educating a correct posture of the body

depending on the physical deficiencies

found: rational alternation of work and

resting time, as well as performing certain

exercises daily, such deficiencies may

partially remedy, their evolution may be

stopped or they may be eradicated, up to

their complete rectification.

- Group IV includes pupils with

accentuated deficiencies residing in

pathological changes that are in an

advanced evolutionary stage. Such pupils

are exempted from the physical education class, yet we organize special lessons with

them in order to correct their physical

deficiencies. Systematic and organized

practice of corrective physical exercises by

these individuals is required both to

provide normal bringing up, good psycho-

motive ability, and to correct the existing

deficiencies, to prevent the compensating

ones etc. It is highly important that the

teacher of physical education, being aware

of the differential characteristics of these

groups, should correctly appreciate the

Moldovan, E. et al.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesthetic Therapy in … 129

biological value of a group. The large

number of deficiencies found in schools is

explained by the non-differentiation of the

minor deficiencies that are deficient

attitudes, without changes in the tissues’

structure, from the average and the

accentuated deficiencies. Taking this

classification into consideration, we may

divide physical deficiencies into

deficiencies of first, second and third

degree (according to groups II, III and IV).

It is true that sometimes the differentiation

between the minor deficiencies and the

average ones is not an obvious one,

especially as far as the transition forms are

concerned. At the same time, we would

like to emphasize the importance of

acknowledging such deficiencies for the

harmonious development of teenagers and

youngsters. Found in due time, properly

guided and monitored, minor and average

deficiencies may be corrected. Denying

their existence is a big mistake, as big as

the one of not correcting them or

disregarding them. Only by knowing the

biological and medical data of all pupils

may the teacher of physical education

establish the possibilities of the pupil’s

integration in the physical education

process, decide and apply the most

appropriate measures to prevent and to

correct physical deficiencies.

The issue of finding, preventing and

remedying physical deficiencies existing

in children represents a permanent concern for both parents and teachers

involved in their bringing up and

education.

This paper deals with the possibility

that the complex treatment of scoliosis

(kinesthetic therapy and orthopedics) is

associated with symmetrical aquatic

procedures and moves, in a systematic

and continuous manner, with the aim of

considerably improving curative results.

As far as people suffering from scoliosis

are concerned, the hydro-kinesthetic

therapy by swimming must be symmetrical

and practiced for several years. They must

swim backstroke, breaststroke or butterfly

stroke styles. This is an excellent active way

of self-controlling and re-balancing the

shoulder girdle and the pelvic girdle, of re-

balancing the vertebral column and of

directing the proportioned development of

the thorax. Breathing gymnastics in water is

executed as swimming or as special

programs of breathing moves,

10-15 minutes, the patient being in water

up to the chin, with stretched lower limbs

and touching the pool with the tip of the

toes [5, p. 67-69]. Inhaling and exhaling

shall be simultaneous with the arms

moving up, to the lateral, with or without

inflexion, symmetrically or asym-

metrically), with moves of the head and of

the neck (flexions – extensions). As well,

the level of the water in the pool may

lower, so that the water reaches the line of

the shoulders (the underarms). In such

circumstances, to the moves of the upper

limbs and of the head we add slow flexions

and extensions of the body. The suppleness

of the vertebral curvatures balances the

girdles, stimulates the self-control of the

deficient position and favors the

development of the thorax symmetry, as

well as the increase of the vital capacity

[2, p. 145-148]. The main motivation of

the paper is the high frequency of vertebral

deviations, especially of scoliosis type

ones, in pupils aged between 7 and 18 years. Such deviations are asymptomatic in

the first stage – the attitude stage that may

be found only on the occasion of a rigorous

medical check-up. The pain occurring in

maintaining certain positions or the

permanent pain in the vertebral area

noticed by teenagers determines the

ascertaining of the already advanced

scoliosis. Scoliosis, the physical deficiency

with multiple preventive, therapy-

corrective, recovery and social

implications - represents an incompletely


solved issue [3, p. 112-114]. "Idiopathic

scoliosis" or "scoliosis disease" as well as

"congenital scoliosis" still do not have

causal therapeutic solutions, as scholars are

still searching for the most efficient

solutions possible. Wishing to obtain a

correct, aesthetic attitude of the child,

parents appeal to the orthopedists. Yet we

must understand that not all physical

deficiencies are exclusively solved by

medicine, most of them may be corrected

also by doing therapy physical exercise

[2, p. 145-148].

Scoliosis is the deviation from the

normal of the vertebral column, in all the

three planes: sagital, horizontal and

mostly frontal. Not found, not treated in

an appropriate manner and neglected, it

may become a serious, severe problem,

with several negative effects on the form

of the body, of the position of the upper

and lower limbs, as well as on the

operation of the thorax internal organs

[1, p. 88-89]. The study does an

applicative research to develop the field

of hydro-kinesthetic therapy of physical

deficiencies by means of specific

swimming. Research is intended to adapt

the means of swimming to the recovery

of the potential physical deficiencies,

establishing new directions to diversify

the recovery programs, elaborating

complex exercise systems to improve the

results related to the correction of

physical deficiencies, a direction in which we shall study the relationship

between hydro-kinesthetic therapy and

the specific means of swimming from the

point of view of remedying physical

deficiencies, studies meant to elaborate

appropriate programs in the field of

kinesthetic therapy necessary to train

specialists in the field.

2. Hypothesis of the Paper

We start from the assumption that

associating kinesthetic therapy with the

specific means of swimming we may

obtain visible results in remedying

scoliosis in school age children. Tasks of

the Paper: the following tasks of the study

derive from this purpose:

– demonstrating the importance of the

study related to the physical deficiencies

of school age children;

– selecting the specialty bibliographic

material;

– demonstrating the efficiency of the

proposed exercise complexes and

attaining the objectives related to the

evaluation and comparison of the initial

and final deviation values of the studied

scoliosis;

– highlighting the need of hydro-

kinesthetic therapy in the treatment of

scoliosis;

– demonstrating the efficiency of the

proposed exercise complexes and

attaining the objectives related to the

evaluation and comparison of the initial

and final deviation values of the studied

scoliosis;

– selecting the teenagers making up the

experimental group;

– composing exercise complexes for the

medical gymnastics lesson, in the

kinesthetic therapy gym (by the

specialist in kinesthetic therapy) and of the special exercises for the pool.

The Research Methods were: analysis of

the specialty literature, pedagogic

observation, conversation method, tests

method, graphic method.

The methods of analyzing specialty

literature – a method by which we obtained

data related to the results obtained by other

researchers in the field of that particular

theme. This method implied the search for

bibliographic sources, consulting them,


information selection, processing and

interpretation.

Studying school documents – especially

of the medical record sheet of each pupil

where we found data on the causes that

determined the installation of the physical

deficiency, on its severity.

The method of the case study – as a

research method, resides in the analysis

and debate of a proposed case, of a pupil in

our case. The feature of this method is that

it allows a direct confrontation with the

real circumstances, considered as

representative for a class of phenomena;

the circumstances serve as premises for

inductive knowledge. Its functionality is

revealed both in the process of acquiring

new theoretical information as well as in

the study of concrete situations. In order to

collect data for each pupil, we used the

study of the medical record sheet,

anthropometrical data in accordance with

the hypotheses of this paper.

The mathematical – statistics method –

we used it to express quality relations from

the quantity point of view. The data

supplied by this method helped us establish

the progress made in remedying the

physical deficiencies.

The execution of the experiment: we

included 8 children in the research who

represented the experimental sample; these

cases were selected after the examination

of 102 pupils of secondary school. The

term of the experiment was of 10 months. The subjects included in the experimental

group had two classes per week in the

kinesthetic therapy gym (60 min) and two

classes at the Olympic Swimming Pool of

Brasov (50min). The research includes the

data of the subjects related to: identity,

anamnesis, clinical examination,

anthropometrical examination.

Specific measurements: Thorax

imbalance, cervical, thorax, lumbar arrows,

right hemi-thorax, radiological

examination.

The research was especially

substantiated on:

- the personalized study of the subjects;

- establishing the objectives of the

kinesthetic therapy and hydro-

kinesthetic therapy program;

- the study and elaboration of the

recovery programs;

- going through the proposed complexes

together with the subjects;

- comparing the initial parameters to the

final ones.

3. Steps of the Research

1. Theoretical documentation by exploring

the specialty literature.

2. The contact with the kinesthetic

therapist.

3. The study and the elaboration of the

recovery programs.

4. The direct contact with the subjects of

the experimental group.

5. The registration of the initial data.

6. Providing the best conditions to carry

out the lessons and their content at the

swimming pool together with the other

two specialist collaborators, swimming

instructors.

7. Initial and final testing

8. Data registration and interpretation.

The programs elaborated during the

recovery classes and the methodology of

elaborating the programs related to

scoliosis remedy had the following objectives:

- correcting physical deficiencies,

scoliosis and stopping its evolution;

- ensuring correct body posture;

- ensuring harmonious physical

development and a correct body

posture;

- improving control and adjustment of

the breathing cycle;

- improving static and dynamic

balance;


The achievement of such objectives was

possible by implementing special programs

to prevent and remedy the deviations of the

lumbar column in the anterior-posterior

plane, all through the academic year and

during the physical education classes of the

children with potential physical

deficiencies.

Data related to the studied experimental group (initial testing) Table 1

Data related to the studied experimental group (final testing) Table 2

4. Conclusions

It is necessary to find such deviations as

early as possible and this may be achieved

by medical examination of the whole class

of pupils, each beginning of the academic

year, thus using the somatoscopic

examination, in which the teachers of

physical education should take part.

In the correction of the physical

deficiencies, the teacher of physical

education plays an important part, by

organizing the methodical forms of

interfering in the prevention and remedy of

Length of the

lower limb cm

Value indexes of the

scoliosis deviation (cm)

cm

No. Full

name

Right Right

Weight

kg

Vital

capacity

Thorax perimeter/

Inhalation /

exhalation

cervical dorsal lumbar

1 88 88,5 50 2500 82/88,5/79 0,3 0,5 1, 0

2 82 82,5 50 2450 81/84,5/79 0,2 0,5 0 , 8

3 89 89,5 51 2550 86/92/81,5 0,2 0 , 8 1

4 82 81,5 50 2550 74/81,5/69 0 , 5 1,0 0.7

5 87,5 87 52 2600 75/81/69 0 ,8 0,8 1,3

6 81,5 82 49 2450 78,5/83/74,5 0,8 0,5 0,8

7 61,5 61 47 2350 63 / 68 / 60 0,3 0,3 1,1

8 86,5 87 53 3200 75,5/79/72,5 0 , 2 0,7 0,7

No. Full

name

Length of the

lower limb

cm

Weight

kg

Vital

capacity

Thorax perimeter/

Inhalation /

exhalation

Value indexes of the

scoliosis deviation (cm)

cm

Righ

t

Left

cervical dorsal lumbar

1 87,5 8 52 2400 81,5/86,5/77,5 0,3 1,2 2

2 81,5 8 50 2300 80/83/78 0,2 0,9 1,3

3 88 8 55 2500 85/90/80 0,2 1,4 2,0

4 82 8 53 2500 73/80/69 0,5 1,8 1,5

5 87,5 8 55 2600 74/77,5/68 1,0 1,8 2,3

6 81 8 48 2300 77/82/73 1,3. 1,0 1,8

7 61 6 47 2250 62 / 67 / 58 0,9 1,2 2,1

8 86 8 55 3150 73 / 78 / 70 0,8 1,5 1,7


vertebral column physical deficiencies in

collaboration with the medical room of the

school.

The identification of the physical

deficiencies must be as early as possible

and the treatment means should be set as

fast as possible to obtain the maximum

possible correction.

A major physical deficiency may

prevent the future adult from exerting a

certain trade (connection of the flat foot –

trade with long-term standing up, scoliosis

with rotation – asymmetric sports).

Also, in certain conditions, physical

deficiency (scoliosis with thorax gibbosity

or accentuated kyphosis) may generate

conduct disorders or psychopathy. The

benefits obtained from associating

kinesthetic therapy means with aquatic

gymnastics on the human body are the

following:

- joint release;

- reinforcement of the kinesthetic

system;

- training of the breathing muscles;

- training of the bloodstream;

- fortification and relaxation of the body;

- improvement of the tactile sense;

- improvement of balance and of

coordination.

The association of melotherapy with

kinetic means makes children participation

be a better, more active and more

motivated one. The sports stressing and

straining the body in a harmonious and symmetrical manner have beneficial

effects on scoliosis, especially in the

starting phase, while their prophylactic

valence is essential.

Scoliosis shows as a deviation from

normal of the vertebral column, not only in

the frontal plane, but also in the sagital and

horizontal planes. Not treated, they may

become a serious and severe problem, with

multiple negative effects on the body, the

upper and lower limbs as well as on the

operation of certain internal organs.

The examination of a child suffering

from scoliosis must include:

• identification data;

• anamnesis;

• measurements;

• radiological examination;

The treatment must be complex:

• orthopedic,

• kinesthetic,

• electrotherapeutic

• physiotherapeutic.

It was proven that swimming plays a

particularly important part.

A high percentage of children aged

between 11 - 15 years have this type of

deficiency, out of which, according to the

studies, 71 % are girls. Educating a correct

attitude of the body must start even from

the early ages of childhood and must be maintained all life long.

The outcome depends on the precocity of

the deficient attitude, on the choice of the

remedy means and especially on the

therapy factors used to obtain a correct

posture.

5. Practical Methodic Recommendations

We would like to propose kinetic

exercises grouped in complexes that turned

out to be efficient among teenagers.

We would recommend swimming that meets certain particularly valuable

qualities from the point of view of

scoliosis treatment: it is executed in

conditions of maximum release of the

vertebral column;

� it represents a type of excellent

breathing gymnastics;

� it develops all muscles by equal

strain, the symmetry of the girdles

and of the body / we recommend

symmetric swimming styles and the

complexes from the previously

presented examples.


References

1. Cioroiu, S. NoŃiuni elementare de

kinetologie şi masaj. Braşov: Editura

UniversităŃii “Transilvania” din

Braşov, 2003.

2. Codrun, M. Kinetologia medicală.

Bucureşti: Editura Axa, 1999.

3. Codrun, M.; Cirla, L.

Hirdokinetoterapia în afecŃiunile

reumatice. Bucureşti: Editura

Printech, 1999.

4. Dimitriu, V. Studiul dezvoltării fizice

la şcolari printr-un sistem de

proporŃii. Acad. de Şt. Medicale,

1979.

5. Enoiu, R.S. Manual pentru învăŃarea

înotului. Braşov: Editura UniversităŃii

„Transilvania” din Braşov,

2006.

6. Ionescu, A. Creşterea şi dezvoltarea.

Bucureşti: Editura Stadion, 1970.


1 Transilvania University of Braşov.

BIOMECHANICS IN SPORT

Florentina NECHITA1

Abstract: This paper highlights the continuing modernization of the driving

technique, and the optimization of the technical preparation of

biomechanical parameters in the 110 meter fence race. Through this

monitoring technical faults in the event can be objectively established.

Key words: technical, biomechanics, parameters.

1. Introduction

Today we are talking more about the

modernization of the driving technique,

about the optimization and rationalization

of the means of training. Optimizing the

preparation of technical parameters

through determining the biomechanics of

fence races occupies a conspicuous place

in current scientific research

The biomechanical model reflects in the

specific training, in the methodology of

action, enables the functional anatomy,

physiology and biochemistry of biological

discovery, and discovers the causes of

mechanical phenomena.

Another purpose of biomechanical

models is to find objective mistakes

occurring during the driving performance,

in "crossing fences”, to discover the

mechanical causes and their effects in the

ownership of the rational technique in a

rational fence race. Through these

biomechanical parameters there can be

indicated the measures to be taken in order

to obtain a proper technique and different

methodological indications that should

contribute to this purpose.

In crossing fences, the biomechanism

investigated is the movement of the

athlete’s body, the manner of crossing

fences, the cinematic performance and the

athlete’s dynamics within this motric action. Using biomechanical modeling of

the step over a fence contributes to

obtaining an optimal technique and

therefore the optimal yield. Without using

such a study the objective (i.e. the

improvement of the fence-crossing

technique) cannot be achieved.

In the biomechanics of the step over the

fence every system or subsystem must be

analyzed in anatomic-physiological terms

in normal conditions. The modeling of this

stage is done by determining the elements

of the locomotive apparatus, each

component of the joint and muscular

system, and contributing in this way to the

elaboration of the biomechanical model of

fence-crossing. The cinematic phase of

action can be determined only after the

elaboration of this model, and for

determination on a very high precision

scale one must resort to identifying the

instruments, apparatuses and techniques

for determining the biomechanical

elements that can be used in our country.

For example, for the segments’ movement

are observed the joints, muscles, their

moments of inertia by means of regression

equations, models and measurements, and

in kinematics it is aimed at the execution

times, the movement, the speed, the

contraction of body segments in space


136

using a stopwatch, measuring gadgets,

filming flat and three-dimensional, computer

simulation – the “moving” device.

So, after their registration, the individual

analysis of each cinematic and

biomechanical parameter is done.

2. Biomechanical Analysis of the Step

over the Fence in the Event of a 110

Meter Fence Race

Running over fences is a complete and

independent motric activity, which is

repeated cyclically and which constitutes

the projection of the body through triple

muscle extensions, starting with the

contraction of muscles in the lower limb

under impulse, and ending with its contact

with the ground beyond the fence.

The important characteristic in the event

of fence crossing is the rapidity and

scraping during jumping over fences. The

trajectory of the athlete’s body during

flight over the fence is a parabola. The

smooth trajectory of the parabola depends

on the lower limb angle of detachment

during the impulsion phase and on the

horizontal velocity of the body during the

flight. It should be noted that the shape and

size are standard, a fact which allows us to

determine more precisely the parameters

involved in the act.

The fence race technical scheme includes

the following:

- Start and acceleration from the start; - Crossing fences;

- Running between fences;

- The run from the last fence to the finish

line.

The start in the race is made from down,

which gives athletes the opportunity to

speed up in the first 13.72m. to the first

fence and to cross it; at this moment,

besides the force that the foot imprints

upon the soil there is also the horizontal

speed, an inertial speed which is imprinted

on the body during the flat run. It can be

said that running on flat technique may

influence the crossing of fences in the race.

Besides getting the horizontal speed,

another important role is played by the

muscular tension of the muscular chain

triple extension in the lower limbs, both

imprinting a flight path as quick as

possible. The general trajectory of the

athlete’s center of gravity when he is over

the fence is traced from soil to soil contact.

This way its length and height depend on

the speed of the mass center and the

impulse angle.

The speed the athlete gets from the start

moment reduces when jumping over the

fence occurs, because there is a small loss

of speed when touching the ground (the

sole braking foot at ground level), and to

these losses there are added some other

losses, the results of CGG oscillations of

the body. But fence race horizontal speed,

maintained as close to the maximum as

possible, allows the athlete a more efficient

crossing of the fence and a more favorable

depreciation to resume the acceleration, in

terms of kinetic energy gained.

If at the moment of jumping the

trajectory of the body is high, this entails a

decrease in high speed gained from

running on flat, or if the athlete is running,

this time a slight jump over a fence

involves a sudden upsurge of CGG and

vertical default, including the loss of

horizontal velocity and the corresponding

adaptation of the renewal of the acceleration after the fence only through

additional effort.

This should be avoided, and therefore

one should focus on the development of

biomechanical models, which contribute

more efficiently to the technique of

stepping over the fence.

The most effective passage over the

fence requires a waiver of the body’s CGG

and the trajectory of other components

involved in the action to perform on a

smooth curve.

Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport 137

2.1. The Impulsive Phase before the

Fence

At this time, the athlete’s body detaches

from the ground due to muscle

contractions, the triple extension of the

lower limbs; to obtain a minimal path from

CGG over the fence, the explosive force of

these muscles must be used through the

coordination of partial impulses, so that the

contraction of the muscle groups that

perform lower limb extension and

planetary flexion should occur at the same

time. If the contraction does not

synchronize the path segments will be held

on the vertical force due to the braking

force, and will spend for recovery the

kinetic energy obtained from the ground

impulse.

This way, the CGG trajectory is achieved

due to the force of muscle contraction in

the lower limb, followed by the

acceleration force of the leading leg and

the swing of the upper limbs. This force of

contraction makes a horizontal projection

of the CGG, a projection that has to be

grazing over fences and quick because of

the composition of the horizontal velocity

of flat running forces that occur at the

impulse moment.

During the ground impulse, the inferior

limb executes an attack motion on the

thigh flexing muscles of the basin, with the

role of lifting the inferior limb. If this

waiver must have an optimal angle, the attack leg can be found in the first phase of

flex knee joint which then extends through

a rigorous shank motion forward, a

movement which is achieved by femoral

quadriceps.

After separation from the ground, the

thigh motion is done in the coxo-femoral

joint as a result of the positioning of the

motor muscles and thigh muscles. The

thigh muscles are designed to maintain the

vertical position of the torso and to provide

a balance through the basin that offers

swing movements.

The optimal flexural angle in which the

triple extension attains the best

performance is given by the flexible thigh

which can be increased to 145 degrees up

to contact with the thorax, but this angle

varies from sport to sport depending on the

segment’s size, weight, muscular mass and

length etc. This angle is very important

because the determination of a fence

jumping technique depends on it.

2.2. The Fence Crossing Moment

At this time the jumping foot executes a

combined movement represented by

flexing the knee and regulated thigh

abduction followed by its flexural basin to

avoid reaching the fence and make the foot

cross the fence. Within this movement

there occurs the triple flexion chain of

abductors and side rotaries of the thigh.

Besides the work of the feet, the upper

limbs coordinate movements with the legs,

having the role to ensure equilibrium in the

phase of flight over the fence.

In this action, the intensity of muscular

activity is reduced, but has a well defined

role at the moment of landing and in the

preparation for acceleration.

2.3. The contact Phase of the Foot with

the Ground after Jumping the Fence

This is the phase of landing and return to

acceleration, in which the contact of the

athlete’s body with the running track is

made through libratory foot (foot

remedies). This phase is intended to

cushion the contact with the ground, to

reduce the flight speed and to resume

acceleration.

At this time the braking force is the

body’s force because it turns the motor in

an elastic spring; this involves the


138

elasticity and strength of joints, tissues and

the running track.

The lower limbs are slightly flexed on

the thigh, when the speed reduction is

achieved by antagonistic muscle groups

(the triple extension), which transforms the

foot into a spring and then produces the

impulse that gives the start to those three

steps between the fences.

The specific biomechanism of jumping

over the fence implies the muscular groups

and muscular chains representing a

dynamic effort.

3. Conclusions

Considering biomechanical parameters

in monitoring the fence crossing technique,

the following must be taken into account:

- Given the high level of performance

events at senior international level and the

poor one at home, it is necessary at least on

the juniors’ level to move to the

establishment of biomechanical models,

ensuring the achievement of such

performance.

- Depending on the biomechanical models,

competition results will evidence that

during a relatively short experiment we

will be able to work on modeling effective

training content, achieving and even

outrunning the objectives of training and

performance.

So, through practical contribution,

specialists can access instruments with

objective value of correctness in sports

technique and increased opportunities to

compare the determined athletes to their

model of biomechanical fence run.

References

1. Burcă, I. Identificarea biomecanică a

probelor de alergare şi trecere peste

Garduri. Braşov: Publishing House of

„Transilvania” University of Braşov,

2008.

2. Donskoi, D. Biomecanica. Moscova:

Fizkultura and Sport Publishing

House, 1971.

3. Iliescu, A. Biomecanica exerciŃiilor

fizice. Bucureşti: Publishing House of

the National Council for Physical

Education and Sport, 1968.

4. Iorga, S.; Bărbuceanu, M.

Biomecanica Sportivă. Piteşti:

Publishing House of the University of

Piteşti, 2003.


1 Transilvania University of Braşov. 2 C.S.S. Mediaş.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE

OPTIMIZATION OF

STRENGTH CONVERSION TRAINING

IN JUNIOR SPRINT EVENTS

C. SCURT1 G. ZANFIRESCU

2

Abstract: The conversion phenomenon, one of the major factors of high-

performance physical training methodology, has been carefully monitored. It

is known that with age speed stabilizes at a maximum value. For a certain

stage, the increase or stability depends on the gradual development of other

parameters such as strength, endurance, coordination, flexibility. We assume

that the junior stage is a very fertile period in creating the pre-conditions of high performance progress, with direct reference to high-speed explosive

power training which is specific to senior sprinters.

Key words: optimization, conversion training, sprint, juniors.

1. Present Situation

The current strength training of junior sprinters is of crucial importance for

acquiring top performance. Practice has

undoubtedly demonstrated that during

puberty, the characteristic lability of the

processes taking place in young sprinters’

bodies is frequently a source of surprises

(even accidents) as a consequence of

misunderstood correlations between

motrical qualities. Another reason for

undertaking the present study is the high

variability of performance results and

frequent „staleness” occurrences.

This age offers good prospects for

progress but there are equally certain risks

involved. Practice has demonstrated that

muscular adaptation requires a long time,

measurable in years of training. Logical,

perseverant training will result in good

adaptation to sports activity, overcoming

trial constraints which become more

restrictive, as performance staleness or

decline become evident. Well trained

athletes show adaptations that are

demonstrated by good synchronization between a motor activity and a warm-up

pattern while, in our opinion, the greatest

challenge resides in physiological

adaptation, which is a critical moment for

power display and consists in setting free a

maximum of muscular fibers in a very

short time.

2. Research Hypothesis

Assuming an integrative image of long-

term strength training through poly-athletic

workouts, we will create the approach

conditions without any negative

consequences on the strength training for

juniors, by careful training management

during the conversion stage.

This will have a significant influence on

sport shape by improving results in major

performance competitions

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

140

2.1. Research Aim

The research aims to obtain improved quality parameters in junior sprinter training in order to optimize strength training during the conversion stage, characteristic of the pre-competition or competition period. 2.2. Research Tasks

- Data analysis based on technical literature regarding training optimization in sprint events;

- Determining the variation of dynamic strength indicators in the pre-competition period;

- Preparing the strength training program in the conversion period;

- Assessing the sport shape level onset in order to obtain the top level for the major competition.

2.3. Organizing and Conducting the

Research

For this research, we chose to undertake a

case study. The subject of this study was the athlete Zanfirescu Maria Ana, member of the national junior group, Balkan junior II vice-champion in 4 x 100 m relay (Bar, Serbia 2008).

In the individual events she obtained the following results: � 400 m flat – 59.00 –III

rd place N. Ch. J II

– indoor; � 100 m flat – 12.30 –II

nd place N. Ch. J II

– outdoor; � 200 m flat - 25.57 – Int. Ch.; � 400 m flat – 56.65 – G.P.J II – outdoor.

With strict reference to strength exercises, the trainer presented us his views regarding the approach of this bio-motrical characteristic based on several genetic prerequisites and the already existing motrical endowment. Considering the morpho–functional features of 15-17 year old girls, strength training is at the same time interesting and challenging. The training was based on the study of specialized scientific materials and the

practical application of data during the training period.

Remarkably, strength was approached only within the context of the qualities system, never separately. The level of maturity was considered along with the impossibility of applying through workouts at this level, given the risk of physically overstressing the subject and determining him to refuse a prospective increased stress.

The athlete mentioned the mental stress she experienced during the training and the fact that she had to be aware of as many motions as possible against a background of extreme strain and fatigue. Another remarkable aspect which was also worked on was muscular coordination – “the agonist – antagonist interplay and the capacity of contracting and relaxing them consciously if possible”. These considerations helped both trainer and athlete to gain a clear view on placing and distributing the means over the year plan – including the strength ones.

Based on the fundamental laws of strength training, a good anatomical adaptation was acquired for training, especially through articulation mobility exercises (knee, ankle, hip), stretching and fortifying exercises for these ligaments and tendons. A special attention was granted to strength in the midsection of the body (pectorals, abdominals, pelvis, dorsal, thigh).

Also, special attention was granted to achieving the support for ensuring future load increase. The methodical indications provided by the FRA during a conference of the Senior National Group, the participations and discussions with trainers were extremely useful for the trainer. We consider the great importance of the principle “Train the movement, not the muscle”. This methodical vision is essential in athletic training for superior classifications. “Not all that’s new applies to me” – is another reasoning which was helpful in understanding balance in terms of constructing a coherent, long-term, training plan. The training plan was constructed over two macro-cycles:

Scurt, C. et al.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength ..

141

Table 1

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul Aug. Sep.

Training I Competition I T Training II Competition II T

AA FMx Conv.

to P

Maint. AA FMx Conv.

to P

Maint. Compensation

Dominant energy systems: anaerobic, alactacid, lactacid.

Energy generation: 80% alactacidic, 20% lactacidic,

Energy supplier: phosphocreatine.

Limitative factors: reaction power, start power, acceleration power, power endurance.

Training objectives: maximum strength, reaction power, start power, acceleration power, power endurance.

Table 2

Date Oct Nov Dec Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul Aug Sep.

Periodiz. Training. I Competition I T Training II Compet. II T

Periodiz of

strength

5 AA 6FMx 4 Conversion to P

10 Maint Power

improv, Specific Power

2 AA 5 FMx 4 Conversion to P

9 Maint Power

improv, Specific Power

6 Competi-tion

Periodiz of

energy system

A.L A.L. Alactacid

O2

Alactacid

A.L. Alac-tacid O

2

A.L. Alactacid

Alactacid Tolerance to lactate

Games Sports

3. Main Objectives (pre-competition stage)

Gradual entry into competition stress (especially in week 5-6)

Increase of general physical condition indicators and proportional increase of speed indicators

Factor correlations: physical – technical training in order to increase traveling velocity by conversion of power into maximum speed

Modeling by mental training Stress level: 80 – 95 % Volume: 2 - 1 ½ x event

Precompetition Stage (May-June) Table 3

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat

1 5-6 series x 2 min ATM recovery

Pliometry 9x8 fences

Power: lying leg lift (4x15)

pull-ups (4x3) jumps

(70cm→max)

Speed 2x (30, 60, 80,

120m) P=10min

Pliometry: penta jump 6x

boxes10x3

Cross-country

2 Special exs. 6-8 x 3 x 200 90% p=7-10’

Indoors dorsals: 5x40; 20kg: 5x20 abdomen: 5x12,

15 g

Recovery: swim

Rep. 200m 300m

Pliometry: fences (9x8)

Competition – assessment 100m(achiev

ed 12.80)

3 A1: long light A2:10x30m slope P=3-5min

A1:reh. A2:indoors or

slopes

A1: light run A2:technical

Pliometry:. boxes 10x3

Walking (warm-up)

Competition (without object.)

4 Rehearsals 2x120 p=2min

Pliometry: 10x6 fences (40cm)

boxes10x3

Starts Break or light run

Warm-up for competition

School N.Ch. (achieved

200m- 25.70)


142

4. Main Objectives (competition period)

Conversion of power into maximum

speed at the beginning of the period.

The physical training indicators decrease

in contrast with quality indicators of work

intensity.

Prevalence of pliometric exercises for

explosive force.

Recovery and alimentation factors

become a priority.

Exploitation of intellectual capacity

indicators (attention and concentration)

through mental training.

Stress level: 85-98%;

Volume: 1½-1 x event.

Table 4

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat

1 5-6 series x 2 min

ATM recovery

Pliometry 9x8 fences

Power: lying leg lift (4x15)

pull-ups (4x3)

jumps (70cm→max)

Speed

2x (30, 60, 80, 120m)

P=10min

Pliometry: penta jump 6x

boxes10x3

Cross-country

2 Special exerc. for

technique

6-8 x 3 x 200 90% p=7-10’

Indoors dorsals:

5x20 20kg: back:

5x20

abdomen: 5x12, 15 kg

Recovery: swim Rehears.

200m

300m

Pliometry: fences

(9x8)

Competition –

assessment 100m

(achieved 12.80)

3 A1: long light

A2:10x30m slope

P=3-5min

A1:rehears

A2:indoors or

slopes

A1: light run A2:

technical

Pliometry:boxes

10x3

Walking

(worm-up)

Competition

(without obj.)

4 Rehearsals 2x120

p=2min

Pliometry: 10x6

fences (40cm) boxes10x3

Starts Break or light run Warm-up for

competition

School N.Ch.

(achieved 200 m- 25.70)

5 Spec. tech exerc

6-8 x; starts 6x 80%

2x250 m90% p=7-10’ or 1x500m +

1x150m p=5-7min

Isotonic

dynamic: 20 grass p.s.r.

Slope run 3-5x 50m 90% p=

7min vol. can be

modif. dep. on subject condition

3x200m p= 1min

85-90%

50m light run+

50m accel run 90-98%

2x400m p=10min

Pliometry.

Penta jump 4x depth jump

60cm 6-8x 10 p=5min

Fartlek

60-70% pool

6 Training. model 400m:

5x80m 82-90%

p=80m mL

Pliometry: 10x6 fences(40cm)

boxes 10x3□ٱ□

(40-60 cm)

2x120m 85-90% p=15min

Fc=110-120/min

Tonus. abd., back pull-up

acc.run : 6-

8x80m

Specific.compet warm-up 3-4

bend starts

400mp 200mp -

(Sunday)

In the pre-competition and competition

period, when the athlete is running at

nearly maximum speed, were introduced

exercises which stimulate both anaerobic

capacity and the tolerance to lactate using

rehearsals of 60, 100, 150 m. The velocity

of the movement can be monitored by

calculating the difference between the 30-

60 m running sequences. If the recorded

times on the fractions (in the case of 150-

200 m rehearsals) are close, it can be

considered that the speed increase for the

endurance mode is good. If the time

recorded on the last fraction is longer (by

0.25”) this can indicate a non-adaptation or

an error in effort distribution. To correctly

Scurt, C. et al.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength ..

143

determine the athlete’s capabilities the

trainer can impose an evaluation test in

order to redirect the training towards

performance improvement.

The evaluation test was achieved by

recording the times for 50, 100,150, 200

m. The time difference between the 200

run and the 150 m run should not exceed

by more than 0.25s the difference between

150 m and 100 m times. The differences

occur depending on the technique used,

manual or electronic timing (0.27”-0.50”)

but also on the start technique used. The

results of the initial test were recorded

during the training while the final test

results were recorded for the standard

events during competitions.

Table 5

EVENT 100m 200m 400m 30m 50m 80m 150m 300m 350m

INITIAL TEST

20 - 25 April

12.8 26.3 60.0 4,8 6.9 10.2 20.2 42.1 51.0

FINAL TEST

14 May

12.5 25.8 58.1 4,6 6.6 9.8 19.7 40.6 49.2

COMPETITION

WITH STAKE

12.37 25.57 56.65

DINAMICA REZULTATELOR

100m 200m 400m 30m 50m 80m 150m 300m 350m

PROBELE

PR

OG

RESU

L

TEST INIłIAL

TEST FNAL

CONCURS CU MIZĂ

5. Conclusions

1. By examining the steadily ascending

curve of the athlete’s performance,

which was subject of the case study,

we can conclude that the training,

particularly the strength one, was

correctly coordinated.

2. Strength, a biomedical quality

characteristic in humans, has become

a dimension of human personality.

Therefore it is probably one of the

most coveted qualities. It requires

passion in order to approach the development of this quality so

intensely desired by adolescents.

3. In the absence of a thorough study

and coherent teaching, training can

degenerate producing negative

effects.

4. Strength training can improve

performance dynamics in a normal

athlete condition, even in staleness or

decline moments.


144

Recommendations

The proportional distribution of training

methods during the conversion stage is

given by the following formula:

- Strength trainings: 6-isotonic:

7-pliometric

- Speed and technical trainings: 20. The

greater amount of energy is reserved

for technical and tactical training while

much less is left for power training

- A strictly individualized load in

strength trainings, the selection of

means in accordance with the athlete’s

characteristics

- Power and speed level evaluation

through proposed events.

References

1. Baroga, L. Educarea calităŃilor fizice

combinate. Bucureşti: Editura Sport

Turism, 1984.

2. Bompa, T. Periodizarea

antrenamentului sportiv, planuri

stiinŃifice pentru forŃă şi condiŃia fizică

pentru 20 de discipline sportive.

Bucureşti: Editura Tana, 2006.

3. Dragnea, A.; Mate Teodorescu, S.

Teoria sportului. Bucureşti: Editura

FEST, 2002.

4. Drăgan I. (coord.). SelecŃia şi

orientarea medico-sportivă. Bucureşti: Editura Sport Turism, 1989.

5. RaŃă, B. C. Alergarea de viteză–

biomecanică şi metodică. Iaşi: Editura

PIM, 2008.

6. Tudor, V.; Crişan, I. ForŃa aptitudine

motrică. Bucureşti: Editura BREN,

2007.



2 C.S.S. Mediaş.

STUDY OF DYNAMICS OF CERTAIN

MOTRICAL CAPACITY

INDICATORS IN 12-14 YEAR OLD

CHILDREN OVER ONE ATHLETICS

COMPETITION YEAR

C. SCURT

1 M. ZANFIRESCU

2

Abstract: Sports training is a dynamic and flexible process. Since it requires the participation of both trainer and athlete it calls for an

integrative approach of the training process by correlating age

characteristics with training methodology requirements.

The validity of developing psycho-motrical qualities in 10-14 year old

children is the rationale for the analysis of certain aspects that the specific to

this age. We propose to assess the effectiveness of our training methods in

terms of a providing strong basis for ensuring the young athlete a specialized

training, along with the means used for a good basic physical training.

Key words: indicators, dynamics, motrical capacities, competition year,

children.

1. Present Situation

The lack of basic physical training by

using adequate action means, as well as of

data on maximum stress level indicators,

generate early abandon of performance

athletics and in some cases are limiting the

access to performance sports due to

inappropriate basic physical training.

2. Paper Hypothesis

We assumed that an adequate

rationalization (selection, dosing,

sequencing) of the main means of action

which have a major influence on the level

of polyvalent and poly-athletic training can

ensure the basis of future performances

while systematic and methodical actions

during the competition year can modify the

structural and functional parameters of the

children’s organism and improve their

motrical behavior.

3. The Objectives

• Determining the influence of the action

systems, considering the variability in

the athlete’s development in terms of

psycho-motrical aptitudes.

• The extent to which the level of the

physical training could be a criterion

for selecting the envisaged discipline in

the athletics discipline system.

• Assessing the effectiveness of working

with models and the training programme

algorithms in the present case.

• Recording the dynamics of some

specific parameters of physical and

technical athletic training progress rate

interpretation.


146

Research Aim

Development of an effective model for

the poly-athletic training in the initial stage

and orientation toward a presumed

specialty for children (aged 10-14).

During one year of poly-athletic training,

we monitored a sample of 16 children,

aged 10-14 from a beginner group from

CSS Mediaş. The selection criteria were:

health condition, training frequency,

discipline at work, movement motivation,

good learning efficiency, parental

relationships.

The compulsory medical inspection was

provided at least twice each semester. It

provided useful information on the chosen

physiological level. The somatic data were

used in monitoring the nutritional

condition and its variations. The accurate

planning was made in accord with the

requirements of curricula standards and

norms for this class of children.

Components of the Training Module Table 1

COMPONENTS ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNING UNITS LEARNING

UNITS SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN

SPEED

MOBILITY

STRENGTH

ENDURANCE

MOTRICAL

QUALITIES

F-R COMBINED PERMANENT ASSIGNMENT

WALKING

RUNNING

JUMP

BASIC

MOTRICAL

SKILLS TOSS

BALANCE

CRAWL

CUMB

STAIR CUMB

PULL UP

UTILIZABLE

MOTRICAL

SKILLS

PUSH UP

APPLICATIVE

COURSES

SPEED RUNNING

ENDUR. RUNNING CROSS CROSS

HURDLE R.

RELAY RACE RELAY

LONG JUMP

HIGH JUMP

OINA TOSS

MED. BALL TOSS

GIMNASTICS ACROB. & JUMPS

BASKET B.,

HAND B SPORTS

GAMES SOCCER

COMPLEMENTARY

OTHER

SPORTS

SWIMMING COMPENSATING

Scurt, C. et al.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity …

147

Table 2

TRAINING DAYS, TOTAL 281 days

TRAINING HOURS, TOTAL 453 hours (2½ hours/days)

BREAK DAYS 18

TOTAL KM/9 months 1.000 km

MAIN MEANS

Light running 20%

Recovery running 5%

Flat ground accelerated running 25%

Constant speed running 10%

Variable speed running 10%

Cross country running 10%

Accelerated uphill running 5%

RU

NN

ING

Running technique exercises 15%

Standing long jump 960 rep

Jump step running 1.440 rep

Hop step running 1.440 rep

JUM

PS

Various jumps 3.000/TOTAL

Medicine ball toss 3.840

TO

SS

Oina ball toss 1.220

Abdominal exercises 21.600

Back exercises 21.600

PO

WE

R

Pull-up exercises 5.400

ARTICULAR MOBILITY

MUSCULAR FLEXIBILITY

35 HOURS, 7% of the total of

training hours

We provided initial and final tests and

the progress obtained was recorded.

At the end of the initiation and

promotion period, a number of 6 subjects

showed real aptitudes for prospective

performance.

One of them clearly distinguished

himself, as he was a national level

performer. The physical stress level (with

little exceptions) was almost the same

during each training session.

The effect of adaptation to physical

stress materialized in the children’s health

condition and performance. The

multilateral and poly-athletic training were

priorities over the entire year.

We found out that work with children at

this level enables interesting studies with

surprising results. We selected a numbers

of 4 representative test events for a study

period extending over one competition

year in order to monitor the children’s evolution in time and obtain a practical

confirmation of the theory in this field.

The evolution of metrical skills was

monitored over a period of 9 months

without programming any break. Five

training sessions per week of 1,5-2 hours each were carried out. Although not all

volume and especially intensity parameters

could be observed, the obtained stress level

was 75-80 % of its maximum.

The first test included the four events

during the first week of October. The final

test was accomplished in the last week of

June, study year 2007-2008.


148

The test included following events:

– Speed running 50 m flat, standing start;

– 2 trials (traveling velocity);

– Standing long jump: 2 trials (legs

explosive strength);

Oina ball toss with 3-5 take-off steps:

– 2 trials (explosive arms strength);

– 600 m running (endurance);

– Anthropometric data:

• Height (cm)

• Body weight (kg)

The statistical data interpretation is presented in the following table: Table 3

Extreme

Performance Event Test Average

(sec;m) ±S C.V.%

L(s) L(i)

W %>M %<M R.p.

%

T.I. 8,7 0,3 3,9 8,0 9,2 1,2 50 50 50 m

T.F. 8,0 0,3 3,4 7,6 8,5 0,9 56,3 43,7 8,04

T.I. 153 24 16,6 129 216 87 62,5 37,5 600 m

T.F. 132 10,2 7,7 118 158 41 68,7 31,3 13,7

T.I. 158 12,6 8,2 185 145 40 31,2 68,8 St.long.

jump T.F. 174 11,3 6,5 200 160 40 50 50 8,3

T.I. 16 3 18,7 25 12 13 43,7 56,3 Oina

ball toss T.F. 20 6,2 31 30 13 17 50 50 20

T.I. 142,3 - - - - - - - Height

T.F. 144,7 - - - - - - - 1,7

T.I. 32,3 - - - - - - - Weight

T.F. 33 - - - - - - - 3

Speed Running

• For speed running, initial testing

has shown an average deviation of

0.3%. 11 of the 16 cases evolved

with normal distribution, only 5

cases were exceptions.

• After final testing, the average

deviation is equally 0.3% but only

12 cases lay within the admissible

limits. Homogeneity is good. The

progress rate is 8.04%. The

number of results better than or

equal with average increase by 6.3%.

Endurance Running

Initial testing has shown that

individual values deviate from the

central value by 24 seconds, only 2 cases

are exceptions. Homogeneity is average.

Final testing yielded a deviation of 10.2

seconds from the central value. 13 cases

have normal distribution, 3 cases are

exceptions.

The progress rate is 13.7%. The

percentage of subjects above average has

increased by 6.2%.

Scurt, C. et al.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity …

149

Standing Long Jump

• After initial testing the 13 cases are

within normal limits, 3 are exceptions.

Homogeneity is good.

• After find testing, 12 cases have

normal distribution, 4 cases are

exceptions. Homogeneity is good. The

progress rate is 8.3%.

Oina Ball Toss

• After initial testing, 13 cases have normal distribution, 3 cases are

exceptions. Homogeneity is average.

• After final testing, the dispersion

degree has increased, cv =31%,

Homogeneity is absent and result

increase is non-uniform. The progress

rate is 20%. The significant increase is

due to the acquired technical elements.

There is a positive correlation although

negligible, between endurance and speed

(r=0.15), the affirmation accuracy of the

affirmation is 30%, low, random

correlation.

There is a positive correlation between

endurance and strength (r=0.52), accuracy

of affirmation is 95%, good correlation.

Somatic indicators improved by 2% for

waist and 3% for weight.

The muscle mass has grown a little

compared with skeleton length. The

working programme had no negative

effects on the age’s specific nutrition

indicators.

The comparison was made using the

indicators provided by the Institute for

School Hygiene in 1992.

Conclusions

The study has ascertained that not all

psycho-motrical qualities have the same

level of development, at this age speed

precedes strength and endurance.

There is a significant correlation between

strength and endurance development

levels, at this age.

After studying metrical capacity

indicator dynamics in child athletes, it

resulted that the employed means, methods

and methodical orientation were adequate

resulting in motrical and physical

development improvement.

Systematic work and adequate

methodology over the entire competition

year are the warranty of significant

improvements in all structural and

functional parameters of the child’s

organism, with positive effects on general

motricity.

Recommendations

The annual training cycle extending over

11 months, around 280 days will become a

constant in our training plans already

providing motivation by enabling 13-14

year old children to participate in junior

N.C. finals according to FRA standards.

During the winter training period, the

application courses should be included in

the trainer’s planning’s as their dynamicity

and attractiveness compensate for the low

level of effort characteristic to indoor

activity period.

The action means should be properly

tried and dosed in order to ensure

polyvalent training levels capable to

simplify orientation to an envisaged event.

Working with patterns must be adapted

to the level of each training group

(initiation, beginners, advanced) since it is

helpful in systematic monitoring of the

training level and the way it is tolerated by

child athletes.


150

References

1. Baroga, L. Educarea calităŃilor fizice

combinate. Bucureşti: Editura Sport

Turism, 1984.

2. Bompa, T. Periodizarea

antrenamentului sportiv, planuri

stiinŃifice pentru forŃă şi condiŃia fizică

pentru 20 de discipline sportive. Bucureşti: Editura Tana, 2006.

3. Dragnea, A.; Mate Teodorescu, S.

Teoria sportului. Bucureşti: Editura

FEST, 2002.

4. Drăgan I., (coord.). SelecŃia şi

orientarea medico-sportivă. Bucureşti:

Editura Sport Turism, 1989.

5. RaŃă, B. C. Alergarea de viteză–

biomecanică şi metodică. Iaşi: Editura

PIM, 2008. 6. Tudor, V.; Crişan, I. ForŃa -

aptitudine motrică. Bucureşti: Editura

BREN, 2007.


CONSIDERATIONS ON SPECIFIC

RESISTANCE IN A SOCCER GAME

Gabriel SIMION1

Abstract: In these pages we have tried to emphasize the quality of driving and resistance and to underline the most important issues related to the

specific resistance of a soccer game. Soccer is one of the most complex sports

games, seeking quality driving, mental and technical merit, but especially a

perfect mixture between all these. Modern competitive soccer claims overall

resistance (as basic physical fitness). In the preparation of soccer players

specific training methods should be based on modelling the requirements of preparing a competitive game.

Key words: soccer, resistance, specific resistance.

1 Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Braşov.

Soccer - generally considered the most

popular sport in the world - may owe its

appeal to simplicity as well as the skill and

cunning required in the fast-paced intrigue

of the game. Played at a professional level

all over the world as well as by serious

amateur teams, or for pure entertainment,

soccer is a regular pastime for over 240

million people in over 200 countries

worldwide. The Soccer World Cup, held

every four years, pits the top teams in the

world against each other and draws

enormous audiences for both the stadium

games and television.

In literature resistance is defined by

multiple formulations, all expressing the

same kind of issue:

- “The ability to cope with fatigue caused

by physical effort, without a decline over

the actions of those potential movements

of work necessary to achieve the

objectives” [14, p.206];

- “The ability to perform mechanical

work of certain intensity for a long time

without lowering the efficiency of the

work done in the state of repressing

fatigue” [1, p. 332];

- “The ability to work for a relatively

long duration and with a relatively high

intensity, maintaining constant indices of

optimal effectiveness” [4, p.47];

- “The ability to make efforts for a long

time without reducing efficiency”

[13, p.169];

- “Resistance refers to the time required

for an individual to run with certain

intensity” [3, p.92];

- The ability to perform high intensity

work longer;

- Maintaining working capacity during

long-term efforts by defeating the

phenomenon of fatigue, and a high tempo

of restoring the body after tiring it;

- The ability to do any activity for a long

time without reducing its effectiveness;

- The psychophysical ability of the

performer’s body to cope with fatigue by

specific activity.

From these definitions come off a few

key elements which characterize the

driving quality, namely:


152

- Time (duration) effort, which can be

determined in advance, but on the basis of

work done and efficiency; when

determined in a time unit, it must be

carried out in a certain way;

- Effectiveness as a constant business

driver throughout;

- Rapid recovery after the effort made.

Work for the development of resistance

is still a battle to delay as much as possible

the appearance of the fatigue phenomenon

in an effort of certain intensity, being

aware that fatigue is the main factor

limiting the emergence of resistance over

time.

The phenomenon of physical and mental

fatigue of the organism appears naturally

following efforts of various types, intensity

and volume.

Fatigue is the transient activity produced

by prolonged or excessive effort,

characterized by a decreased functional

potential of the body and a subjective

sensation feature. Fatigue, as a replication

of complex and hyper-complex effort,

breaks homeostasis by altering

biochemical processes, favoring the

transition to a new state of adaptation,

higher than earlier. Fatigue is thus a factor

stimulating the functional and emotional

resources.

Fatigue is a phenomenon accompanying

the necessary training, and at the same

time a prerequisite for enhancing sports

performance. In fact, it is only the repetition of efforts that produces

phenomena causing fatigue processes,

overcompensation, and finally an

adaptation of the organism. Training, on

the one hand, must produce those states in

adapting fatigue, and on the other hand,

must avoid being extreme.

A. Gage demonstrated by computer

simulation that fatigue is the body's acute

response to physical effort. At low and

moderate demand capacity the answer is

increased due to the activation of the

physiological functions involved in the

effort, to demand high capacity, showing

fatigue as a syndrome. In extremis, fatigue

maximum is equivalent to exhaustion.

In the production of fatigue after

muscular exertion, the following processes

take place:

- During muscle contractions, a

transmission pulse occurs from the

receptive muscle, which alters the

nervous system and device drivers;

- Muscle contractions cause alterations in

the chemical composition of the muscle

tissue, leading to a request of the

interested receptor;

- Metabolism products spread into the

blood, changes of the body's internal

environment influence, in turn, the

central nervous system;

- The state of excitation of nerve cells in

the muscle activity cannot remain

untainted;

- In the muscle function are amended also

endocrine glands.

Intense muscle activity is related to the

potential of functions to return to previous

levels, and the level above.

The first installation of fatigue is

signalled by specific phenomena such as

sweating and involuntary tension of the

mimic. But these phenomena do not

preclude the possibility of continuing

effort, through an increased willingness on

the initial intensity. Therefore, this state is

called physiological phase offset fatigue. By continuing the effort, the subject

decompensates in second-stage fatigue -

where, with every effort of will he cannot

maintain the same intensity of effort,

reducing it gradually to a total cessation of

activity. These phenomena are manifested

differently from one person to another,

depending on individual resistance, which

is determined in turn by the following

factors:

Simion, G.: Consideration on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game 153

- The capacity of the central nervous

system to coordinate the activity of the

locomotive and vegetative functions;

- Aerobic capacity, aerobic potential

which enables the production of energy in

the presence of oxygen and anaerobic

capacity;

- The adaptation to effort of the

cardiovascular and respiratory systems and

of all body functions;

- The energy and oxidative metabolism

of the muscle, notably the fact that in

muscle cells there can be distinguished

three sources of energy to ensure muscle

contractions: alactacid anaerobic energy,

lactacid anaerobic energy, and aerobic

energy;

- Strength of will in sport – which is an

important component in training speed,

demanding the athletes in particular when

they have to make an effort in conditions

of fatigue, or when the level of fatigue

increases as a result of prolonged activity;

athletes command nervous centres to

continue or even intensify the effort;

- Book speed of athletes.

Moreover, development of resistance is

achieved only through efforts that lead to

the appearance of fatigue and attempts to

overcome fatigue and continue the effort

after it.

Oancea V. says: “Resistance depends on

many factors, including speed, muscle

strength, technical skills in the

implementation of effective actions, the ability to use one’s potential economically,

physiological and psychological conditions

at the time of that effort.”

Regarding the forms of manifestation of

resistance, the author believes that a

systematic classification is appropriate:

- Depending on the participation share of

muscle groups: general strength, specific

strength (specific) and local resistance;

- Depending on how they are combined

with other driving qualities: resistance as

speed, strength as force, resistance in the

regime of detention, etc.;

- Depending on the nature of the effort:

constant resistance and variable resistance

in the effort;

- Depending on the duration of the effort:

long-term strength (with effort over 8

minutes), average resistance time (effort

2-6 minutes) and short-lasting resistance.

(effort between 45 seconds and 2 minutes);

- Depending on the energy sources and

the effort: resistance of the aerobic load

times are from 3-5 minutes to several

hours, of anaerobic resistance in the load

duration of 7-60 seconds, and mixed

resistance-types with variable durations

and intensity.

Aerobic resistance develops during the

transition period and the initial phase of

training using uniform and stable

conditions with a moderate intensity from

the average. As a consequence, the cardio-

respiratory system of athletes improves

progressively. Along with the adaptation to

training, the work load should increase, in

particular the volume of training. There

must be a transition from aerobic

resistance specified by the pace of activity

and specific rhythmic exercises.

As a general line, the following are

significant in training to develop aerobic

resistance:

- Intensity of training below 70% of the

maximum speed; the intensity can be

measured by performance time on a certain distance, the speed in meters per second or

heart rate (training stimuli that do not

increase heart rate more than 130 beatings

per minute do not develop significant

aerobic capacity);

- The duration of a stimulus in isolation

(a repetition) should differ from 60-90

seconds to 3-10 minutes;

- Calculate the rest breaks so that the

next stimulus can produce favourable

changes in the period from the previous

work (45-90 sec.) Aerobic resistance for


154

the rest should not exceed 3-4 minutes

(usually work may start when the heart rate

decreases to 120 BPM);

- Normally work during a rest break is

reduced in intensity to stimulate biological

restoration.

Anaerobic resistance is an important

physiological advantage. Most of the

development of anaerobic resistance is

cyclical and of high intensity.

The preparation for anaerobic resistance

presumes the following:

- The intensity of the situation may be

limited to the maximum sub-maximal,

even if the training intensity is varied; for

the development of resistance the

anaerobic intensities of 90-95% should

predominate;

- The duration of work must fall between

5 and 120 seconds, depending on the

intensity used by athletes;

- The break after a rest-activity must be

sufficiently long to compensate for the

oxygen debt, which can be 2-10 minutes; it

is recommended to divide the total number

of repetitions in some repetitious series of

4-6 each, with the most between long-

range in order to oxidize lactic acid;

- Up to halftime the activity must be

active, easy and relaxing;

- The number of repetitions must fall

below the lower average.

In sports games in particular, the

development of resistance is a complex

task because sports games are combinations of aerobic and anaerobic

components. To support the three energy

systems used in sports games, exercises are

proposed for specific intensified energy

systems such as:

- High intensity exercise with a duration

of 5-15 sec. alactacid system calls;

- High intensity exercises, with a

duration of 20-90 sec. lactacid calling

system;

- Years of continuous average intensity /

high duration equal to or longer than

2-5 min. develop requirements in aerobic

sports teams.

Resistance specific games can be

developed using the method of

determination, where training will be

calculated so as to correspond to specific

physical or psychological characteristics,

and tactical game, respectively.

The development of resistance has a

series of specific variants:

- “The distance: distance less than the

sample equal to the sample distance with

tactical tasks, longer than the distance of

the sample;

- The speed intensity of playing: faster

than the speed of the game, as fast as the

speed of the game, slightly less, or less

than the intensity of the game”.

Football is one of the most complex

sports games, seeking quality driven,

mental and technical merit, but especially a

perfect mix of their own.

Modern competitive football claims

overall resistance (as basic physical

fitness). Even if we refer to the simple

parameters of the game, 90 minutes of

effort over 10-12 km, with many jumps,

processes, etc., resistance comes in clear

evidence. Although the general feature of

the game is determined by movements in

executions and speed, one should not

forget that a pronounced degree of fatigue

prevents the recovery potential. After 60-

70 minutes of a game, even the faster or

more technical players cannot cope with competition requirements unless they have

good physical training.

The characteristic energy of the effort is

classified by most authors into anaerobic

types. Following complex measurements

made during the game on different

positions in different games, these data

have been reconsidered, increasing the

share of aerobic processes. They even

reached proportions of 40%, which is

explainable by the multitude of game

Simion, G.: Consideration on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game 155

situations where there are movements at

moderate speeds.

Resistance considerations:

– Resilience is a basic quality developed

at a high level, enabling players to

perform all technical and tactical

procedures in the game without visible

effort and without a decline in

efficiency and precision;

– Performance in sports games is

achieved by superior mixed aerobic and

maintained at a high level through

appropriate training;

– Football strength is not only general,

but appears as a combination of speed

and force structure and, because of the

game demands, as particular, specific;

– The football game presumes resistance

in the following cases and situations:

resistance during a whole game,

resistance required by the physical,

technical, tactical action of a game,

resistance required by several actions,

resistance related to prolonged or

repeated efforts of speed, resistance to

repeated efforts to force the player to

continue execution, technical resistance

to the psycho-emotional demands of the

game;

– One must work at least 20 minutes for

the effort to be incentive (to have

endurance characteristics).

In the current literature there are

references to specific training methods for

sports games, based on modelling the requirements of preparing the competitive

game in question.

I believe that it would be referred to

considerations relating to new approaches

in the current practice of sports games.

Method rehearsals may be used in games

and sports such as football by making

repeated requests for longer or shorter

distance than in tactical manoeuvres during

a major game of football, which aims to

develop resistance to a specific game.

Rehearsal exercises or longer exercises

lay stronger emphasis on the aerobic

component of the game.

Shorter repetition on the other hand is

specific of the game because the speed is

closer to the game speed. Multiple

repetitions of these exercises have the

effect of lateral development and power of

will.

The total work can be 20-30 minutes

with breaks of 3-5 minutes, depending on

the distance between the intensity and

repetition.

The training model is considered as a

variant of repetitive training, since a player

repeats several times in training actions

characteristic of the game (and here comes

the training model).

There are several training models:

training models for the training of specific

energy or momentum of the game and

complex training models.

Training models for the training of a

specific energy consumption rate or a

specific application offer an advantage for

players according to the specific rhythms

of a game.

Note that at the beginning types of

technical and tactical exercises and lactic-

alactic are used, in the middle especially

the aerobic type is used, and in late years

for both the lactic and aerobic systems.

The first part of the training consists of

several short rehearsals performed with

great intensity (which requires both the lactic and the alactic); the means of

training uses aerobic exercise, and the

closing of new uses repetition of short

duration, to shape the intensity increased at

the end of the game. Players do the

repetition at a high degree of fatigue,

where the lactic and aerobic systems are

much prompted.

There are other possible variations, such

as the use of fast rhythms at the beginning

of each part of the lesson, or imposing a

fast pace and strong side of each lesson.


156

When lessons are organized, the training

model must take into account several factors

such as volume of work, speed, rest intervals,

the number of repetitions, individual

peculiarities and characteristics of the game

of soccer. This method is shown in pre-

competition and competition periods.

When taking into account the technical,

tactical and physical game, a complex

training model can be organized that may

require capacity building and driving the

necessary physiological football game.

In the game of football are recommended

the following distances and intensities of

the activities performed:

� Sprint 30 m to 100%;

� Running steps to 30-50 m high at 70%;

� Heat resistance of 50-400 m low

intensity;

� Acceleration – deceleration to

10-20 m, 80-100%;

� Starts-stops on the 5-15 m,

70-100%;

� Variations of the direction changes at

50-100 m. 5-20%;

� 5-10 jump over simple obstacles

25-40 cm high.

In modern practice, the preparation of

sports requires a huge volume of daily,

monthly, yearly training, requiring full

body resistance. Phenomena that occur in

the body during exercise or subsequent

resistance effects are profound, easy to

dose, measurable techniques using both

simple and complex investigation.

References

1. Alexe, N. Antrenamentul sportiv

modern. Bucureşti: Editura Editis, 1993.

2. Apolzan, D. Fotbal – 2010. Bucureşti:

F.R.F. Publishing House, 1998.

3. Bompa, T.O. Teoria şi metodologia

antrenamentului. Bucureşti: Ex. Ponto


4. Cârstea, Gh. Teoria şi metodica

educaŃiei fizice si sportului. Bucureşti:

Editura Universul, 1993.

5. Cernăianu, C. Fotbal. Manualul

antrenorului profesionist. Bucureşti:

Roteck Pro Publishing House, 2000.

6. Cojocaru, V. Fotbal de 6 la 18 ani.

Metodica pregătirii. Bucureşti:

A.N.E.F.S. Publishing House, 2002.

7. Colibaba, E.D.; Bota, I. Jocuri sportive.

Teorie şi metodică. Bucureşti: Aldin


8. Dragnea, A. Măsurarea şi evaluarea în

educaŃie fizică şi sport. Bucureşti.

Sport Turism Publishing House,

1984.

9. Dragnea, A. Antrenamentul sportiv.

Bucureşti: Didactic and Pedagogic


10. Nicu, A. Antrenamentul sportiv modern.

Bucureşti: Editis Publishing House,

1993.

11. Oancea, V. Fotbal. Curs de

specializare. Braşov: Transilvania

University Publishing House, 1996.

12. Oancea, V. Fotbal. ConsideraŃii

asupra factorului fizic. Braşov: Omnia

S.A.S.T. Publishing House, 2002.

13. PrescorniŃă, A. Antrenamentul sportiv:

o viziune integrativă. Braşov: Editura UniversităŃii „Transilvania”” din

Braşov, 2006.

14. Şiclovan, I. Teoria antrenamentului

sportiv. Bucureşti: Editura I.E.F.S.,

1985.



MORPHO-FUNCTIONAL AND

PSYCHIATRIC ASPECTS OF

CHILDREN AT THE AGE OF

10-14 YEARS

Dragoş TOHĂNEAN1

Abstract: This paper refers to the particularities of somatic, functional and

psychiatric development of children aged 10-14 years. The morpho-

functional changes that take place during the preadolescence period are

essential, displaying themselves through the intensity of growth, especially

physical growth, which is characterized by a superior rhythm in comparison

with other periods of ontogenetic development. This period is characterized

by intensified growth (especially in stature) with the obvious development of

secondary sexual characteristics. This is the site of the mental age of the

ontogenetic stage of shaping individuality and human conduct.

Key words: growth, development, stages, maturation, adaptation.

Middle school age, between 10 and 14, is

one of the most important steps of

development in which start the

transformations that will ultimately lead to the organism’s maturation. During this

period we may find a combination of

certain characteristics that are part of the

junior high process along with others that,

in one way or another, prefigure those

characteristics of teenagers. The morpho-

functional changes that take place during

the preadolescence period are essential,

displaying themselves through the intensity

of growth, especially physical growth,

which is characterized by a superior

rhythm in comparison with other periods

of ontogenetic development. The entire

process of development can take different

shapes, but regardless of these, it does not

take place proportionally and is not

produced instantaneously at all the body’s

segmental levels. Growth can be defined as

the expression of the quantitative

phenomena regarding the body’s growth in

size and its segments. Development

gathers the qualitative processes of the evolution and consists of the functional

differentiation of the tissues, the functional

perfection of the apparatus and the systems

within the organism [7].

Growth dominates – first of all the

superior and inferior limbs grow and

afterwards the thorax and the pelvis. All in

all, the average growth in height is

between 3-4 cm and 6-7 annually. At the

age of 11-12 the girls overgrow the boys a

bit, being taller, but between 13 and 14

years old this difference fades away. The

growth in height is accompanied by a gain

in weight, and the process of calcification

is intense. Thus, the facial part of the brain

is developed, the process of calcification in

the bones of the hands is finalized and the

growth of the permanent denture occurs.

Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII

158

The adjustment of the growth process is

being influenced by the extra hypothalamic

existence of certain somatostatine

secretions (STH) at the hypothalamic level,

and the receptors of the adrenergic

hormones stimulate the STH secretion,

whereas the noradrenergic hormones

inhibit this stimulation; the free fat acids,

with the help of the ventral median

nucleus, have a positive action on the STH;

the priogenical substances have a positive

action with the help of the thermo-

adjusting hypothalamic nucleus. The laws

of normal growth and development, stated

by [5, p. 300], are as follows: the unequal

and asymmetrical growth law of tissues

and organs; the different rhythm law of

growth and development; the proportion

law; the alternance law; the opposite sex

law of growth and development. Growth is

generally uniform [1, p. 536] becoming

really accelerated at the end of the period;

it mainly occurs in the elongation of the

inferior limbs, which generates a severe

fragility of the child’s body. Up to the age

of 10, the differences in growth of children

of opposite sex are not big; starting with

this age, the girls proceed to growth

acceleration due to puberty. Between 9-11,

for girls, and 11-12, for boys, this period

represents an active proliferation, which

leads to the incubation of the apophasis, of

the sesamoidal bones as well as the

finalization of the medullar cavity, a stage

that continues along with puberty. If at the age of 8 years old the muscular

mass represents approximately 27.2% of

the entire body mass, at the age of 15 it

increases to 32.6%. Along with the

development of the muscular mass the

force increases also, having a boost

between 13 and 14 years old. For children

at the age before puberty the muscular

fibers are relatively larger than those of

adults and the tendon portions are shorter.

At the beginning of the period they are still

thin, have a big nucleus and are relatively

rich in karyoplasms and water. Among

them one can find a great amount of

conjunctive tissue. The muscular tonus is

lower for children at the age before

puberty in comparison with the adult’s,

which favors a better execution of the joint

movements, but aggravates the execution

of certain smooth movements segregated

by precision [7].

The neuromuscular excitability is lower

at junior high children in comparison with

adults, the cronaximetric values being

higher. The speed in reaction and

execution is very good, but the strength is

still weak, due to the reduced muscular

mass. At the age of 10 the girls manage to

achieve over 87% of the speed they will

develop at the end of their physical and

functional (17 years old) growth and

development, whereas the boys 75% of the

speed they will develop at the end of the

growth period.

The heart reacts strongly to effort, but

uneconomically; the coronary irrigation is

rich, the control mechanisms are still weak

till the age of 7, are poorly developed and

more proper as far as easy solicitations are

concerned. The heart has a globule shape,

the transversal diameter is longer than the

longitudinal diameter and the atriums are bigger than the ventricles. The heart’s

transversal diameter is proportionally

longer than that of the adult’s. The growth

of the longitudinal diameter occurs at a

slow pace, until puberty. At the age of 7

the circumference of the right ventricle is 2

cm bigger than that of the left ventricle.

Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects of Children at the Age of 10-14

159

At the age of 8 the weight of the heart is

of 96.0 g. For children before the age of

puberty the vascular net is relatively well

developed. The fast development of the

elastic type arteries simplifies the

myocardium’s task. At the age of 9 the

cardiac frequency at rest is an average

90-96/minute and 88-91/minute at the age of 10; 87-88/minute at the age of 11 and

80/minute at the age of 13. This

tachycardia present in the first years of

school represents a significant burden for

the myocardium, given the energetic and

relatively important consumption of

maintaining a high cardiac rhythm of rest

and the weak economical (metabolic)

efficiency of sustaining this. When it

comes to effort the situation is far more

precarious since the volume of the heart is

smaller, any excess of blood irrigation to

the respective muscles claiming a

considerable boost of the cardiac

frequency, which has a negative impact on

the functional efficiency of the

myocardium, which poorly handles intense

solicitations for a long period of time.

The respiratory apparatus undergoes a

very important development as well,

acquiring new functional capacities, being

capable of ensuring a better oxygen supply

of the organism, both in rest and in relative

intense efforts.

Thus, the amplitude of the respiratory

movements increases on average from 230

ml of air current volume at the age of 11,

up to 300 ml air at the age of 13, and up to

350 ml air at the age of 15. Nevertheless, a

decrease in the respiratory frequency is recorded from 22 breathings/minute at the

age of 11, to 20 breathings/minute at the

age of 13, and to18 breathings/minute at

the age of 15. The vital capacity (VC)

marks a great leap in the puberty period.

At the age of 11, the child’s VC is

somewhere between 2000-2200 ml air. In

the first stage of puberty (10-13 years old)

the annual increase of the vital capacity is

up to 250 ml air for girls and up to 300 ml

air for boys. In the second stage of puberty,

the vital capacity develops quickly, the

annual increase of this parameter reaching

values of 400-500 ml air at the age of 14-

15, thus, at the end of the stage reaching an

average of 3500 ml air [4, p. 43-54].

In accordance with the characteristics of

the morphological development, a

decreased capacity of functional resistance

and a decreased adaptation to the cardio-

vascular and respiratory apparatus is

observed as far as intense physical effort is

concerned.

Fig. 1. Growth dynamics of the muscle mass from 8 to 15 years


160

The great organic and somatic

transformations, common at this age, are

accompanied by proper transformations in

the mental life as well.

At the age of 10, the age that marks the

end of junior high and the beginning of the

middle stage, the relief of the brain cortex

is being finalized, the intellectual

capacities are approaching a very high

level and the entire superior nervous

activity is developing quickly.

Psychologically speaking, the child shows

a good mental balance, dealing

successfully with school tasks and

extracurricular activities. Intellectually

speaking, he is still shaped by the concrete,

assimilating knowledge without

manifesting a critical spirit.

At this age, all mental processes undergo

an ascendant development, notable

modifications being achieved. Thus, the

voluntary attention is being developed, and

the involuntary attention is being modified,

becoming more efficient. The

preadolescent can concentrate and can be

attentive longer (approximately 2 hours),

often making efforts of correction and self

education as far as attention is concerned.

Moreover, the memory has an important

growth rhythm after the age of 10.

During this period, there are obvious

changes not only in the way the child

memorizes, but also in what he memorizes.

He often tries to put his memory to work

calling upon different cultural fields

(music, film, sport), the memory capacity

to this extent being really high. Storing the

logic is gradually achieved after 12 years.

This form of storage schemes operate with

logic. Evocation of memory, which is still

required, develops at ages 12-14. Motor-

verbal memory develops in puberty, in

addition to visual memory (situation) and

verbal memory, continuing to be

particularly active.

The sensory-perceptual evolution

browses a significant route for mental

development and adaptation activities.

Given the process of biological

maturation, sensitivity is also restructured

by erotic functions. The phenomenon is

most obvious in visual, auditory and tactile

sensitivity. Perceptual experience is under

the influence of development orders, and

observations constitute associations

leading him to express what he feels. He

learns to observe, be attentive to

everything that surrounds him, to show

interest in knowledge and thereby

stimulate complex functions intellect.

Fig. 2. Dynamic growth in the amplitude of respiratory

movements at ages 11, 13 and 15 [4]

Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects of Children at the Age of 10-14

161

The development of perception allows a

wider spatial and temporal orientation. In

general, perceptual experience is enriched

gradually.

In terms of thinking, it is still concrete

(12 years). The student specifically

enriches his comments, and not his

knowledge. After 12 years of age

significant changes occur in the structure

of thinking. The learning process as a way

to solve problematic situations is

complicated. The critical spirit develops

causing the young to validate values in

comparison with no value and show

explicit attitudes towards ignorance and

incompetence. Although more mature and

industrious girls do not exceed the

intellectual development of boys, they are

more compared to some comprehension of

the failure of peers or adults. They often

excel in matters involving complex verbal

expression, while boys are better at science

and technology. Operations and thinking

skills are in the process of strengthening

the power of the intellect as rich, complex

and abstract information. Knowledge of

this becomes more diverse and complex. It

creates a habit of frequently used schemes,

images, symbols and concepts of

transparency understanding complex

situations and strategies of expression.

As I said previously, the child has a good

balance mentally, but he may feel

moments of fatigue, headaches, irritability,

or restlessness. There is an alternation between moments of voice, exuberant

conduct, and times of fatigue, apathy,

laziness. The child may become conflicting

or less active, may take breaks to relax that

extend too much even if he has not made

too great an effort.

“Although eleven and twelve year olds

may start wanting to do things more

independently, and they do need to stretch

their wings a little bit, they are certainly not

as capable of dealing with the world as some

of them would have you believe or as they

sometimes think themselves, so it is good for

them to check out situations to make sure

they are safe before they go off on their own.

Because eleven or twelve year olds may

be making first efforts at independence this

can change their relationship with parents.

Boys may move away from a close

relationship with their mothers and girls

who have had a good relationship with

their fathers may become a little

emotionally distant with them” [9].

Some researchers believe that children

of 10-12 years can manifest defensive

behaviors especially in overpopulated

environments. Yet, young people at this

age tend to develop independent attitudes

in relation to their family, but it is

important for members to offer significant

affective support in a discreet manner [3].

School and learning requirements lead to

changes in personality. There is a structure of

needs, interests, preferences and skills as a

result of the discovery by the child of the

importance to obtain the best results in his

activity. A particularly important role in

child development has, on the one hand, the

social development of relationship

characteristics, and on the other hand,

receiving influences in the personality

structure of the new experiences and

knowledge. A social relationship bears the

hallmark of social life as a whole, as well

as school and family life. Social life is

lived with a greater intensity than in any

other stage of life. Groups for the game, for learning activities or any other form of

action, have a high stability and become

more uniform, relatively constant criteria,

but especially based on age and sex

[8, p. 163-183].

In another vein, and to conclude, one

can say that the process of development

and human growth occurs in steps, stages

and periods that characterize the entire

course of life. By growth and development

we understand a dynamic complex of

biological processes undergone by the


162

human organism in its evolution to

maturation. Growth is a quantitative

process of cellular reproduction concerning

the body’s gaining in weight, volume and

size, whereas development represents a

qualitative process of cellular

differentiation; in other words we are

talking about functional modifications and

qualitative improvements that mark a

perfection and adaptation of the

apparatuses and the systems within the

organism, a complex evolution and a

coordinate integration of them in a whole.

Given the above, I think that it is very

important for coaches to take into account the

physical and psychological changes that

children pass through, and adapt their

methods of sports training to age peculiarities.

References

1. Baciu, C. Anatomia funcŃională şi

biomecanica aparatului locomotor (cu

aplicaŃii în E.F.S.). Bucureşti: Editura

Sport- Turism, 1977.

2. Demeter, A. Bazele fiziologice ale

educaŃiei fizice şcolare. Bucureşti:

Editura Sport –Turism, 1982, p. 15-80.

3. Evans, G. The Effects of the Physical

Environment on Children’s

Development. Available at:

http://www.parenting.cit.cornell.edu

Accesed in 12.04.2009

4. Firea, E. ParticularităŃile somato-

funcŃionale, psihice şi motrice la copii,

în perioadele prepubertară şi

pubertară, şi valorificarea lor în

domeniul sportiv// Culegere de

materiale tehnico-metodice. Bucureşti:

F.R.F. Şcoala de antrenori, 2002.

5. Ionescu, A. Despre atitudinea corectă

a corpului. Bucureşti: Editura

U.C.F.S., 1961.

6. Maziu, V.; Nicu, A.; Focşăneanu, Al.

PotenŃialul biometric al populaŃiei

şcolare cls. I-IV. Bucureşti: C.C.

E.F.S. 1972, p. 5-90.

7. Verza, E. Psihologia vârstelor.

Bucureşti: Editura Hyperion, 1993.

8. Verza, E.; Verza, F.E. Psihologia

vârstelor. Bucureşti: Editura

ProHumanitate, 2000.

9. http://www.cyh.com/HealthTopics/He

althTopicDetails.aspx?p=114&np=122

&id =1865. Accesed in 13.04.2009.


PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND

SPORTS INSTITUTIONS

Ioan TURCU1

Abstract: The path followed by this thesis is supposed to cover succinctly most of the concepts and components of performance management in

physical education and sports institutions – brought to light by the greatest

specialists in this field – from a new perspective of modern organization

management and a society based on knowledge. The society based on

knowledge is an essential element of the “outer environment” of organization

management and is carrying specific opportunities and threats, while knowledge

resources are considered the key constituent of the “inner environment” of

organization management.

Key words: management, physical education and sport, strategy, organization, performance.

1 Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.

More than 20 years ago, under the name

of informational society, the real flow of

goods and services started to be replaced

by the flow of information with the help of

virtual economy. Nowadays this economy

appears under the name of “society of

knowledge”, having the continuous

improvement of the human part as the

main factor in the progress of humanity.

As presented in the UNESCO report

”Higher Education in a Learning Society”,

we can say that ”the societies formed at

present and in the near future become more

and more societies of knowledge and

learning. Production, transmission and application of knowledge in any domain of

activity are means of raising productivity.

At the same time, if there is no continuous

learning, the personal adaptability or the

individual way of living becomes of poor

quality in content and performance, and

the quality of life decreases in terms of

economic standards, of diversity and

profoundness of actions or cultural

experience. The intelligence based on

knowledge and professional competence

which is analyzed through the assimilation

of new abilities and knowledge indicates a

personal life of high quality, able to

contribute to the development of the

national and local community” [5].

The whole world is changing in order to

achieve high performances. Change is

certainly the axis for the whole mankind of

the 21st century. We notice that the

phenomenon of change, even if it is often

controversial, is becoming more important

every day. The organizations that will succeed on this “journey” of transformation

are the organizations of the future – which

will of course derive from classical

organizations having the ability to challenge

the future and to hold up against it. Change is

a permanent “journey” of the whole modern

organization, while the manager is the guide

– the key factor in the attempt to change.


164

Therefore, the managers of the future must

own a series of qualities, knowledge, skills,

and behaviors common to the employees and

specific of the management. We offered a

general presentation about them and

underlined the great importance they play

from the point of view of the performances

achieved by the organization and its

management.

The major programs for change must

initially be guided by the head manager, who

will also use the power of change in order to

implement the programs. This power of

change could offer the new technologies or

conditions for legislative changes,

privatization, free trade etc. Many times a

combination of these factors calls for a

fundamental reorganization of the activity

field. All these changes raise questions about

strategy, while the answers to these questions

impose much more than the redesigning of

the organization processes; it is necessary to

reinvent the organization itself.

The change into a post-capitalistic society

widens the spectrum of scientific approaches

in the field of value and its capacity to rise on

the whole front of scientific research and the

passing to a society based on knowledge. As

a result, the change – the element of

transition to a society based on knowledge –

is the name of the game that involves

everyone in the 21st century. It is not

surprising that in some cases the progress is

slowing down. The change starts with the

ones that hold the power of decision and the initiative – the managers in general – it

stimulates the executants and it never ends,

no matter how good the global economy is.

The civilization that has just arrived –

based on knowledge – brings a new genuine

way of life based on: diversified resources

that are interchangeable and easy to replace;

production methods that replace the outdated

present fabrication systems; training systems

based on the capacities and virtues of the

individual versus the ones based on the

group. The new civilization based on

knowledge comes with a series of mutations

at the level of society: mass production is de-

massified; the mass market is segmented

down to “atoms”; the relative homogeneous

society becomes heterogeneous; the social-

political and economic life that once was

centralized becomes decentralized; the

problems of life which appear minor are

becoming global; the social-economic life,

relatively stable and stationary, is

accelerating. Under these circumstances we

are stressing the important role of knowledge as the main resource for modern organization and a fundamental resource for the creation of value. The revolution of

cognizance leads to the expansion of

knowledge frontiers and decisively marks the

evolution of all components of the global

system. The acquiring, the ownership and the

capitalization of knowledge are becoming

the keys to a modern society.

The fortune and the power of the future

society will be based mainly on intangible

intellectual resources and on the knowledge

capital. The acquiring of fortune won’t be

possible without the rational combination of

the production factors, where the

“knowledge” factor will play the leading

role, being capable of substituting the others

without completely replacing them. The

acquired fortune will modify its structure in

favor of the created super-symbolic goods.

Traditional resources are exhaustible, finite

in time, while knowledge is unlimited and inexhaustible at all levels, and continuously grows if used.

The society based on knowledge is an

essential element of the “outer environment”

of organization management, and it carries

specific opportunities and threats, while

knowledge resources are considered the key

constituent of the “inner environment” of

organization management. The managerial

strengths and/or weaknesses end with a

success or failure of the managerial task of

the organization which operates in the

context of the emerging of three global

Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and … 165

processes: the globalization of the economy,

the managerial revolution and the society

based on knowledge [4, p. 118].

The doctoral thesis entitled Performance

Management in Institutions of Physical

Education and Sports is written in the

context of the predictable mutations of the

21st century (change, globalization,

organization and management based on

knowledge) and distinguishes in the

conceptual part between the main characteristics of the intellectual capital, which represents the creational engine for performance in the modern sports organization:

� the mobility of the intellectual

capital is much higher than that of

tangible assets;

� the value of the intellectual capital

mostly depends on the capacity to

use it efficiently and to motivate

the people involved;

� the value of the intangibles will get

higher and higher in the value

content of the future capital;

� the multiplication capacity of the

intellectual capital is much higher

than other capitals;

� the investments in intellectual

capital generate a series of other

investments;

� the intellectual capital has a

specific circuit (with its help we

understand the economic

mechanism that permits adding value to knowledge with an

economic finality).

There are plenty of reasons why the

management concept needs to be

introduced in physical education and

sports. The majority of respondents

confirm that the future world is based on

knowledge. Therefore it is obvious that the

leading features of the contemporary world

(change, economy, organization and

management based on knowledge), and the

knowledge capital have a great impact on

the activity of physical education and

sports.

In this society of knowledge and learning

we observe that the world’s leading

orientation is towards performance. It is

performance that really and highly

evaluates all kinds of resources, being the

most efficient and certain way to achieve

this goal.

Based on the same theory, the following

is confirmed about the activity of physical

education and sports:

� the managerial act must be

streamlined on a social scale;

� concrete criteria are needed in order

to distinguish between values;

� strategic management is becoming

more important every day (the

adaptation of strategic management

depending on the possibilities,

objectives, needs and applying

individual strategic management –

in every sports branch, elaborating a

strategy for performance of a

minimum of four years).

The respondents also confirmed the

necessity of management in the activity of

physical education and sports. More so,

this management must be realized as a

subsystem of general management. Its

object consists of the functions, the

operations and the subsystems applied in

the activity of physical education and

sports.

In order achieve performance, the management of the modern organization

must consider three distinctive forms:

efficiency and effectiveness; completing the strategic objectives; creating value. Therefore, performance is the way to

satisfy both the needs of the internal

environment and those of the external

environment by finding a perfect

combination of efficiency and

effectiveness. The latter measures what is

being done, while the efficiency shows us

how it is being done; it is not the same if


166

an institution generates a smaller or a

greater value in its attempt to achieve its

goals. This value appears in diverse forms,

sometimes tangible and sometimes not,

and is delivered to the clients,

shareholders, employees and partners. The

more value is being produced by one

institution, the longer the period of time

will be for investment in the competitive

battle.

Performance is the object and the subject

of management, and therefore we are

witnessing a fundamental interest of

management in performance.

Performance is the starting point for

competitiveness, and therefore performance

must become the basic philosophy for the

modern organization and for its management

[1, p. 79], [2, p. 63].

Although semantically performance is

widely accepted and utilized, from a

practical and theoretical point of view the

concept is poorly defined and has major

consequences on multiple levels [3, p. 9].

Because of a mixture of interdisciplinary

approaches, a miscellaneous research

methodology was necessary in regard to:

the study of a general and a special

bibliography concerning the theoretical

and practical status needed for the

elaboration of a scientifically founded

thesis; referring to the bi-dimensional

and/or tri-dimensional – past, present,

future – while elaborating concepts and

phenomena from the general to the particular or from the particular to the

general; the questionnaire method for the

elaboration of a selective scientific

research.

Our research is based on an exploratory-

descriptive investigation which serves our

goal the most and allows the gathering of

information from significant groups from

the point of view of their contribution to

identifying the problems and the solutions

from the field of physical education and

sports.

Before initiating any research we must

determine a set of presumptions which in

the end will be proved right or wrong. We

get started from the following hypotheses:

1. The subgroups of the research sample

offer diverse information from the

point of view of the problematic and

solutions in the field of physical

education and sports.

2. By processing the information we

observe a large number of statements

regarding the things that are not

functional and a smaller number

regarding the possible solutions.

3. Regarding the managerial solutions in

the field of physical education and

sports, we observe mainly theoretical

explanations to the detriment of

practical solutions.

4. The collection of data offers per

ensemble valuable and original

literature for the extraction of viable

solutions in the problematic of

physical education and sports.

The reasons for choosing this topic for

the thesis entitled Performance

Management in the Institution of Physical

Education and Sports are:

� I am working in this field; I am a

lecturer at the Faculty of Physical

Education and Sports of Transilvania

University in Braşov, chief assistant at

the Department of Theoretical Subjects

and Collective Sports;

� the sports activity has a deep managerial character anywhere and no

matter how it is being practiced;

� management plays an important role in

the contemporary world;

� the activity of physical education and

sports is re-evaluated at governmental

and institutional levels, and under the

circumstances of an in-depth study one

can find possibilities for managerial

promotion on the steps of the

hierarchy.

Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and … 167

The research goal is to integrate the

institutions of physical education and

sports in the economic-social structure of

the country in the context of European

integration and the internationalization of

organizations.

The main objective of the research is to

identify the present problems in the field of

physical education and sports and to find

possible solutions to get over them.

Starting from unity through diversity, the

four subgroups of participants

(beneficiaries of the sports activity,

professors, managers and postgraduates in

management) all bring complementary

information which will outline a whole on

two different levels: problematic and

solutions.

In order to achieve the goals and general

objectives of this thesis we set a number of

specific objectives resuming the opinions

of those questioned regarding the

following aspects:

1. Positioning the institutions of physical

education and sports in the gear of the

Romanian society.

2. The role of the management in the

contemporary world and its impact on

the management of physical education

and sports institutions.

3. Predictable mutations in the

contemporary world and their impact

on the management of physical

education and sports institutions: the

necessary assimilation and adaptation to change.

4. Elements of general management

involved in the management of

physical education and sports

institutions and their impact on

creating a new segment of

management.

5. The economic, organizational and

managerial impact based on

knowledge in the management of

institutions for physical education and

sports.

6. The concept of performance in the

activity of physical education and

sports and its role in the contemporary

world.

7. The specificity of the management for

sports performance and its role in

completing the mission of physical

education and sports institutions.

8. The material resources of physical

education and sports institutions and

the role of financial management in

acquiring and administrating those

funds.

9. The systemic approach to physical

education and sports in the general

context of education and civilization.

10. The need to edit a handbook and

produce a specialty like the

management of physical education

and sports.

All these opinions form a large

spectrum, but we made a selection of four

categories of respondents involved in one

way or another in the topic of the thesis.

The first group of respondents, the

beneficiaries, solves problem situations

on a pragmatic level by anchoring the

state of affairs from the field of physical

education and sports to reality without

passing them through the filter of

experience in this specialty. They will

offer great value to the research because

change is very important at this level.

Their opinion counts.

We are asking from the second group of respondents, from the educational system,

to handle problem situations and to solve

them practically with the person as the

beneficiary.

The third group, the managers, is

expected to offer solutions by respecting

the equation costs-benefits referring to

the modalities of modernization. They

aim for the investment system.

The fourth group, the postgraduates in

the field of management, who show a large


168

spectrum of interests and preoccupations,

and who use the newest sources of

theoretical and practical accumulation of

material, will offer dynamic points of view

and interactive visions.

The results of this research stand as a

reference point not only for the institutions

involved in the analyses but for all the

factors involved or interested in this

problematic, and who believe that it is

important to offer professional education

to the people involved in the activity of

physical education and sports, and to those

who do performance management in

institutions of this type.

All these objectives are the foundation of

the doctoral thesis entitled Performance

Management in the Institution of Physical

Education and Sports, which is built on

consulting a vast bibliography, part of which

(60%) was published after the year 2000.

The path followed by this thesis is

supposed to cover succinctly most of the

concepts and components of performance

management in physical education and

sports institutions – brought to light by the

greatest specialists in this field – from a

new perspective of modern organization

management and a society based on

knowledge.

The thesis delimits the essential

coordinates of performance management in

institutions of physical education and

sports under the major impact of the

predictable mutations of the 21st century –

change, globalization, economy,

knowledge-based management and

organization – and offers solutions along

these coordinates to some of the problems

by proposing improvement for the

managerial activity and by bringing

arguments for some of the theories. After

saying all this we do not consider the

subject closed and we admit that there are

some problems that require subsequent

detailed research.

References

1. Bogdan, I. Managementul afacerilor

internaŃionale. Sibiu: Editura

UniversităŃii „Lucian Blaga”, 2007.

2. Bogdan, I. Managementul eficienŃei

investiŃiilor. Bucureşti: Editura

Universitară, 2004.

3. Herciu, M. Managementul financiar

al firmei viitorului. Sibiu: Editura

Continent, 2005.

4. Nicolescu, O. Economia, organizaŃia

şi managementul bazate pe cunoştinŃe.

Bucureşti: Editura Economică, 2006.

5. http://www.edu.ro/index.php/articles/t

ext/8417

AUTHORS INDEX

A

Albulescu, E. ..................................... 81

B

Balint, L. .......................................... 107

Beldean, L. .......................................... 9

Bostan, M. ......................................... 17

C

Cioroiu, S. G. ..............................85, 127

Chicomban, M. .................................. 93

D

Demenescu, V. L. .............................. 21

E

Enoiu, R. .......................................... 101

Enoiu, R. S. ...................................... 101

F

Feşteu, F. ......................................... 107

Filip, I. ............................................... 27

I

Ionescu-Bondoc, D. ......................... 115

M

Martoma, A. .................................... 119

MăniuŃ, P. M. ..................................... 31

Moldovan, E. ..............................85, 127

N

Nechita, F. ....................................... 135

Nireşteanu, L. .................................... 37

P

Pepelea, R........................................... 41

Petrescu, A. R. . .................................. 45

Petrescu, C. F. .................................... 49

Pop, C................................................. 55

R

Rucsanda, M. ..................................... 61

S

Scurt, C. ....................................139, 145

Simion, G. ....................................... 151

T

Tohănean, D. ................................... 157

Turcu, I. ........................................... 163

ł

łuŃu, C. .............................................. 67

V

Vârlan, P.M. ....................................... 73

Z

Zanfirescu, G. .................................. 139

Zanfirescu, M. ................................. 145

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