copyright © allyn & bacon 2004. 1: an introduction to public speaking 2: the ethics of public...


1: An Introduction to Public

Speaking2: The Ethics of Public Speaking3: Speaking Confidently4: Responding to Speeches5: Analyzing your Audience6: Selecting your Topic


7: Researching Your Topic 8: Supporting Your Speech 9: Organizing the Body of Your Speech 10: Introducing and Concluding Your Speech 11: Outlining Your Speech 12: Wording Your Speech


13: Delivering Your Speech 14: Using Presentational Aids 15: Speaking to Inform 16: The Strategy of Persuasion 17: The Structure of Persuasion 18: Speaking on Special

Occasions 19: Speaking in and as a Group


Chapter 1An Introduction to Public

Speaking


Chapter 1An Introduction toPublic Speaking


Studying Public Speaking. . .

. . . Helps you succeed in school / at work.

. . . Increases your knowledge.

. . . Helps build your confidence.


We Remember. . .• 10 percent of what we read,• 20 percent of what we hear,• 30 percent of what we see, and• 70 percent of what we speak.

Cited in William E. Arnold and Lynne McClure, Communication Training and Development, 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1996) 38.


Levels of Communication

• Intrapersonal• Interpersonal• Group• Public• Mass


Communication Elements Model


Critical Thinking Skills

enables you to. . .This skill. . .

Arrange informationOrganizing

Store and retrieve information

Remembering

Formulate questions, collect data

Information Gathering

Define problems, set goals,select information

Focusing


Critical Thinking Skills cont.

enables you to. . .This skill. . .

Assess the quality of ideas

Evaluating

Combine, summarize, and restructure information

Integrating

Use prior knowledgeGenerating

Clarify existing information

Analyzing

Adapted from Robert J. Marzano, Ronald S. Brandt, Carolyn Sue Hughes, Beau Fly Jones, Barbara Z. Presseisen, Stuart C. Rankin, and Charles Suhor, Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1988) 66, 70-112. Copyright 1988 by ACSD. Reprinted with permission of the publishers.


Chapter 2The Ethics of Public Speaking


Principles of Ethics

• All parties have ethical responsibilities.

• Ethics pervade character and action.


Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker

• Speak up about important issues.

• Promote positive ethical values.• Speak to benefit your listeners.• Use truthful support and valid

reasoning.• Consider the consequences.• Strive to improve your speaking.


Responsibilitiesof an Ethical Listener

• Seek exposure to well-informed speakers.

• Listen openly.• Listen critically.• Listen carefully.


“Fair Use” Guidelines• What is the character of the use I

plan?• What is the nature of the work I

plan to use?• How much of the work do I plan to

use?• If the use I plan were widespread,

what effect would it have on the market value of the original?

Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials, 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.


Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing• Take clear and consistent

notes.• Record complete source

citations.• Be clear in source citations.• Paraphrase in your own

words, style, and structure.• When in doubt, cite the

source.


Chapter 2The Ethics of Public Speaking


Principles of Ethics

• All parties have ethical responsibilities.

• Ethics pervade character and action.


Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker

• Speak up about important issues.

• Promote positive ethical values.• Speak to benefit your listeners.• Use truthful support and valid

reasoning.• Consider the consequences.• Strive to improve your speaking.


Responsibilitiesof an Ethical Listener

• Seek exposure to well-informed speakers.

• Listen openly.• Listen critically.• Listen carefully.


“Fair Use” Guidelines• What is the character of the use I

plan?• What is the nature of the work I

plan to use?• How much of the work do I plan to

use?• If the use I plan were widespread,

what effect would it have on the market value of the original?

Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials, 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.


Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing• Take clear and consistent

notes.• Record complete source

citations.• Be clear in source citations.• Paraphrase in your own

words, style, and structure.• When in doubt, cite the

source.


Chapter 4Responding to Speeches


Listening

. . . is intermittent.

. . . is a learned skill.

. . . is active.

. . . implies using the message received.


The Process of Listening

You get the

stimuli

You focus

on stimuli

You attach meanings to stimuli

You integrate the message

into your frame of reference

You judge the merits of the information

You decide what to do with the information

Receive Select Interpret Understand Evaluate Resolve


Obstacles to Effective Listening

• Physical distractions• Physiological distractions• Psychological distractions• Factual distractions• Semantic distractions


Promoting Better Listening

• Desire to listen.• Focus on the

message.• Listen for main ideas.• Understand the

speaker’s point of view.


Promoting Better Listening cont.

• Withhold judgment.• Reinforce the message.• Provide feedback.• Listen with the body.• Listen critically.


A Model of Criticism

This model of criticism is adapted from Beverly Whitaker Long, “Evaluating Performed Literature,” Studies in Interpretation, vol.2, eds. Esther M. Doyle and Virginia Hastings Floyd (Amsterdam: Podopi, 1977) 267-81. See also her earlier article: Beverly Whitaker, “Critical Reasons and Literature in Performance,” The Speech Teacher 18 (November 1969): 191-93. Long attributes this three-part model of criticism to Arnold Isenberg, “Critical Communication,” The Philosophical Review (July 1949): 330-44.

Judgments:statements of approval or disapproval,

like or dislike

Reasons:Justifications offered

for judgments

Norms:Standards of relative worth

or goodness


Guidelines forCritiquing Speeches

• Begin with a positive statement.• Target a few key areas for

improvement.• Organize your comments.• Be specific.• Be honest but tactful.


Guidelines forCritiquing Speeches cont.

• Personalize your comments.

• Reinforce the positive.• Problem-solve the

negative.• Provide the speaker with

a plan of action.• End with a positive

statement.


Guidelines forActing on Criticism

• Focus on what your critics say, not how they say it.

• Seek clear and specific feedback.• Evaluate the feedback you

receive.• Develop a plan of action.


Chapter 5Analyzing Your Audience


Audience Demographics

• Age• Gender• Ethnicity• Education• Religion• Economic Status• Group Membership


Levels of Influence

Behavior

Attitudes

Beliefs

Values


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Random, 1970) 35-47.

Self-Actualization Needs

Esteem Needs

Belonging and Love Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs


VALS Typology

• Survivors• Makers• Strivers• Believers

Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.


VALS Typology cont.

• Experiencers• Achievers• Thinkers• Innovators

Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.


Specific Speaking Situations

• Types of audiences• Audience disposition• Size of audience• Occasion• Physical environment• Time


Chapter 6Selecting Your Speech

Topic

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Choosing Your Speech Topic

You should. . .• First, generate a list:

– Self-generated– Audience-generated– Occasion-generated– Research-generated


Choosing Your Speech Topic cont.

• Second, select a topic.– Am I interested?– Is the topic important?– Can I find supporting material?– Do I understand the topic?

• Third, focus the topic.


Visual Brainstorming



• Fourth, determine the general purpose.– To inform– To persuade– To entertain



• Fifth, formulate your specific purpose.– General purpose– Intended audience– Goal of your speech

• Finally, word your thesis statement.• If necessary, develop your speech

title.


Chapter 7Researching Your Topic


Assess Your Personal Knowledge

• Article file• Quotation file• Speech file


Develop Your Research Plan

• What information do I need?• Where am I most likely to find it?• How do I obtain this information?• What about time constraints?


Collect Your Information

• Magazines and journals• Newspapers• Government documents• Books


Collect Your Information cont.

• Reference works• Television and radio• World Wide Web• Interviews• Calling, writing, e-mailing for info


Record Your Information

• What to record• How to record information


Conclude Your Search

“If the last 10 percent of your planned research time has brought excellent results, you are doubtless on a productive new track and should extend the project. But if the last 25 percent of your scheduled time has brought greatly diminished results, this fact is a signal to wind up your research.”

Alden Todd, Finding Facts Fast, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: Ten Speed, 1979) 14.


Chapter 8Supporting Your Speech


Purposes of Supporting Materials

• Clarity• Vividness• Credibility


Types of Supporting Materials


Examples

• Brief• Extended• Actual• Hypothetical


Definition

• Synonym• Etymology• Example• Operation


Narration

• Personal• Third-person


Comparison and Contrast

• Literal• Figurative


Statistics

• Don’t rely exclusively on statistics.• Round off.• Use familiar measures.• Use presentational aids.• Stress their impact.


Testimony

• Direct quotation• Paraphrase


Tests of Evidence

• Is the evidence quoted in context?• Is the source of the evidence an expert?• Is the source of the evidence unbiased?• Is the evidence relevant to the point?• Is the evidence specific?• Is the evidence sufficient to prove the

point?• Is the evidence timely?


Evaluating Electronic Information

• Purpose• Expertise• Objectivity• Accuracy• Timeliness

This checklist was adapted from Serena Fenton and Grace Reposa, “Evaluating the Goods,” Technology & Learning Sept. 1998: 28-32; Caroline L. Gilson, “Evaluating Information Resources,” 3 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 <http://lib.runet.edu/hguide/Evaluating.html>; Esther Grassian, “Thinking Critically About World Wide Web Resources,” 10 Oct. 1997, UCLA College Library, 10 March 1999 <http://www.accd.edu/SAC/LRC/gis/critical.htm>; Stephanie Michel, “Evaluating Information on the World Wide Web,” 9 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 <http://lib.runet.edu/libserv/handout/evaluation.html>; Keith Stranger, “Criteria for Evaluating Internet Resources,” 30 Nov. 1998, University Library, Eastern Michigan Univ., 4 March 1999 <http://online.emich.edu/~lib_stanger/ineteval.htm>.


Citing Your Sources

“Oral footnotes”. . .

• Enhance the credibility of what you say.

• Help listeners find sources.


Chapter 9Organizing the Body of Your

Speech


Organizational Patterns

• Topical• Chronological• Spatial• Causal• Pro-con• Mnemonic or gimmick• Problem-solution• Need-plan


The “4 S” Strategy

• Signpost• State• Support• Summarize


Connect the Key Ideas

• Complementary• Causal• Contrasting• Chronological


Chapter 10Introducing and Concluding

Your Speech


Organize the Introduction

• First, get your audience’s attention.– Question your audience.– Arouse curiosity.– Stimulate imagination.– Promise something beneficial.– Amuse your audience.– Energize your audience.– Acknowledge and compliment.


Organize the Introduction cont.

• Second, state your topic.• Third, establish the importance of

your topic.• Fourth, establish your credibility.• Finally, preview your key ideas.


Organize the Conclusion

• Summarize your key ideas.• Activate audience response to your

speech.• Provide closure.


Chapter 11Outlining Your Speech


An Outline. . .

• Tests the scope of content.• Tests the logical relations of the

speech.• Tests the relevance of supporting

ideas.• Checks the balance of the speech.• Serves as notes during delivery.


Principles of Outlining

• Singularity• Consistency• Adequacy• Uniformity• Parallelism


Stages of Outlining

• Working Outline• Formal Outline• Speaking Outline


Chapter 12Wording Your Speech


Functions of Language

• Communicate ideas.• Send messages about the user.• Strengthen social bonds.• Serve as instrument of play.• Check language use.

Based on Roman Jakobson, “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetic,” in Style in Language, ed. Thomas A. Sebok (Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1964) 350-74.


Use Language Correctly

“Stronger English comes from making stronger choices, and exact wording, when it becomes a habit, can become fun as well as fascinating.”

--Jeffrey McQuain


Use Language Clearly

• Use specific language.• Use familiar language.


Use Language Vividly

• Use active language.• Appeal to listeners’ senses.• Use figures of speech.• Use structures of speech.


Use Language Appropriately

• Use oral style.• Use inclusive language.


Chapter 13Delivering Your Speech


Principles of Nonverbal Communication

• Some communication is deliberate, while some is unintentional.

• Few nonverbal signals have universal meaning.


Principles of Nonverbal Communication cont.

• When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, we trust the nonverbal message.

• The audience’s perception can take precedence over your intent.


Methods of Delivery

• Impromptu• From memory• From a manuscript• Extemporaneous


Effective Delivery. . .

• Helps everyone.• Looks and feels natural,

comfortable, and spontaneous.

• Is best when the audience is not aware of it.


Elements of Vocal Delivery

• Rate and pause• Volume• Pitch and inflection• Voice quality• Articulation and pronunciation


Elements of Physical Delivery

• Appearance• Posture• Facial expression• Eye contact• Movement• Gestures


Chapter 14Using Presentational Aids


Presentational Aids• Increase message clarity.• Reinforce message impact.• Increase speaker dynamism.• Enhance speaker confidence.


Types of Presentational Aids

• Objects• Graphics

– Picture– Diagram– Line Graph– Bar Graph– Pie Graph– Chart– Map


Types of Presentational Aids cont.

• Projections– Still– Moving

• Electronic aids• Handouts• Audio and other aids


Designing Presentational Aids

• Focus• Layout• Highlighting• Fonts• Color and art


Using Presentational Aids

• Before the speech. . .– Determine information to be

presented.– Select the best type of aid.– Ensure easy viewing by audience.– Make sure information is clear.– Construct professional-looking

aid.


Using Presentational Aids cont.

• Before the speech cont. . . – Practice with aid.– Arrange for safe transportation.– Carry back-up supplies.– Properly position aid.– Test presentational aid.



• During the Speech. . .– Conceal, then reveal.– Talk to audience—not aid.– Refer to aid.– Keep aid in view.– Conceal aid after you have

used it.– Use handouts with caution.


Chapter 14Using Presentational Aids


Presentational Aids• Increase message clarity.• Reinforce message impact.• Increase speaker dynamism.• Enhance speaker confidence.


Types of Presentational Aids

• Objects• Graphics

– Picture– Diagram– Line Graph– Bar Graph– Pie Graph– Chart– Map


Types of Presentational Aids cont.

• Projections– Still– Moving

• Electronic aids• Handouts• Audio and other aids


Using Presentational Aids

• Before the speech. . .– Determine information to be

presented.– Select the best type of aid.– Ensure easy viewing by audience.– Make sure information is clear.– Construct professional-looking

aid.



• Before the speech cont. . . – Practice with aid.– Arrange for safe transportation.– Carry back-up supplies.– Properly position aid.– Test presentational aid.



• During the Speech. . .– Conceal, then reveal.– Talk to audience—not aid.– Refer to aid.– Keep aid in view.– Conceal aid after you have

used it.– Use handouts with caution.


Chapter 15Speaking to Inform


Purposes of Informative Speeches

• Impart knowledge• Enhance understanding• Permit application


Topic Categoriesfor Informative Speeches

• People• Objects• Places• Events


Topic Categoriesfor Informative Speeches cont.

• Processes• Concepts• Conditions• Issues


Speaking to Inform

• Stress informative purpose.

• Be specific.• Be clear.• Be accurate.• Limit ideas and

supporting materials.


Speaking to Inform cont.

• Be relevant.• Be objective.• Use appropriate organization.• Use appropriate forms of support.• Use effective delivery.


Chapter 16The Strategy of Persuasion


Persuasion is. . .

the process of influencing another person’s values, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.


Types of Influence

Oppose Neutral FavorStrongly Moderately Slightly Slightly Moderately Strongly

--- -- - + ++ +++0


The Pyramid of Persuasion

Behavior

Attitudes

Beliefs

Values


Types of Persuasive Speeches

• Speeches to Convince• Speeches to Actuate• Speeches to Inspire


Three Modes of Persuasion

• Ethos: Speaker credibility• Logos: Logical appeal• Pathos: Emotional appeal

The Rhetoric of Aristotle, trans. Lane Cooper (New York: Appleton, 1960) 8.


Persuasive Speaking Strategies. . .


Persuasive Strategies

1. Establish your credibility.– Convey competence.– Convey trustworthiness.– Convey dynamism.


Persuasive Strategies cont.

2. Focus your goals.– Limit your goals.– Argue incrementally.



3. Connect with your listeners.– Assess listeners’ knowledge of topic.– Assess importance to audience.– Motivate your listeners.– Relate message to listeners’ values.



4. Organize your arguments.– Primacy theory.– Recency theory.



5. Support your ideas.6. Enhance your emotional appeals.

– Tap audience values.– Use vivid examples.– Use emotive language.– Use effective delivery.


Chapter 17The Structure of Persuasion


Steps of an Argument

• You make a claim.• You offer evidence.• You show how the evidence

proves the claim.

For a more elaborate discussion of the structure of an argument, see Stephen Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (New York: Cambridge UP, 1974).


Refuting an Argument

• State the position you are refuting.

• State your position.• Support your position.• Show how your position

undermines the opposing argument.


Types of Argument


Argument by Example

• Are the examples true?• Are the examples relevant?• Are the examples sufficient?• Are the examples representative?


Argument by Analogy

• Are the similarities between cases relevant?

• Are any of the differences relevant?


Argument by Cause

• Does a causal relationship exist?• Could the presumed cause

produce the effect?• Could the effect result from other

causes?


Argument by Deduction

• Do the premises relate to each other?

• Is the major premise true?• Is the minor premise true?


Argument by Authority

• Is the source an expert?• Is the source unbiased?


Fallacies of Argument

• Hasty generalization• False analogy• Post hoc ergo propter hoc• Slippery slope• Red herring


Fallacies of Argument cont.

• Appeal to tradition• False dilemma• False authority• Bandwagon• Ad hominem


Requirements of Propositions

Propositions. . .

• Express a judgment.• Are debatable.• Require proof.


Types of Propositions

• Propositions of Fact• Propositions of Value• Propositions of Policy


Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

• Attention• Need• Satisfaction• Visualization• Action

Raymie E. Mckerrow, Bruce E. Gronbeck, Douglas Ehninger, and Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech Communication, 14th ed. (New York: Addison-Longman, 2000) 153-161. See also: Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech (Chicago: Scott, 1935).


• This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:

• Any public non educational performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;

• Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;

• Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

copyright © allyn & bacon 2004. 1: an introduction to public speaking 2: the ethics of public...

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