critical period hypothesis

CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS SLA HAFIZAH HAJIMIA

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INTRODUCTION

In this competitive age, many of us feel the need to learn a second language especially a

language like English. Many parents want to expose their kids as early as possible to daycare,

preschool, schools which have strong English language curriculum. As for the adults, they are

going around trying to acquire the second language as efficient as they can. Researches started

looking into a few famous theories to find the most suitable solution to second or foreign

language acquisition and the most controversial is the critical period hypothesis.

What is second language acquisition?

Second language acquisition is the moment when a person acquires a different language

after they have first mastered a certain language. According to the Wikipedia, the acquisition of a

second language is a process whereby a person learns/acquires another language beside their

mother tongue. Any languages learned or acquired after their first language is known as the

second language. Acquiring of a first language is a more unconscious process whereas, acquiring

a second language requires a systematic, planned and formal exercises and motivation for most

people.

Critical period hypothesis

The critical period hypothesis was first introduced by a Montreal neurologist by the

name Wilder Penfield and co-author Lamar Roberts in 1959. It was then made famous by Eric

Lenneberg in 1967 in his book Biological Foundations of Language. According to Eric

Lennerberg, “The brain lateralisation (the longitudinal fissure that separates the brain into two

distinct cerebral hemispheres) at puberty is the mechanism which closes down the brain's ability


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to acquire language. If a language is not acquired by the time a person reaches puberty than it

will affect the proficiency of the second language acquired.” Noam Chomsky who is also known

as father of modern linguistics, supports the critical period hypothesis. Noam Chomsky believes

that children are born with an innate ability to learn any human language and that they have a

some device in their brain that enable them to acquire languages vocabulary, syntactic and any

grammatical structures more proficiently just by looking at imitations compared to adults.

According to critical period hypothesis, a child has a period of time whereby it has the

highest skill ability to learn a second language. Researchers say that this period lasts for the first

three years of a life and ends at the age of 6 to 7 years. This is depending on the growth of a

normal functional brain in that period.

Every kid that was born healthy with 100 milyar of brain cells and each cell can do about

20 000 connections. The amount of connection the brain cells makes is depends on the

surrounding stimulation that it receives (Diamond, 1988; Ornstein, 1984, 1986). 50% of the

learning ability will develop at the first year and 30% will develop till the age of 8 years old. In

general it can be said that, in the early ages of a child’s life, they are able to develop a learning

pathway which is important in their brain (Bloom, 1964). This theory was proven in a Swedish

school whereby kids at the age of 3 years old are able to speak 3 languages fluently (Vos &

Dryden, 1997).

Other researchers have the opinion that, critical period happens till puberty and this is the

best period to learn a second language. Until the age of 12 years old, the brain is like a sponge

whereby it can absorb everything magically. Moreover, in this period, it will form the foundation

of thinking, speaking, vision, attitude, aptitude and other characters. Once past this point the


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critical period will stop and the fundamental architecture of the brain will have been well

developed (Kotulak, 1996).

In the next section I will be talking about the detailed process of language acquisition

based on age as segregated by critical period hypothesis and how it influences the L2 and FL.

BODY

How theory can affect the acquisition of L2 and FL? What’s the process?

Children age 0-11 years old

This age is known as the critical period hypothesis whereby the acquisition of a language

happens on its own without conscious effort. In this process, a child gains a sound or word

without the fear of being wrong. According to Penfield and Roberts (1959), the maximum age to

have the effective command of the language is usually between two to eleven years. During this

period the brain is still flexible, but when it enters puberty, the elasticity will fade away. This

may occur, because of the lateralisation of language function in the left brain which is the

neurology capacity to understand and produce language, which usually involves the left and right

brain. During this period the brain is still flexible. There is flexibility in the muscles of speech

organ. Having the advantage in terms of effectiveness, at this age, children in general they have a

strong integrative motivation to learn the language and superior in psychomotor factors. At this

age children tend have weakness in morphology and syntax as they do not have much experience

speaking.

Penfield and Roberts (1959) neurologists argued that the ability to learn a language

among children is larger due to the greater plasticity of the brain of the child. Brain plasticity

reduces as the age increases (Hamied: 82). Panfield and Roberts (1959), showed evidence that


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children have the capacity to relearn language skills after an accident or illness that damages the

utterances field in the dominant cerebral hemisphere usually the left hemisphere.

Teenage age 12-18 years old

At this time a person has entered the age of puberty. Now, the performance of the brain

decreases due to the increase of age which results to the lack of elasticity in the brain. This is

reinforced by Hamied: 82, whereby the brain plasticity is reduced with the increase age. During

puberty the literazation of language functions to the dominant brain has been completed. This

results to the loss of plasticity in the brain that is needed to learn language academically.

Therefore, after puberty the language should be taught through conscious effort. However, at that

time the influence of a child's first language accents often interferes with a second language

acquisition. In general at this age, it covers the onset of puberty and at this age the mind is set to

be officially operational.

Adult age +19 years old

Most of the public believes that children are much faster than adults in second language

acquisition, especially its relationship to the achievement of the end result. Learning a second

language feels much more difficult for grownups. But there are some researches that have been

carried out on this which shows that, in some cases adult learners are more successful than

children. It is shown that, those who learn a second language as adults can still achieve a high

success rate through motivation, repetition and formal learning. The only problem that adult

learners face in acquiring a second language is their ability to be fluent with the second language

native accent as they are not able to change their own mother tongue accent. Aside from that,

they have more experience in speaking and able to work in the field of morphology and syntax.

In terms of cognitive, adults still have the ability to understand language. They have the


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advantage to be effective as they have reached an age of maturity even though they might be

weak in their psychomotor.

Supporting opinions

Jamaliah (1991) reported that Krashen (1975) have came up with a few hypothesis which

says that the learning of second language by the adults will be incomplete due to the fact that

they learn it consciously. He says that, second language learners often use two free systems to

acquire the second language. The first is, ‘acquired’ whereby the second language is acquired in

a process same as the first language especially among children and secondly is the second

language which is ‘learned’ whereby it evolves consciously in a formal setting. (Jamaliah Mohd

Ali, 1991:60)

Most researchers have the opinion that the process of learning a language will be more

difficult if the critical period is passed. After this period, learning a language will not occur

naturally but need to go through the formal process (Zulkifley Hamid, 1994)

According to Steinberg (1990), the optimum age to learn a second language changes

according to two main factors which is: 1) intellectual ability, memory and psychomotor; and 2)

type of learning environment, natural or in the classroom.

Even though learning a second language is often connected with a formal and planned

learning and the learners are usually older than the first language learners, but the scholars

believe that second language can also be mastered naturally provided they haven’t passed the

critical age. For example, a child that follows its parents to stay oversea can master the second

language by communicating with his/her friends in that environment without going through


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formal education. Due to that, it can be said that second language can be learnt naturally or by

planning it.

Language learning environment is different when it done naturally and planned.

Pertaining to that, Steinberg (1982:166) identifies five features of second language learning

environment which is planned which differentiates the natural environment; I will be mentioning

only three main features.

1) Socio- psycho pressure in classroom. Learning environment in the classroom

requires learners to adapt themselves to group studies, discipline and classroom

procedures.

2) Language data is chosen before being taught. Generally teachers unveil details of the

previously selected target language. A planned curriculum s followed and teachers

try to complete the objectives of the specific objectives of language teaching.

3) The first language might be used to explain the words of second language.

Based on the three features above it is safe to say that the acquisition of second language

will go through different growth depending on the learning method used.

Opposing opinions

There are some researchers which disagree to Lenneberg’s theory. One of it, is based on

behavioral approach that says that languages are cultured as any other actions through training

(Skinner, 1957). According to Krashen (1980), “older learners are conscious about the process of

learning a second language” and also “learners acquire through interaction with language.”

According to competence model by Hymes (1970), people become communicatively competent

to language when they are exposed to different social settings. They acquire more knowledge


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about a language as well as the accent and the culture of the L2 or FL. Therefore, this proves that

people have the chance to acquire a L2 of FL unconsciously and not necessarily learned at

formal settings.

My opinion

I believe that, acquiring a second language with better mastery is more affective among

children compared to teenagers or adults in normal circumstances. Even though social setting is

important, but the process of acquiring the L2/FL first hand is more important. There are many

factors which influences an adult when acquiring a second language which would affect their

fluency level. I shall explain step by step regarding my opinion on this issue.

On 1950, when research on second language learners was beginning, it is noticed that the

learner’s individual differences is the cause of success and failure of their ability to acquire a

second language (Hamied, 1987:81). I will limit the discussion to the other considerations that

have been better investigated with relevance. Our discussion only focuses on neurological,

cognitive, and affective considerations. (Brown, 2000:71).

Neurological consideration

As was mentioned earlier, children are able to divert their language functions to the other

side of their brain hemisphere even after a misfortune. Adults are not able to reach the fluency

level as children if they go through the same incident. This is due to the decrease of the plasticity

in the brain.

In conclusion, Penfield and Roberts draws on foreign language teaching from this

observation, namely that the time to start what might be called the age of schooling of a second


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language, according to the psychological demands of the brain, is between the ages of 4 to 10

years.

Cognitive Consideration

Critical Period Hypothesis but (HPK) which is associated with Lennberg (1967), argues

that natural learning can occur only during a critical period, roughly between the ages of 2 years

until puberty. Before the age of 2 years, learning the language is not likely to occur due to lack of

maturity in the brain. Whereas after puberty the dominant hemisphere lateralization function has

been completed, resulting in the loss of cerebral plasticity necessary for learning natural

language. Biologically speaking, after puberty, the language must be taught and learned through

conscious and hard effort, and that foreign accents dismissed easily after puberty.

Affective Consideration

Human beings have got emotions. Research and observation regarding second language

acquisition has been increasing for decades now. This observation derives from a few factors.

These are some factors that influences age and language acquisition.(Brown, 2000:64-66)

Inhibition is a feeling that makes a person stammer and be shy until they are not able to

behave normally. This feeling appears when they are in teenage years which are from the age of

13 to 17. At this time the sense of anxiety growing in them that makes them feel in need of

protection, fear, and doubts about themselves. At this time the inhibition increases due to the

trauma of physical, cognitive, and emotional changes. Teenagers definitely need a total renewal

of their physical, cognitive, and emotional. Their egos are not only influenced by how they

understand themselves but also how they achieve the things that exist outside of themselves, how

they relate to others, and how they use communication process that resulted in the development

of effectiveness.


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Guiora Alexander (1972) proposed the language ego to describe the identity of the person

who developed the language used. For those who have one language, the language ego includes

interactions in native language and ego development. According to Guiora, language ego can

explain the difficulties of learning a second language to adults. Acquiring a new language ego is

a big business not only for teenagers but also adults who have grown to feel safe and comfortable

in their identity and who have inhibition that act as a safeguard and protection for their ego.

Taking a step on a new identity is not easy, it can be successful only when a collection that

reinforces the ego to overcome inhibition. It is possible that a successful language learner is

someone who is able to bridge the gaps affectively.

Aside from that, there is the influence of attitude. A negative attitude can influence the

effectiveness in learning a second language. In school-age children begin to acquire some of the

types of attitudes and stereotypes of others. This attitude is largely taught consciously or

unconsciously by parents, adults, and friends. Learning negative attitudes towards people who

use a second language or the second language itself has been shown to affect the success of

language learning in people at school age and above. Some learners are just ignorant about

learning a second language as they are being fully comfortable with their own mother tongue.

This brings in a negative attitude in a person which affects their learning ability and achieving

the fluency of a second language.

Finally, it’s the influence of peer pressure. The pressure that children face from peers is

different from those faced by adults. Children usually have a strong compulsion to conform.

They were told that they have to be (in words, thoughts, and actions) "like the other kids", such

as the pressure from peers to language. Adults are also under pressure from peers, but in a

different form, the adults tend to be more tolerating with linguistic differences rather than the


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children, therefore errors in pronunciation are more easily forgiven. If the adults are able to

understand a second language speaker, they will be rewarded with positive cognitive and

affective, a tolerance level which may encourage some adult learners to "pass.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I would say that age plays a big role in influencing the learning and

acquisition of second language. There are lesser effecting variables in a child compared to an

adult when acquiring L2/FL. The explanations above also shows that second language can be

acquired in two ways, which is the natural way which is before the end of critical period, and the

second through planned environment which is after the end of critical period.


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Zulkifley Hamid, 1994. Pembelajaran dan Pengajaran Bahasa. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.


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Behaviorist, Skinner, Chomsky, “First language acquisition” chapter 1, p2. (review from “Verbal behaviorism) by Skinner.

Hymes, 1970.“First language acquisition” chapter 1, p.8.

critical period hypothesis

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