dare to ask: negotiating when it matters, texas enterprise speaker series, march 28, 2012
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Slides from Univ. TX Texas Enterprise Speaker Series presentation by Dr. Emily Amanatuallah on March 28, 2012 Amanatullah explores her research findings that sometimes women are less effective negotiators than men because of social feminine gender constrants. She offers suggestions for how women can change this workplace dynamicTRANSCRIPT
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Dare to Ask!
Negotiating When it Matters
Emily T. AmanatullahAssistant Professor of Management
The University of Texas at Austin, McCombs School of Business
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Gender Disparities Still Exist
Women’s advancement 14.1% Fortune 500 Corporate Officers 16.1% Fortune 500 Board seats 3.6% Fortune 500 CEO’s
Women’s financial compensation Wage gap = 76.6% 7.6% of Fortune 500 top earners were women
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Gender & Negotiations
Conflicting empirical evidence for the effect of gender on negotiations (for review, Kray & Thompson, 2005) Situational variation is important
Focus on distributive negotiations Women are less competitive than men (Walters,
Stulmacher, & Meyer, 1998)
Women agree to worse outcomes than men (Stulmacher & Walters, 1999)
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Social Constraints
Traditional gender roles Feminine = communality, caring, helpfulness
(Chapman, 1975; Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Karau, 2002) Masculine = independence, self-reliance,
assertiveness (Moore, 1984; Schein, 2001)
Gender roles as social norms (Eagly, 1987) Descriptive norms – “how women are”
Perceived average or typical behavior for the gender Expectations are anchored on the perceived average
Injunctive norms – “how women should be” Standard for gender-appropriate behavior in a situation Violators of standard are socially sanctioned Prescriptive & Proscriptive components
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Backlash Effect Managerial effectiveness (and distributive
negotiation tactics) strongly associated with masculine characteristics Independence, Assertiveness, Self-confidence, etc. Inconsistency with feminine gender roles
1: Women assumed to have less leadership potential than men
Likeable but incompetent (Eagly & Karau, 2002) Based on descriptive function of gender norms
2: Women who do demonstrate leadership are socially punished for violating gender norms
Competent but unlikeable (Eagly et al., 1992; Heilman, 2001, et al., 2004)
Based on injunctive function of gender norms
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Advocacy Advocacy Context (Bowles, Babcock & McGinn,
2005; Wade 2001) Self: Negotiating on one’s own behalf Other: Negotiating on behalf of another
Other-advocacy moderates (in)congruence of female gender role with value claiming negotiation tactics Self: Assertive tactics ≠ Female gender role
Perceived as self-interested and agentic Other: Assertive tactics = Female gender role
Women traditionally other-advocates (Wade, 2001) Women more comfortable wielding power for others (Miller,
1991)
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Your Data:Comparing Advocacy Contexts
Self-Advocacy Other-Advocacy2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
FrequencyComfortSuccess
No
t at
all
Ext
rem
ely
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Outline of Studies Effect on Outcomes
Pilot Study – Salary negotiation exercise
Psychological Mechanisms Behavior of Targets
Study 1 – Conflict resolution style preference Study 2 – Concessionary behavior during
negotiation mediated by fear of backlash Behavior of Perceivers
Study 3 – Social Backlash Study 4 – Replication of Backlash
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Pilot Study: Method 56 upper-level managers (80% male)
Simulated salary negotiation Manipulated advocacy in new hire role
New hire negotiating own salary Substitute filling in due to scheduling conflict
For control, hiring manager always male Wide zone of possible agreements from
$108K to $133K
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Pilot Study: Results
113
115
117
119
121
123
125
127
129
131
133
Self Other
Advocacy Context
Sa
lary
($
th
ou
sa
nd
s)
Male
Female
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Outline of Studies Effect on Outcomes
Pilot Study – Salary negotiation exercise
Psychological Mechanisms Behavior of Targets
Study 1 – Conflict resolution style preference Study 2 – Concessionary behavior during
negotiation mediated by fear of backlash Behavior of Perceivers
Study 3 – Social Backlash Study 4 – Replication of Backlash
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Study 1: Method 115 Executive MBAs (74% male) Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument
The innovation Focusing the questions on conflicts in which respondents
were Self- vs. Other-advocacy Distributive Index = Competing – Accommodating
Recent large-sample study found women score lower on competing than men at all organizational levels (Thomas et al. 2006) Does other-advocacy moderate this effect?
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Study 1: Results
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Advocacy Context
Dis
trib
uti
ve In
dex
Male
Female
Self Other
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Your Data:Negotiation Self-Efficacy
Distrib
utive
Self
-Effi
cacy
Inte
grat
ive S
elf-E
ffica
cy30354045505560657075
Self-AdvocacyOther-Advocacy
Co
nfi
den
ce i
n N
ego
tiat
ion
Ab
ilit
y
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Study 2: Method 59 subjects (53% male) Computerized negotiation experiment
Same counterpart for each subject Computer-simulated male counterpart Hiring manager always same male
Gender made salient with digital photos Presented counterparts with side by side photos
Dependent variable Concessionary behavior
Mediating variable Fear of anticipated backlash
2-item measure (r = .91) “How much do you think you can reasonably ask for without
causing the hiring manager… …to perceive you to be a pushy person?” …to punish you for being too demanding?”
Lower score indicates greater fear of backlash
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Study 2: ResultsAnticipated Backlash
38000
40000
42000
44000
46000
48000
50000
52000
Self Other
Advocacy Context
An
tici
pat
ed B
ackl
ash
Male
Female
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Study 2: ResultsConcessionary Behavior
38000
40000
42000
44000
46000
48000
50000
52000
Self Other
Advocacy Context
Ro
un
d 1
Co
un
tero
ffer
Male
Female
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Study 2: ResultsMediation
Gender * RoleCounteroffer
(Round 1)
AnticipatedBacklash
β = .45*Backlash only: β = .75***
Combined model: β = .66***
Gender*Role only: β = .45*
Combined model: β = .16
Note: * p < .05; *** p < .001
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Study 2: Concessionary Behavior
36000
38000
40000
42000
44000
46000
48000
50000
1 2 3 4 5
Round of Negotiation
Male - Self
Male - Other
Female - Self
Female - Other
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Outline of Studies Effect on Outcomes
Pilot Study – Salary negotiation exercise
Psychological Mechanisms Behavior of Targets
Study 1 – Conflict resolution style preference Study 2 – Concessionary behavior during
negotiation mediated by fear of backlash Behavior of Perceivers
Study 3 – Social Backlash Study 4 – Replication of Backlash
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Study 3: Method 52 MBA students Salary negotiation exercise
During class focused on value claiming tactics Students encouraged to be aggressive
No differences in salary across gender/role But did self-advocating women suffer backlash at
the cost of financial gain? Asked counterparts how
negative/positive of an impression they formed of their partner after the negotiation (scale from 1 to 7)
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Study 3: Results
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
Self Other
Advocacy Context
Imp
ress
ion
Fo
rmed
by
Co
un
terp
art
Male
Female
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Study 4: Method 226 undergraduate subjects (50% male)
2 x 2 x 2 Factorial Design Gender of Target: Male or Female Behavior of Target: Assertive or Non-assertive Advocacy Context: Self or Other
Dependent Variable Measured Social Backlash
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Study 4: Results
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5
Self Other Self Other
Assertive Non-Assertive
So
cia
l Ac
ce
pta
nc
e
Male
Female
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Gendered Attributions Double bind: Warmth vs. Competence
Likable & incompetent OR competent & unlikable
Greater nuance in injunctive norms Prescriptive
How men/women “should be” Men – “Competent” Women – “Warm”
Proscriptive How men/women “ought not be”
Men – “Weak” Women – “Dominant”
Arguably greater sanctions for these violations
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Follow-up Study: Attributions 532 students Watched video of a negotiation
Hiring manager was static Manipulated Sex, Behavior, Advocacy of Target
Measured Likelihood to backlash against target
Social backlash Leader backlash
Gendered attributions Prescriptions – positive masc/fem attributes Proscriptions – negative masc/fem attributes
(For brevity, results from Female Targets only)
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Attribution Study: Results
Assertive Non-Assertive2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
Self-AdvocateOther-Advocate
Ne
ga
tiv
e M
as
cu
lin
e A
ttri
bu
tio
ns
(Do
min
an
t/A
rro
ga
nt)
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Attribution Study: Results
Assertive Non-Assertive2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.20
3.40
3.60
Self-AdvocateOther-Advocate
Ne
ga
tiv
e F
em
inin
e A
ttri
bu
tio
ns
(We
ak
/Na
ive
)
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Negotiating for a group Us-advocacy
What is more salient? Self-interested motives – Inconsistency →
backlash present Other-interested motives – Consistency →
backlash absent
Can a woman avoid social sanctions AND reap financial value IF negotiating for a group to which she belongs?
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Us-Advocacy:Your Frequency Data - again
Self-Advocacy Other-Advocacy Us-Advocacy2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
FrequencyComfortSuccess
No
t at
all
Ext
rem
ely
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Follow-up Studies: Us-Advocacy Negotiation vignette
Financial hardships leaves annual bonuses smaller than usual
Subordinate requests larger bonus Manipulated target gender & advocacy (self vs. group)
Post-vignette questionnaire Social backlash: N = 344 (259 MBA + 85 Undergraduate)
Impression formed about target Financial backlash: N = 185 Undergraduate
Likelihood to increase bonus Likelihood to decrease bonus
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Results: Social Appraisal
2.50
2.70
2.90
3.10
3.30
3.50
3.70
3.90
Self-advocacy Us-advocacy
So
cial
Acc
epta
nce
Male
Female
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Results: No Reward Differences
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
3.4
Self-advocacy Us-advocacy
Lik
eli
ho
od
to
IN
CR
EA
SE
Bo
nu
s
Male
Female
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Results: Penalty Levied!
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
Self-advocacy Us-advocacy
Lik
elih
oo
d t
o R
ED
UC
E B
on
us
Male
Female
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Summary of Findings Self-advocating women
Fear social backlash for behaving assertively And do incur backlash when behaving assertively!
Seen as overly dominant/arrogant Others less likely to want to interact with them
Negotiate less assertively Agree to monetarily worse outcomes
Other-advocating women Do not fear social backlash for assertiveness Negotiate assertively Agree to monetarily better outcomes (for others) BUT…can incur backlash if not assertive enough!
Seen as weak/naïve/gullible Others do not want them as leaders
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Take-aways & Remedies Individual-level
Blaming vs. Empowering the Victim Framing of the negotiation
Reframe self-oriented negotiations as other-advocacy
Or as us-advocacy!
Organizational-level Implementation of compensation systems not
dependent on employee self-promotion Objective criteria Peer evaluations
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The Female Advantage Women tend to take a more co-operative
approach to negotiations than men. Share information. Take flexible positions. Seek to understand both parties’ goals: Listen!
Women are more likely than men to act as if a negotiation has win/win potential. Don’t suffer from the “mythical fixed-pie bias.” This is especially good for repeated interactions.