Definition of Learning

• Any lasting change

• in behavior or mental processes

• that results from experience.

Learning and Human Behavior

• Both behavior and cognitive learning occurs in humans.

• Human behavior more influenced by learning than instincts than other animals.

• Human learning ranges from simple to complex.

Core Concept 6-1

• Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes attached with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response.

Classical Conditioning

• Classical--a form or system considered of first significance in earlier times.

• Conditioning--to adapt or modify to conform to an environment.

Classical Conditioning

• Involves a reflexive (automatic) response

• Involves a neutral stimulus

• Involves learning an association between two stimuli

• Involves a stimulus that elicits (brings out) a reflexive response and a neutral stimulus

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

• Russian physiologist

• Studied digestion

• Won Nobel Prize

• Became interested in conditioning

Prior to conditioning

Conditioning

After conditioning

Neutral stimulus(tone)

(Orientation to soundbut no response)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder in mouth)

Unconditioned response(salivation)

Neutral stimulusCS (tone)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder)

+Conditioned response

(salivation)

Conditioned stimulus(tone)

Conditioned response(salivation)

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR)response (UCR)

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned Conditioned response (CR)response (CR)

Conditioned Conditioned stimulus (CS)stimulus (CS)

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Elicits an unconditioned response

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR)response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned Conditioned stimulus (CS)stimulus (CS)

Neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned Conditioned response (CR)response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s Dogs

• UCS-food

• UCR-salivation to food

• CS-bell

• CR-salivation to bell

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

(1)Acquisition(CS + UCS)

(3)Spontaneous Recovery(CS alone)

Res

t per

iod(2)

Extinction(CS alone)

(Time)

Trials

Str

engt

h of

the

CR

(Wea

k)(S

tron

g)

Chance Wayne

Charles M.

Claiborne (Grandtractor)

Core Concept 6-2

• In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishment, influence the chance that the behavior will occur again.

Law of Effect

• Responses that produce “desirable” effects are learned.

• Trial and error learning.

B.F. Skinner

• Radical behaviorist• Preferred the term

“reinforcer”.• Studied rats and

pigeons in a “Skinner Box”

Skinner Baby Box

Reinforcer

• Condition that occurs after a response.

• Strengthens the response it follows.

• Either presenting a positive stimulus condition or removing a negative one.

Positive Reinforcement

• Stimulus presented after a response

• Increases probability of that response occurring again.

• Roughly same as a reward.

Candy

A Smile

Money

Laughing

Grades

Recognition

Green Stamps (for my parents)

Negative Reinforcement

• Stimulus removed after a response.

• Increases probability of that response occurring again.

• Examples

Nagging

Seat Belt Buzzer

Extinction

• Response is weakened when reinforcer is removed.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Frequency of reinforcement--how often is reinforcement given.

• Timing of reinforcement--when is reinforcement give.

Continuous Reinforcement

• All correct responses are reinforced.

Intermittent Reinforcement

• Some, but not all, responses are reinforced.

Resistance to Extinction

• Intermittent reinforcement makes responses more able to resist extinction than continuous reinforcement.

• In other words, the responses persist in spite of no reinforcement.

Intermittent Schedules

• Some are based on the number of responses that must occur before reinforcement (ratio).

• Others are based on how much time has elapsed (interval).

• Some are predictable (fixed).

• Others change randomly (variable).

Fixed Ratio Schedule

• Reinforcement comes after a certain, unvarying number of responses.

• Example: piecework

Variable Ratio Schedule

• Number responses to obtain reinforcement varies.

• Example: gambling

Fixed Interval Schedule

• Reinforcement comes after a certain, fixed time period.

• Example: weekly quiz.

Variable Interval Schedule

• Time period between reinforcement varies.

• Example: fishing.

Types of Reinforcers

• Primary--reinforcers that have a innate biological basis.

• Secondary--reinforcers that acquire their power by association.

Food

Grades

Paycheck

Attention

Recognition

Water

Incentives

Air

Cash

Premack Principle

• More preferred act can be used to reinforce a less preferred act.

• “Grandma’s Principle”--eat your vegetables and you can have desert.

• Can have application to self-control development--study first and then go out.

Punishment

• Stimulus that occurs after a response that weakens that response.

• Can be negative or positive punishment.

Positive Punishment

• Application of an aversive stimulus after a response.

Negative Punishment

• Removal of an attractive stimulus after a response.

Partner Yells at You

Parents Take Teenager’s Keys

Effectiveness of Punishment

• Punishment will decrease a response.

• Difficult to use effectively.

• Side-effects occur.

Example of Effective Punishment

• Squirrels attracted to bird feeders in our yard.

• Ate all the seed and ran off the birds.

Example of Effective Punishment

• Your dog barks all the time and annoys the neighbors and you.

Problems with Punishment

• Power to suppress behavior usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed.

• Punishment triggers escape or aggression.

• Punishment inhibits other learning.

• Punishment is often applied unequally.

Guidelines for Punishment

• Punishment should:– be swift (immediate).

– be certain (consistent).

– be limited in duration and intensity (not abusive).

– clearly target the behavior.

– be limited to the situation in which the response occurred.

– not give mixed messages

– focus on negative rather than positive punishment.

Core Concept 6-3

• According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone.

Insight Learning

• Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions.

Cognitive Map

• A mental representation of physical space used to get from one place to another.

Observational Learning

• New responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior.