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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 2 Issue 9, September 2015.

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ISSN 2348 – 7968

Depositional Environments and Geochemistry Of Upper Cretaceous Carbonate Rocks Gebel Nezzazat, West Central Sinai, Egypt.

Ibrahim, A.M. P

*P, Abayazeed, S.D.P

**P. and Kamel, S.A.P

*

P

*PGeology Dept., Fac. Sciences, Al-Azhar Univ. Cairo, Egypt

P

**PNational Research Center- Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT

The present paper deals with Geology

and Geochemistry of Upper Cretaceous

rocks exposed at Gebel Nezzazat – West

Central Sinai - Egypt. The studied area lies

between Latitudes 28º 46' 38ʹʹ and 28º 49'

58ʹʹ N. and longitudes 33º 13' 18ʹʹ and 33º 29'

23ʹʹ E. approximately.

Lithic studies of Upper Cretaceous

sediments are subdivided into four rock units

from base to top: Cenomanian (Raha

Formation); Turonian (Abu Qada and Wata

Formations); Coniacian - Santonian (Matulla

Formation) and Campanian - Maastrichtian

(Sudr Formation).

Petrographic, depositional

environments and diagenetic studies of 46

carbonate samples reveal that they are

characterized by both of uniform and

cyclically alternating open and restricted

marine and evaporate environments of the

carbonate facies spectrum ( 7 - 9 ) of Bank

interior deposits) with a prevailing lime

muddy sediments.

Diagenetically, the carbonate rocks

were subjected to submarine and subaerial

environments. Chemical analyses of 36

selected samples were studied to detect the

distribution of both major and trace

elements. The physiochemical parameters of

the depositional environment during Upper

Cretaceous times indicate its shallow marine

warm conditions. INTRODUCTION

The studied area (Fig, 1) lies between Latitudes 28º 46' 38ʹʹ and 28º 49' 58ʹʹ N. and longitudes 33º 13' 18ʹʹ and 33º 29' 23ʹʹ E. approximately. Upper Cretaceous outcrops in the examined localities range from Cenomanian to Maastrichtian in age.

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

The stratigraphy of the area under investigation is established through a detailed study of Upper Cretaceous four stratigraphic sections, each represents one or more stage of the Late

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Cretaceous rocks; Cenomanian( Raha Fm.) , Turonian (Abu Qada and Wata Fms.) , Coniacian – Santonian (Matulla Fm.) and Campanian - Maastrechtian (Sudr Fm.). The total thickness of all the measured beds is 324ms (fig. 2)

To achieve this work, forty six samples were collected and thin sections were made for all

samples. Twenty selected samples were chemically analyzed in the (E.N.R.C) Labs, for SiOR2R, A1R2ROR3R, FeR2ROR3R, CaO, MgO, NaR2RO, KR2RO, PR2ROR5R SOR3R, Cl, L.O.I and soluble chlorides (ClP

-P). Trace elements

namely Ti, Mn, Ni, Ba, Cu and Sr were quantitatively estimated in ppm using the atomic absorption method.

PETROGRAPHY The microscopic study reveals depositional environments, diagenesis and diagenetic environments of Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks. In the present study, classifications proposed by Folk (1959, 1962), Dunham

(1962), and Embry and Klovan (1972) are used. The following rock types are distinguished:

5T1-Bio-Sparite (Fig. 3): This is recorded in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.), 5T with considerable proportion of allochems

Fig. (1): Geologic map of the study area (modified after Moustafa, 2004).

Study area

Fig. (2): Idealized composite columnar lithologic section of Upper Cretaceous sedimentary formations (Gebel Nezzazat area).

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(more than 10%). 5T The presence of shell fragments and fossil tests, indicate deposition under marine conditions in the middle parts of the inner neritic zone. Texturally is considered as a (grainstone)

Fig. (3): Photomicrograph shows Bio-Sparite microfacies 5T. The allochems are represented by fossil tests and shell fragments 5T. Cenomanian, Raha Fm. S. No. 15. .X. Nicols, X 500µm. 2-Micrite (Fig. 4): This is recorded in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.) and Turonian (Abu Qada and Wata Fms.). It consists mainly of microcrystalline ooze with inconsiderable proportion of allochems (less than 1 %). Texturally is considered as micrite (mudstone).

3-Bio-micrite (Fig.5): This is recorded in Cenomanian (Raha

Fm.), Turonian (Abu Qada Fm.), Coniacian-Santonian (Matulla Fm.) and Campanian –Maasterchtian (Sudr Fm.).Texturally is considered as a biomicrite (wacke to packstone) being a matrix supported limestone.

Fig. (4): Photomicrograph shows micrite

microfacies Cenomanian, Raha Fm. S.No.13. X.Nicol, X500µm.

Fig. (5): Photomicrograph shows Bio-Micrite microfacies Cenomanian, Raha Fm. S.No.33. X. Nicols, X500µm.

5T4-Sparite (Fig 6): This is recorded in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.) and Coniacian – Santonian (Matulla Fm.). Texturally is considered as a sparite (crystalline)5T. 5TIt consists mainly of 5Tcoarse grained calcite with a minor proportion of allochems (less than 1 %) 5T.

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Fig. (6): Photomicrograph shows sparite microfacies .Cenomanian Raha Fm. S.No.34. X.Nicol, X500µm. 5-Microsparite (Fig 7): This is recorded in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.); Turonian (Wata Fm.) and Campanian-Maasterchtian (Sudr Fm.).Texturally is considered as a micrite (mudstone).

Fig. (7): Photomicrograph shows Microsparite microfacies .Cenomanian, Raha Fm. S.No.17 X. Nicols, X500µm. 6-Glauco-Bio-Microsparite (Fig. 8): This is recorded in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.). Glauconite is present in an inconsiderable amount associated with microsparite denotes the prefix glauco- the name microsparite.Texturally is

considered as a biomicrite (wacke to packstone) being a matrix supported limestone.

Fig. (8):Photomicrograph shows Glauco- Bio-Microsparite microfacies. The allochems present in the form of shell fragment. Cenomanian, Raha Formation. S. No.3 X. Nicols, X500µm. 7-Argillaceous-Dolo-Sparite (Fig. 9): This is recorded in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.); Turonian (Abu Qada Fm.) and Coniacian – Santonian (Matulla Fm.). 5TMinor proportion of allochems (less than 1 %) 5T and considerable amount of dolomite. Texturally is considered as a sparite (crystalline) being a matrix supported carbonate.

Fig. (9): Photomicrograph shows Argil.-Dolo-Sparite microfacies. Cenomanian, Raha Fm. S.No.36. X.Nicol, X500µm.

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8-Pell-Oo-Sparite (Fig. 10): This is recorded in Turonian (Wata Fm.) and (Wata Fm.) with considerable proportions of allochems. 5TThe carbonate grains allochems are distinguished by the presence of non bioclastic grains in the form of pelloids and ooids. 5T Texturally is considered as sparite (grainstone).

Fig. (10): Photomicrographs shows Pell-Oo-Sparite microfacies Coniacian-Santonian Matulla Fm. S.No. 54, X. Nicols, X 500µm. 9-Pell-Bio-micrite (Fig. 11):

This is recorded in Turonian (Wata Fm.) with considerable proportion of allochems. Texturally is considered as a biomicrite (wacke to packstone) being a matrix supported carbonate.

10-Glauco-Microsparite (Fig. 12):

This is recorded in Coniacian –Santonian (Matulla Fm.) with considerable amount of glauconite. 5TGlauconitic is present in an inconsiderable amount associated with microsparite5T. Texturally is considered as a micrite (mudstone) 11- Dolo-Microsparite (Fig 14):

This is recorded in Coniacian-Santonian (Matulla Fm.), with considerable amount of dolomite. Texturally is considered as a micrite

(mudstone). The absence of micritic relics indicates that the microspar fabric may be a

Fig. (11): Photomicrograph shows Pell-Biomicrite microfacies .Turonian, Wata Fm. S.No.62. X.Nicol, X 500µm.

Fig. (12): Photomicrograph showing Glauco-Microsparite microfacies Coniacian – Santonian, Matulla Fm. S.No.75. X. Nicols, X500µm.

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Fig. (13): Photomicrograph showing Dolo- Micro-Sparite microfacies Coniacian-Santonian Matulla Fm. S.No.104 X.Nicols, X500 µm.

12-Dolo-Bio-Microsparite (Fig. 14): This is recorded in Coniacian-Santonian (Matulla Fm.). Texturally is considered as a micrite (mudstone).

Fig. (14): Photomicrograph shows Dolo-Bio-Microsparite microfacies. Coniacian- Santonian, Matulla Fm. S.No.44. X.Nicol, X500 µm. DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

The petrographic study reveals several depositional environments according to Wilson’s facies belts (1970, 1974). Upper Cretaceous carbonates are characterized by restricted and open environments of deposition (restricted and open platforms) (Table 1) of shallow water (generally a few to tens of ms. deep). Salinity varied from essentially normal marine to somewhat higher salinity. Circulation was very moderate and the prevailing rock types are generally lime-mud sediments with much dolomite. The sediment grain types and depositional texture highly varied. Most sediments consist of lime mud where sparites (crystalline) rare. micrites (mudstones) and biomicritcs (wackestones) are common. Terrigenous clastics are rare, and bioclastics are very limited mainly skeletal graines. The depositional model

applicable to the studied buildups is the knoll reef ramp model of Wilson (1975) (Fig. 15). DIAGENESIS

Petrographic examination of the studied carbonates shows that they were subjected to a number of diagenetic processes. The main processes are micritization, cementation, neomorphism, dolomitization, silicification and ferrugination. Fig.(15):Schematic depiction of knoll reef ramp model applicable to the studied Upper Cretaceous carbonates. Micritization: The margin of a shell fragment becomes completely micritized forming micrite envelope (Fig. 6 and 10). Micritization leading to the development of micrite envelopes has been documented and discussed by Winland (1971) and Bathurst (1975). Cementation: Three types of cement are recorded in the studied carbonates; Micrite cement: micrite cements are present as a minor diagenetic component in the porous facies (Fig. 4 and 5). This type of cement has been frequently reported from marine environment. Microsparite cement: are present as primary cement in the studied carbonates (Fig. 7).

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Table (1) Microfacies associations depositional patterns for Upper Cretaceous Carbonate

Cont. Table (1) Microfacies associations depositional patterns for Upper Cretaceous Carbonates.

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Sparite cement: represents aggrading neomorphic end product (Fig.6) Syntaxial overgrowth cements: are present in optical continuity with calcite cement, thus this type of cement probably represents a neomorphic end product (Fig. 3). Neomorphism: Micrites are susceptible to diagenetic alterations and occasionally replaced by coarser mosaics of micropar through aggrading neomorphism (Fig. 7). Neomorphism was found to be inversely related to intensity of aragonite dissolution (Prezbindowski 1985). In the present study, it is believed to be from meteoric water diagenesis. Dolomitaization; took place after the sediments have been deposited and cemented (epigenetic dolomitization). In the studied carbonates dolomitization is initially confined to the finer grained sediments (Fig.13) indicating marine diagenetic environment. Ferrugination: In the studied carbonates both skeletal grains and sediments are frequently impregnated by opaque iron oxides filling the pores and partially or completely replaced their calcite cement (Fig. 12 and 14). Diagenetic Environments

Diagenesis of the Upper Cretaceous carbonates occurred in submarine and subaerial environments (Fig. 16). The submarine environment refers to that area below the sediment - sea water interface (bank interior). It is evidenced by: 1- Absence of mineral alterations and formation of micrite envelope. 2- Production of peloids. 3- Pres-ence of isopachous cements fringes. 4- Dolo-mitization of micrites.

Fig.(16):Schematic representation of the two major diagenetic environment involved in diagenesis of the studied Upper Cretaceous carbonates.

The subaerial diagenesis occurred when the

sediments were expozed either as a result of vertical accretion or low stands of sea level. The subaerial environment included the vadose (above water table) and phreatic (below water table settings). Fluids involved in this may range in salinity from normal marine to fresh water. The studied carbonates subaerial diagenesis is manifested by the presence of extensive cementation neomorphism and dolomitization for sparites. Abundance and distribution of major components: Silicon Oxide:

The abundance and distribution of major oxide within Upper Cretaceous don't show any particular trend of distribution (fig. 17). Corbel (1959) proved that there is an increase in SiOR2R content towards the warmer climatic zone while Dekimpe et al. (1961) noted that with increasing pH

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there is a decrease in the silica content. Accordingly Upper Cretaceous carbonates were mostly deposited

under relatively warm alkaline conditions. However the ph. degree of alkalinity during Cenomanian

(Raha Fm.), Turonian (Wata Fm.), Coniacian – Santonian (Matulla Fm.)

and Campanian – Maasterchtian (Sudr Fm.), (Less in SiOR2R content) was higher than that prevailed during Turonian (Abu Qada Fm.) times.

Aluminum Oxide:

According to Krauskopf (1956) and Wey (1961), AlR2ROR3R is more soluble in acidic medium than SiOR2R and in neutral medium (5-6 ph.) AlR2ROR3R is insoluble whereas SiOR2R retains its solubility. In alkaline medium the two solubilities meet and increase together (pH over 9). The

consistent distribution of both AlR2ROR3R and SiOR2R favoured their contemporaneous deposition

Sodium and Potassium oxides:

The outstanding characteristics of KR2RO in

Comparison with that of NaR2RO has been noted for a long time in a way like that described by(Noll, 1931 ; Urbain, 1933; Goldschmidt, 1937; Harvey, 1949 and Millot 1949) . Milot (1949) stated that "one sees that in the course of continental weathering sodium turns out to be much more mobile than potassium and dominates the latter in natural water.

Again Millot (1970) mentioned that "if one considers the behaviour of K ions in solution, one sees that they are preferentially adsorbed by the fine-grained particles of the sediments".

Consequently the slight predominance of KR2RO contents over NaR2RO contents in Turonian (Abu Qada Fm.) and Coniacian – Santonian (Matulla Fm.) carbonates could be understood. The slight predominance of NaR2RO content over KR2RO content in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.), Turonian (Wata Fm.), and Campanian – Maasterchtian (Sudr Fm.) carbonates can be attributed to either type of clays present, where according to Garrels and Christ (1965) and Weaver (1967), the K/Na ratio is very important, where low ratio favours the formation of montmorillonite materials and high ratio leads to the formation of illite. It seems that clays in the form of illite predominate over montmorillonite clays in Turonian (Abu Qada Fm.) and Coniacian –

Santonian (Matulla Fm.) limestone while in Cenomanian (Raha Fm.), Turonian (Wata Fm.) and Campanian – Maasterchtian (Sudr Fm.) carbonates montmorillonite predominate over illite. and Campanian – Maasterchtian (Sudr Fm.) carbonates montmorillonite predominate over illite. Iron oxides:

The distribution of ferric oxide in Upper Cretaceous carbonates shows to a great extent consistent distribution with those of both SiOR2R and AlR2ROR3R suggesting the presence of FeR2ROR3R connected with silt or clay fractions in agreement with Martens (1939). Millot (1970) stated that "during diagenesis iron has a great tendency to re-enter silicate structure and this silication of the iron oxides results in the formation of glauconite in marine deposits. The variation in FeR2ROR3 Rconcentration among Upper Cretaceous limestones can be attributed to variation in the environment of deposition.

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Table (2): Chemical composition (Major components in wt. %) of Upper Cretaceous carbonates.

Table (3): Average Chemical composition (Major components in wt. %) of Upper Cretaceous carbonates.

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22TCalcium Oxide: 21T22T The distribution of CaO in Upper Cretaceous limestones 21T22Treveals 21T22T that there's no particular trend for distribution with time. However Trask (1939) mentioned that" the higher the salinity, the greater the content of CaCO R3 R, this relationship is connected with higher temperature and greater organic production". In addition, Kukal (1971) stated that" the content of natural salts and increase in temperature decrease the CaCO R3 R

21TSolubility and also the increased content of Ca P

2+P ions from other sources cause the

decreased solubility of CaCO R3 R" the solubility of CaCO R3 R or the amounts of the argillaceous materials derived to the site of deposition were un-considerable, leading to the relative increase in the CaCO R3 R at the expense of SiO R2 R and Al R2 RO R3 Rcontents. 21T.

21T Nevertheless the higher CaCO R3 R content at both Turonian (Abu Qada and Wata Fms.) limestones seems to be due to the fact that the depth of water during deposition of Turonian (Abu Qada and Wata Fms.) 21T22T Limestones, was 21T22T not deep enough to cause a great variation in 21T22Ttemperature 21T22Tand to increase 21Tthe solubility of CaCO R3 R or the amounts of the argillaceous materials derived to the site of deposition were un-considerable, leading to the relative increase in the CaCO R3 R at the expense of SiO R2 R and Al R2 RO R3 Rcontents.

Fig. (17): Distribution curves of chemical components (Major oxides in wt. %) of Upper Cretaceous carbonates.

21TMagnesium oxide: The distribution of MgO in Upper

Cretaceous Limestones reveals that there is no particular trend for distribution. This can be attributed to variations in the ecological and Paleontological parameters of the environments under which the studied limestones were deposited.

21TPhosphate: 21TThe average P R2 RO R5 R content detected in Upper Cretaceous limestones are more than the average given by Turekian and Wedepohl (0.04 %) (1961).The higher P R2 RO R5 R content detected in the studied Upper Cretaceous limestones indicates reduced ,slightly alkaline medium in agreement with (Kukal, 1971).

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21TTotal Sulphate: 21TThe distribution of 21TSOP

3-P 21T in Upper

Cretaceous limestones reveals that the detected 21TSOP

3-P 21Taverages are higher than the

average given by Turekian and Wedepohl (1961) ( 21TSOP

3-P 21T=0.48 %) indicating that

limestones were deposited under relatively shallower conditions.

22TSoluble chlorides: 21T The soluble chlorides contents of Upper Cretaceous limestones are relatively higher than that given by (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961) 21T22T(0.015%), 21T22Tindicating the prevailance of warm climate as well as relatively shallow occasionally restricted medium 21T22T.

21TAbundance and distribution of trace elements: 22TTitanium:

21TThe highest average titanium content(Table 4 and 5 and Figure 18) recorded in the studied Upper Cretaceous limestones than that given by Turekian and Wedepohl (1961) (400 ppm) can be attributed to the different rates of sedimentation (Arrhenius, 1954) and to the amounts of terrigenous materials brought to the site deposition (Isayeva, 1977). It seems that Upper Cretaceous limestones were deposited under alkaline conditions that permit Ti to be concentrated.

Table (4) Chemical composition (Trace components in ppm) of Upper Cretaceous limestones.

Tabl

e (5

): Av

erag

e ch

emic

al c

ompo

sitio

n (T

race

ele

men

ts in

ppm

) of U

pper

C

reta

ceou

s car

bona

tes

N

.B: A

.C: T

race

ele

men

ts a

vera

ge c

once

ntra

tion

(afte

r Tur

ekia

n an

d W

edep

ohl (

1961

). 296



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Fig. (18): Distribution curves of chemical components (Trace elements in P.P.M) of Upper Cretaceous limestones. 21TManganese: The averages of manganese content detected in Upper Cretaceous limestones show that it is present in subordinate concentrations in comparison with that given by Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961, (1100 ppm). The subordinate manganese concen-tration can be attributed to the fact that manganese is less mobile under oxidizing conditions and it will be mobilized in a reducing environment and precipitated as divalent ion in carbonates (Manheim, 1961; Wedepohl, 1964 and Hartmann, 1964). Nickel:

The average of nickel content in Upper Cretaceous limestones shows higher values in comparison with that given by Turekian and Wedepohl (1961) 20 ppm, suggesting mostly a reduced medium. According to 21TNicholis (1967) 21T, it could be suggested that Upper Cretaceous limestones were formed under water shallower than 250 meters, since the nickel value are less than (150 ppm).

21TCopper:

21TThe averages of copper content of Upper Cretaceous limestones show the presence of abnormal values if compared with that given by Turekian and Wedepohl (1961) (4 ppm).

21TThe abnormal detected Copper mostly reflects a reducing environment causing precipitation and fixation of Copper where biochemical processes take place. According Nicholis (1967) since the Copper values are lesser than 90 ppm, it could be suggested that Upper Cretaceous carbonates in the study area were formed under waters shallower than 250 meters.

21T Strontium:

21TPilkey and Godell (1963) recorded that differences in salinity cause greater changes in shell composition than differences in temperature. Accordingly the lower strontium content in the studied carbonates than the average given 21Tby Turekian and Wedepohl, (1961) (610ppm) 21T suggests that the salinity and tempe-rature of the environment was normal saline and to certain extent mildly temperature.

Environmental Physiochemical Conditions:

The Ca/Mg ratio of the Upper Cretaceous (Fig. 19) indicates that the ratio extremely decrease from Cenomanian (Raha Fm.) towards Campanian-Maasterchtian (Sudr Fm.). The high ratio values can be attributed to the very low MgO cone. In comparison with CaO concentration, the low values of Ca/Mg ratio of the Upper Cretaceous Formations,

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relatively rich with Mg, reflect prevalence of warm marine conditions.

The Upper Cretaceous carbonates contain normal soluble chlorides relative to that given by Turekian and Wedepohl (1961) 150 ppm, favoring that the medium of deposition was normally saline.

21TFig. (19): Average Ca / Mg ratio for the studied Upper Cretaceous limestones. CONCLUSIONS

1- From petrographical study the follow-ing rock types are distinguished: 5T Biosparite, Micrite, Biomicrite, Sparite, Fossiliferous-Microsparite, Microsparite, Glauco-Bio-Microsparite, Dolo-Sparite, Pell-Oo-Sparite, Pell-Bio-Micrite, Glauco-Microsparite5T, Dolo-Microsparite and Dolo-Bio-Microsparite. 2- The Upper Cretaceous buildups consist of widespread bank interior facies whereas most of the sediments at the bank interior deposits vary from sparites (grainstones) to micrite (mudstones) and characterized by cyclic deposition of lagoonal and tidal sediments. 3- The main diagenetic processes are: Micritization, cementation, neomorphism, dolomitization, and ferrugination. 4- Diagenesis of Upper Cretaceous carbonates occurred in submarine and subaerial environments. The submarine environment is evidenced by: Absence of mineral alterations and formation of micrite envelope, production of peloids, presence of

isopachous cement of fringes and dolomitization of micrites. The studied carbonates subaerial diagenesis is mainfested by the presence of extensive cementation, neomorphisrn and dolomitization for sparite. 5- The distribution of major and trace elements reveals that the studied carbonates were deposited under reducing and shallow environments where warm marine conditions prevailed.

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Arrhenius G. (1954): Origin and accumulation of alumo-silicates in the ocean. Tellus, Stockholm, v. 3, p. 215-220. Bathurst, R.G.C. (1975): Carbonate sediments and their diagenesis. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 658 p. Corbel J. (1959): Vitesse de 1'erosion. Zeitschr.f. Geomorphologie, N.F., Bd. 3, p. 1-28, Gottingen. Dekimpe, C.R. Gastuche, M.C. and Brindley, G.W. (1961): Ionic coordination in alumina-silicic gels in relation to clay mineral formation. Am. Mineral., v.460, "p-1370-1381. Dunham, R.J. (1962): Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture. In: classification of carbonate rocks (Ed. by W.E. Ham) Mem. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol., V.1, Tulsa., p. 108 -121. Embry, A.F., Klovan, J.E. (1972): A late Devonian reef tract on northeastern Banks Island, Northwest territories. Con. Petrol. Geology Bull, 19P-730-781. Folk, R.L. (1959): Practical petrographic classifi-cation of limestone Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. v. A3, p.1-38. Folk, R.L. (1962): Spectral subdivision of limestone types In. classification of carbonate rocks (Ed. by W.E. Ham.) Mem. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. v.l, p. 62-84. Goldschmidt, V.M. (1937): Les Principes de la repartition de elements chimiques dans les minoraux et les roches. Jour. chem. Soc., p. 655. Hartmann, M. (1964): Zur Geochemie von Mangan und Eisen in der Ostsee. Meyniana 14, 3. Harvey, H.W. (1949): Chimie et biologie de 1'eau de mer. Paris Univ. Paris.p.469.

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Isayeva, B.A. (1977): Relation between titanium and iron in the sediments of the Indian Ocean. Geokhimiya, no.3, p. 310-317. Krauskopf, K.B. (1956): Dissolution and precipitation of silica at low temperature. Geochim. Cosmochim, Acta, 10, p. 1-27. Kukal, Z. (1971): Geology recent sediments Academic press London New York, 490 p. Manheim, F. (1961): A geochemical profile in the Baltic Sea Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 25, 52. Martens J.H.C. (1939): Beaches. Recent marine sediments Tulsa, p. 207-218. Millot T.G. (1970): Geology of clays.Keathering, sedimentology Geochemistry. C.R. Acad. Sci. Fr., Chapman Hall, London, 429 p. Millot, G. (1949): Relations entre la constitution et la genese des roches sedimentaires argileuses. Those Sci. Nancy et Geol. Appl. Prospec. Min., 2, nos.2, 3, 4, p. 1-352. Moustafa, A. R. (2004): Explanatory Notes for the Geologic Maps of the Eastern Side of the Suez Rift (Western Sinai Peninsula), Egypt. Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt. p. 1- 34. Nicholis C.D. (1967): Trace elements in sediments: an assessment of their possible utility as depth indicators. Marine Geology Amsterdam v. 5, p. 539-555. Noll, W. (1931): ϋber die geochemische Rolle der sorption chem. d. Erde.V.6, p. 352. Pilkey, O.H., and Goodell.H.G. (1963): Trace elements in recent and fossil mollusk shells. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol.Geol. Abst., Tulsa v. 47, p. 366. Prezbindowski, D.R. (1985): Burial cementation is it important? A case study, Stuart City Trend, South - Central Taxas. In: N. Schneidermann and P.M.

Harris (Eds.), carbonate cement. SEPM Spec. Pub. No. 36, p. 241-264. Trask P.D. (1939): Organic content of recent marine sediments in Tucker, M.E. (1981): Sedimentary petrology. An introduction Geoscience Tests. England p. 252. Turekian, K.K. and Wedepohl, K.h. (1961): Distribution of elements in some major units of earth's crust, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull.V. 72, p. 175-192. Urbain, P. (1933): Les sciences geologiques et la motion d'etat colloidal. Act. Sci. Indust., 69, Paris. Wedepohl, K.H. (1964): Unters uchungen am kupferschiefer in Nordwestdevtschland; ein Beitrag zur Deutung der Genese bitumiooser sedimente. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 28.305. Wey, R., et Siffert, B. (1961): Reactions de la silica monoraoleculaire en solution avec les ions AlR2ROR3R et MgR2RO Genese et synthese des argiles. Coll. Intern. C.N. R.S., V.05, p. 11-23. Wilson, J.L. (1974): Characteristics of carbonate platform margins. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geologists Bull, V. 53 P.810-824. Wilson, J.L. (1970): Depositional facies across carbonate shelf margins. Trans. Gulf Coast Ass. Geol. Soc., V.20, P. 229-233. Wilson, J.L. (1975): Carbonate Facies in Geologic History Springer-Verlag-Berlin., 171 p. Winland, H.D. (1971): Diagenesis of carbonate grains in marine and meteoric - waters: Brown Univ., Rhode Island, 320 p.

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