development of self and social cognition chapter 12

Development of Self and Development of Self and Social CognitionSocial Cognition

Chapter 12Chapter 12

Social CognitionSocial Cognition

Parallels Between Social and Parallels Between Social and Nonsocial Cognition (Flavell)Nonsocial Cognition (Flavell)– surface appearances surface appearances underlying underlying

realitiesrealities– salient characteristicssalient characteristics

Differences in Social and Nonsocial Differences in Social and Nonsocial CognitionCognition– Which is easier?Which is easier?– Physical forces…Physical forces…

What develops faster…social or What develops faster…social or nonsocial cognition?nonsocial cognition?

Knowledge of SelfKnowledge of Self

Develops in social contextDevelops in social context Separate and different before Separate and different before

understanding selfunderstanding self Two aspects of selfTwo aspects of self

– The knower (“I”)/self as subjectThe knower (“I”)/self as subject– Perceived self/object (“Me”)/categorical Perceived self/object (“Me”)/categorical

selfself Self-recognitionSelf-recognition

– Visual recognition taskVisual recognition task

18 months18 months


Lewis & Brooks-GunnLewis & Brooks-Gunn– Photographs of self and other childrenPhotographs of self and other children– Live videotape of selfLive videotape of self– Prerecorded videotape of selfPrerecorded videotape of self– Videotape of another childVideotape of another child


Lewis & Brooks-Gunn Results:Lewis & Brooks-Gunn Results:– By 9 months, contingency cuesBy 9 months, contingency cues– Later Later featural cues featural cues– By 2 years, contingent and By 2 years, contingent and

noncontingent situationsnoncontingent situations


Lewis & Brooks-Gunn (1979) believe Lewis & Brooks-Gunn (1979) believe that “it is the ability to recognize and that “it is the ability to recognize and respond to [the] self respond to [the] self independentindependent of of contingency which represents the contingency which represents the important developmental milestone important developmental milestone in self-recognition” (p. 218).in self-recognition” (p. 218).

Self-ConceptSelf-Concept

A summary of personal characteristics A summary of personal characteristics (abilities, attitudes, attributes, values) (abilities, attitudes, attributes, values) that an individual believes defines who that an individual believes defines who s/he iss/he is

Preschoolers Preschoolers concrete characteristics concrete characteristics Between 8-11 Between 8-11 shift to psychological shift to psychological

qualitiesqualities Adolescence Adolescence qualify characteristics; qualify characteristics;

also emphasize social virtuesalso emphasize social virtues


9 y/o: My name is Bruce. I have 9 y/o: My name is Bruce. I have brown eyes. I have brown hair. I brown eyes. I have brown hair. I love sports. I have seven people in love sports. I have seven people in my family. I have great eyesight. I my family. I have great eyesight. I have lots of friends…I have an uncle have lots of friends…I have an uncle who is almost 7 feet tall.who is almost 7 feet tall.


11 ½ y/o: My name is A. I’m a human 11 ½ y/o: My name is A. I’m a human being…a girl…a truthful person. I’m being…a girl…a truthful person. I’m not pretty. I do so-so in my studies. not pretty. I do so-so in my studies. I’m a very good cellist. I’m a little tall I’m a very good cellist. I’m a little tall for my age. I like several boys…I’m for my age. I like several boys…I’m old fashioned. I am a very good old fashioned. I am a very good swimmer…I try to be helpful…Mostly swimmer…I try to be helpful…Mostly I’m good, but I lose my temper. I’m I’m good, but I lose my temper. I’m not well liked by some girls and boys. not well liked by some girls and boys. I don’t know if boys like me…I don’t know if boys like me…


17 y/o: I am a human being…a girl…an 17 y/o: I am a human being…a girl…an individual…I am a Pisces. I am a individual…I am a Pisces. I am a moody person…an indecisive person…moody person…an indecisive person…an ambitious person. I am a big curious an ambitious person. I am a big curious person…I am lonely. I am an American person…I am lonely. I am an American (God help me). I am a Democrat. I am (God help me). I am a Democrat. I am a liberal person. I am a radical. I am a liberal person. I am a radical. I am conservative. I am pseudoliberal. I am conservative. I am pseudoliberal. I am an Atheist. I am not a classifiable an Atheist. I am not a classifiable person (that is, I don’t want to be).person (that is, I don’t want to be).


Montemayor & Eisen Montemayor & Eisen adolescents adolescents incorporate many types of incorporate many types of descriptors; more complex descriptors; more complex

Are young children unaware of their Are young children unaware of their psychological characteristics or do psychological characteristics or do they simply not have the appropriate they simply not have the appropriate vocabulary?vocabulary?


If children are unaware, is it because If children are unaware, is it because they’re cognitively incapable of they’re cognitively incapable of grasping these abstract qualities or is grasping these abstract qualities or is it because adults tend not to actively it because adults tend not to actively reflect back their impressions of reflect back their impressions of children in these terms?children in these terms?


Effect of number of answers requested?Effect of number of answers requested? Eder (1990) used a forced-choice Eder (1990) used a forced-choice

recognition taskrecognition task– 180 children, ages 3 ½ to 7180 children, ages 3 ½ to 7– Presented with 50 pairs of statements:Presented with 50 pairs of statements:

““I mostly do things that are hard.” vs. “I mostly I mostly do things that are hard.” vs. “I mostly do things that are easy.” (Achievement)do things that are easy.” (Achievement)

““When I get angry, I feel like hitting someone.” When I get angry, I feel like hitting someone.” vs. “When I get angry, I feel like being quiet.” vs. “When I get angry, I feel like being quiet.” (Aggression)(Aggression)


Eder (1990) con’tEder (1990) con’t– Responses were internally consistent at Responses were internally consistent at

every ageevery age– Self-conceptions were moderately stable Self-conceptions were moderately stable

over 1 monthover 1 month

• Figure 12.2 Average number of inconsistent attributes reported by 13-, 15-, and 17-year-olds (panel A) and the percentages of 13-, 15-, and 17-year-olds who said they were confused or “mixed up” by these inconsistencies in their self-portraits (panel B). ADAPTED FROM HARTER & MONSOUR, 1992.

• Figure 12.3 Average percentages of personal/individualistic and social/relational attributes listed as core dimensions of the self-concept by American and Japanese students who responded to a “Who Am I?” questionnaire. ADAPTED FROM COUSINS, 1989.

Attributions and Self-Attributions and Self-ConceptConcept

Grusec & RedlerGrusec & Redler– 7-8 y/o played bowling game7-8 y/o played bowling game– Scored points = won marblesScored points = won marbles– Marbles could be exchanged for toysMarbles could be exchanged for toys– More marbles = better toysMore marbles = better toys– Could donate marble to charityCould donate marble to charity


ConditionsConditions– attribution: “I guess you’re the kind of attribution: “I guess you’re the kind of

person who likes to help others person who likes to help others whenever you can. Yes, you are a very whenever you can. Yes, you are a very nice and helpful person”nice and helpful person”

– reinforcement: “It was good that you reinforcement: “It was good that you gave some marbles to those poor gave some marbles to those poor children. Yes, that was a nice and children. Yes, that was a nice and helpful thing to do”helpful thing to do”

– control: no statementcontrol: no statement


ResultsResults– marble donation: attribution & marble donation: attribution &

reinforcement donated more than reinforcement donated more than controlcontrol

– pencils: attribution more than others, pencils: attribution more than others, no difference between reinforcement no difference between reinforcement and controland control

– cards: same as pencilscards: same as pencils– drawings & craft materials: samedrawings & craft materials: same

Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem

Judgments we make about our own worth Judgments we make about our own worth as well as the feelings that are associated as well as the feelings that are associated with those judgmentswith those judgments

Combination of separate self-evaluations Combination of separate self-evaluations into a general appraisal of ourselvesinto a general appraisal of ourselves

““A person with high self-esteem is A person with high self-esteem is fundamentally satisfied with the type of fundamentally satisfied with the type of person he is, yet he may acknowledge his person he is, yet he may acknowledge his faults while hoping to overcome them” faults while hoping to overcome them” (Rosenberg, 1979, p. 31).(Rosenberg, 1979, p. 31).

Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem Once believed that self-esteem/worth Once believed that self-esteem/worth

wasn’t apparent until school-agewasn’t apparent until school-age Recent research suggests that preschool Recent research suggests that preschool

children display self-esteem/worth children display self-esteem/worth behaviorallybehaviorally– High self-worth = confidence, curiosity, High self-worth = confidence, curiosity,

initiative, independence, can tolerate initiative, independence, can tolerate change/stresschange/stress

– Low self-worth = low confidence, low curiosity, Low self-worth = low confidence, low curiosity, low initiative, low independence, difficulty low initiative, low independence, difficulty reacting to change/stressreacting to change/stress

Models of Self-EsteemModels of Self-Esteem

James James – weighting of competenciesweighting of competencies– Self-esteem = competencies/”pretensions”Self-esteem = competencies/”pretensions”

CooleyCooley– ““Looking glass self”Looking glass self”– Others are the social mirror into which one Others are the social mirror into which one

gazes for information that defines the selfgazes for information that defines the self Who is correct?Who is correct?


Harter measured perceptions of Harter measured perceptions of competence and then asked children how competence and then asked children how important success in each domain wasimportant success in each domain was

A discrepancy score (competence minus A discrepancy score (competence minus importance) was averaged across importance) was averaged across domains child considered importantdomains child considered important

Bigger discrepancy score in negative Bigger discrepancy score in negative direction direction lower self-esteem should be lower self-esteem should be


High self-esteem/worth should be High self-esteem/worth should be associated with scores close to zero, associated with scores close to zero, indicating that one’s perceived indicating that one’s perceived competence is similar to importancecompetence is similar to importance

Correlations between Correlations between competence/importance discrepancy competence/importance discrepancy scores and self-worth ranged from scores and self-worth ranged from -.72 to -.55 across children between -.72 to -.55 across children between 8-158-15


Others’ opinions toward self = degree to Others’ opinions toward self = degree to which children felt that others which children felt that others acknowledged their worth as a personacknowledged their worth as a person

Items addressed extent to which children Items addressed extent to which children felt others treated them like a person who felt others treated them like a person who matters, felt they were important, listened matters, felt they were important, listened to what they had to say…to what they had to say…

Correlations between overall positive Correlations between overall positive regard and self-worth ranged from .50 regard and self-worth ranged from .50 to .56to .56

Influences on Self-EsteemInfluences on Self-Esteem

CultureCulture– Social comparison plays strong role in Social comparison plays strong role in

American cultureAmerican culture– Collectivist culture emphasizes humility Collectivist culture emphasizes humility

and self-effacement; derive self-worth and self-effacement; derive self-worth from contributing to the welfare of the from contributing to the welfare of the groups to which they belonggroups to which they belong


Child-Rearing PracticesChild-Rearing Practices– Warm, responsive parenting, reasonable Warm, responsive parenting, reasonable

expectations for behavior expectations for behavior higher self- higher self-esteemesteem

– Highly coercive parenting, Highly coercive parenting, communication of inadequacy communication of inadequacy lower lower self-esteemself-esteem

– Overly tolerant, indulgent parenting Overly tolerant, indulgent parenting false sense of high self-esteemfalse sense of high self-esteem


PeersPeers– use of social comparison as early as 4-use of social comparison as early as 4-

55– adolescenceadolescence

Components of Self-EsteemComponents of Self-Esteem

Before age 7, children distinguish Before age 7, children distinguish how well others like them (how well others like them (social social acceptanceacceptance) from how “good” they ) from how “good” they are at doing things (are at doing things (competencecompetence))

Above 7-8, self-esteems = Above 7-8, self-esteems = academic, academic, physical, socialphysical, social

Inaccurately high self-perceptions of Inaccurately high self-perceptions of competencecompetence– Based on wishes/desiresBased on wishes/desires

Illusion of IncompetenceIllusion of Incompetence

Hold low expectations for success, Hold low expectations for success, evidence less persistence, more feelings evidence less persistence, more feelings of anxiety, feel that important adults of anxiety, feel that important adults hold equally low perceptions of their hold equally low perceptions of their abilitiesabilities

Mothers/fathers of highly competent Mothers/fathers of highly competent children with low perceived competence children with low perceived competence have lower perceptions of their have lower perceptions of their children’s abilities; do not have equally children’s abilities; do not have equally low expectations for achievementlow expectations for achievement

Components of Self-EsteemComponents of Self-Esteem

Adolescence Adolescence interpersonal interpersonal relationshipsrelationships

Relational self-worthRelational self-worth = feelings of = feelings of self-esteem within a particular self-esteem within a particular relationship contextrelationship context

Changes in Self-EsteemChanges in Self-Esteem

Decline into middle and high schoolDecline into middle and high school Multiple stressors contributeMultiple stressors contribute Overall stability lowest in childhood Overall stability lowest in childhood

and early adolescenceand early adolescence Relatively stable in late adolescence Relatively stable in late adolescence

and early adulthoodand early adulthood

Gender Differences in Self-Gender Differences in Self-EsteemEsteem

emerge by early adolescenceemerge by early adolescence

girls girls lower self-esteem lower self-esteem

IdentityIdentity

firm and coherent sense of who one firm and coherent sense of who one is, where one is heading, and where is, where one is heading, and where one fits into societyone fits into society

IdentityIdentity

MarciaMarcia– Identity diffusionIdentity diffusion– ForeclosureForeclosure– MoratoriumMoratorium– Identity achievementIdentity achievement

• Figure 12.8 Percentages of participants in each of Marcia’s four identity statuses as a function of age. Note that resolution of the identity crisis occurs much later than Erickson assumed: Only 4 percent of the 15-year-olds and 20 percent of the 18-year-olds had achieved a stable identity. FROM MEILMAN, 1979.

Marie is a 14-year-old who, when asked Marie is a 14-year-old who, when asked what she wants to do when she graduates what she wants to do when she graduates from high school, replies, “Maybe I will get from high school, replies, “Maybe I will get married and have some children, or married and have some children, or maybe I will be a neurosurgeon, or a maybe I will be a neurosurgeon, or a fashion designer. I’m going to take fashion designer. I’m going to take anatomy and physiology next year to see anatomy and physiology next year to see if I’d like to be a physician and I’m taking if I’d like to be a physician and I’m taking home economics to see if I enjoy home economics to see if I enjoy designing clothes and working at home.”designing clothes and working at home.”

Seventeen-year-old Suzanne is Seventeen-year-old Suzanne is questioning the tenets of the religion in questioning the tenets of the religion in which she was brought up. For the first which she was brought up. For the first time, she is examining her beliefs and time, she is examining her beliefs and considering other belief systems. At the considering other belief systems. At the end of the period, she chooses to follow end of the period, she chooses to follow the same religion as her parents.the same religion as her parents.

Lorraine is 16 years old and, when asked Lorraine is 16 years old and, when asked what she wants to do when she graduates what she wants to do when she graduates from high school, replies, “I never really from high school, replies, “I never really thought about it. I guess I will decide thought about it. I guess I will decide when the time comes.”when the time comes.”

After Bill graduates from high school, he After Bill graduates from high school, he plans to go into his father’s business. He plans to go into his father’s business. He has been talking this over with his parents has been talking this over with his parents since he was a young boy and is eager to since he was a young boy and is eager to fulfill his parents’ expectations.fulfill his parents’ expectations.

Michael was asked to debate issues Michael was asked to debate issues concerning premarital sex in his health concerning premarital sex in his health class. His parents always taught him that class. His parents always taught him that premarital sex was wrong and that they premarital sex was wrong and that they would be disappointed if they discovered would be disappointed if they discovered he had participated. After thoroughly he had participated. After thoroughly investigating the consequences of investigating the consequences of premarital sex, Michael came out against premarital sex, Michael came out against it.it.

Influences on Identity Influences on Identity FormationFormation

Cognitive Influences – formal-Cognitive Influences – formal-operational thought helps imaging operational thought helps imaging and contemplate future identitiesand contemplate future identities

Parenting Influences Parenting Influences – Being neglected/rejectedBeing neglected/rejected– Too controllingToo controlling– Affection, mutual respectAffection, mutual respect

Scholastic InfluencesScholastic Influences Social-Cultural InfluencesSocial-Cultural Influences

Knowledge of OtherKnowledge of Other

Children < 8Children < 8 Procedure involves asking children to Procedure involves asking children to

give oral or written responses to give oral or written responses to instructions such as: “I want you to instructions such as: “I want you to describe what sort of person Sally describe what sort of person Sally is…”is…”

Studies using this methodology find Studies using this methodology find that the use of dispositional that the use of dispositional attributions increases with ageattributions increases with age


Heller & BerndtHeller & Berndt– Kindergarten, third, and sixth grade Kindergarten, third, and sixth grade

children, plus college studentschildren, plus college students– Information about an actor:Information about an actor:

““generous actor” = actor shared part of generous actor” = actor shared part of his/her lunch with other childrenhis/her lunch with other children

““selfish actor” = refused to share lunchselfish actor” = refused to share lunch Control = given information about age/sex Control = given information about age/sex

of child, but told nothing about behaviorof child, but told nothing about behavior


Heller & Berndt (con’t)Heller & Berndt (con’t)– Asked to rate actor on 10 traits: share, Asked to rate actor on 10 traits: share,

selfish, help, nice, naughty, lie, tease, selfish, help, nice, naughty, lie, tease, smart, and two fillerssmart, and two fillers

– Children’s responses were similar to Children’s responses were similar to each other and to college students’ each other and to college students’ responsesresponses

Holly is an 8-year-old girl who likes to climb Holly is an 8-year-old girl who likes to climb trees. She is the best tree climber in the trees. She is the best tree climber in the neighborhood. One day while climbing down neighborhood. One day while climbing down from a tall tree, she falls…but does not hurt from a tall tree, she falls…but does not hurt herself. Her father sees her fall. He is upset herself. Her father sees her fall. He is upset and asks her to promise not to climb trees and asks her to promise not to climb trees any more. Holly promises. Later that day, any more. Holly promises. Later that day, Holly and her friends meet Shawn. Shawn’s Holly and her friends meet Shawn. Shawn’s kitten is caught in a tree and can’t get down. kitten is caught in a tree and can’t get down. Something has to be done right away or the Something has to be done right away or the kitten may fall. Holly is the only one who kitten may fall. Holly is the only one who climbs trees well enough to reach the kitten climbs trees well enough to reach the kitten and get it down but she remembers her and get it down but she remembers her promise to her father.promise to her father.

Knowledge of OthersKnowledge of Others

Role-taking and thinking about Role-taking and thinking about relationshipsrelationships– Preschool – any positive interaction Preschool – any positive interaction

equals a friendshipequals a friendship– 6-8 years – common activities and one-6-8 years – common activities and one-

way friendshipsway friendships– 8-10 – reciprocal friendships8-10 – reciprocal friendships– Adolescence – exchange of intimate Adolescence – exchange of intimate

thoughts or feelingsthoughts or feelings

development of self and social cognition chapter 12

Documents

aspects of self

development of self

social cognition parallels

social cognition chapter

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social context separate

social virtues adolescence