DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 432 893 EF 005 575

AUTHOR Billmore, Brian; Brooke, John; Booth, Rupert; Funnell,Keith; Bubb, Michael

TITLE The Outdoor Classroom: Educational Use, Landscape Design, &Management of School Grounds. Second Edition. BuildingBulletin 71.

INSTITUTION Department for Education and Employment, London (England).ISBN ISBN-0-11-271061-1PUB DATE 1999-00-00NOTE 88p.; Funding also provided by the Countryside Commission

and a consortium of 11 Local Authorities.AVAILABLE FROM Publications Centre, P.O. Box 276, London SW8 5DT, England,

United Kingdom; Tel: 0870-600-5522; Fax: 0870-600-5533(22.95 British pounds).

PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom (055) -- Reports Descriptive (141)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Budgeting; *Educational Facilities Improvement; Elementary

Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; *Outdoor Education;Planning

IDENTIFIERS England; *Landscape Architecture; *Learning Environment

ABSTRACTThe Department for Education and Employment has produced

this updated bulletin on school grounds development, highlighting thepotential of these grounds as a valuable resource that can support and enrichthe whole curriculum and the education of all pupils. The educational use ofschool grounds has positive affects on student attitudes towards theirenvironment and can help pupils be better informed, responsible, andenterprising. Varied and flexible landscaping is important to afford manyopportunities for learning by a diverse student body. Achievement of thesegoals requires communication and commitment of teachers, pupils, educationaladvisers, and landscape specialists. For new school sites, the landscapedeserves as much attention as the building, and its financial allocationshould be adequate enough to be viewed as an external works budget withsufficient allowance for aftercare. Improving existing grounds should involvepupils and teachers at the earliest stages, allowing for long-term changes inthe grounds in successive years. Finally, grounds management and maintenanceguidelines should determine the type and pattern of maintenance with supportof landscape staff. Appendices include a suggested landscape surveychecklist, a list of possible site features, a landscape brief for a newschool, a management policy statement of objectives, publications relating toeach section for further reading, and useful organizations. (GR)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EED CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it

Minor changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality

° Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy 1

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS

BEEN GRANTED BY

J. Birch

r-.(

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Id

BUILDING'BULLETIN,71 a'11P)

wational v 9 Lanmama nient ©f scho

scape design&1 grounds Department ?or

Eddeation and amplayrnent,

BUILDING BULLETIN 71

The OutdoorClassroomEDUCATIONAL USE, LANDSCAPE DESIGN &MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS

Second edition

LONDON: THE STATIONERY OFFICE

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The co-authors of this Building

Bulletin, Brian Billimore, John

Brooke, Rupert Booth and Keith

Funnell, wish to thank all those

who have advised on the contents

and contributed during its

preparation, and the schools that

have provided exemplar

information and photographs.

The material contained in the

publication draws on the research

of the Learning through

Landscapes project sponsored by

the Department of Education and

Science (now the Department for

Education and Employment), the

Countryside Commission and a

consortium of eleven Local

Authorities. Initially set up in

1986, the project is now a

charitable trust and continues to

explore and promote the use of

school grounds as an educational

resource.

In 1999, due to the publication's

success, it was updated as a

second edition by John Brooke

and Michael Bubb.

Published with the permission of

the Department of Education and

Employment on behalf of the

Controller of Her Majesty's

Stationery Office.

© Crown Copyright 1999

All rights reserved

Copyright in the typographical

arrangement and design is vested

in the Crown. Application for

reproduction should be made in

writing to the Copyright Unit, Her

Majesty's Stationery Office, St

Clements House, 2-16 Co legate,

Norwich NR3 1BQ.

First edition Crown Copyright 1990

ISBN 0 11 2710611

Cover photo: Photofusion shows

a group of supervised children in

an "Outdoor Classroom',situation.

`The Outdoor Classroom,

originally published in 1990 provides a"gateway of opportunity", has beenrevised and now takes account ofeducational developments since thatdate including the publication of TheEducation (School Premises)Regulation 1999 and Building Bulletin85, School Grounds, A Guide to GoodPractice, 1997. This bulletin has beenupdated to take account ofdevelopments relative to the schoolgrounds it illustrated. Some groundshave been further developed andsome have ceased to exist due tochanges of school status or otherbuilding needs. In those cases newexamples were found to take theirplace which demonstrate the value ofimproved grounds. The bulletin nowincludes an appendix on otherpublications which extends theinformation provided in each section,reflecting the valuable work that hasbeen done by others to supportgrounds developments and thecurriculum since publication in 1990.

In the light of this, thepublication describes educational usesof school grounds and how thenecessary resources can be createdand managed. It is aimed at everybody

iii

in the schools to encourage them intaking up a range of excitingopportunities to develop, design,manage, and use the school groundsto the best effect pupils, teachers,governors, parents, voluntary andcommunity groups, inspectors andadvisers, architects, landscapearchitects, landscape managers andplaying field officers. It seeks toheighten their awareness of thepotential contribution thatappropriately designed and managedgrounds can make to teaching andlearning and highlights the value of amultidisciplinary approach.

3 The school curriculum poseschallenges to everyone concerned withteaching and the National Curriculumhas placed greater emphasis onpractical activities and the need forteachers to make the presentation oflearning material relevant for pupils.This has had implications for the fulluse of available space within theschool boundaries. Grounds andbuildings should complement eachother to provide a well-designed andstimulating environment thatinfluences and inspires thegenerations of pupils who receive theireducation there.

Purpose and BackgroundThe aim of this publication is tohighlight the potential of schoolgrounds as a valuable resource thatcan support and enrich the wholecurriculum and the education of allpupils. It draws directly on the workdone by the Learning throughLandscapes research project, whichestablished that much learning,common to a range of curriculumareas, can be promoted strongly andnaturally outside. In order tomaximise such opportunities the scaleand character of spaces should relatefar more closely to the needs of pupilsand more variety should be created inthe outdoor environment.

Educational UseSchool grounds can provide a wealthof interest and resources for bothpersonal and social education. TheNational Curriculum can besupported to an extent by studiesoutdoors, and a number of these arecross curricular. Such directexperience in observation,investigation and participation indesign and development of groundshelps pupils to be informed,responsible and enterprising. Thenature of the grounds also has aprofound effect upon activities outsidelesson time, and on the attitudes ofpupils towards their environment. Thereinforcement of knowledge resultingfrom exploration and the use ofimagination and from sharing andcaring is that much greater where thedesign and management of thegrounds is completely responsive tothe widest possible spectrum ofeducational use.

Qualities and FeaturesThe landscape around the school is apotentially malleable resource that can

iv

be remodelled over time to meet thechanging demands placed upon it.The grounds should express anindividual identity based on thecharacter of the local environment.Where there is a mature landscape,changes can still be made, even to theextent of undoing or remakingchanges brought about throughearlier initiatives. It is important not todetermine what will happen in eachand every part of the grounds, but tocreate a varied and flexible landscapethat will afford countlessopportunities, some expected andothers which have not been envisaged.In most school grounds there is a needfor contrasting spaces of varying sizesand qualities which can appeal todifferent individuals andaccommodate different uses.

Roles and RelationshipsAchievement of these objectives isdependent on a partnership ofeducational and landscaping skills anda teamwork approach. A divergence ofobjectives and the lack of a commonpurpose has been a major impedimentto progress. There are many examplesof individual initiatives, but they arericher and more lasting where theyinvolve teachers and pupilseducational advisers and landscapespecialists. Communication andcommitment is the key and everyoneconcerned should be invited toparticipate. A close workingrelationship between landscapedesigners and managers is vital, sincedesigners influence the nature andtype of management and managersinfluence the establishment of a newlandscape scheme.

New School SitesIn the brief for a new school site, thelandscape deserves as much attention

as the building. Beyond the need tostate size of areas and number offacilities, it should explain the aimsand aspirations of teachers and pupilsand the character, qualities andfeatures to be created for maximumeducational opportunity. Carefulappraisal of the site and layout optionsis necessary, since the mostfundamental issue is the overallpattern of development and not thedetailed treatment. Outdooreducational provision should beviewed in the context of the externalworks budget as a whole and notsimply planting. There must be abalanced financial allocation toensure the landscape scheme isadequately resourced with sufficientallowance for aftercare.

Existing School GroundsThe process of enriching existingschool grounds should involve pupilsand teachers at the earliest stages.Indeed the school should develop itsown ideas about outdoor resourcesand their uses. These shouldencompass the whole of the grounds(and possibly beyond) and allow foruse throughout the year and acrossthe curriculum. Site meetings witheducational advisers and landscapestaff can then lead to the preparation

v

of a development plan which mightestablish a range of possibilities and aprogramme for implementation. Thisprocess should allow for long-termchanges in the grounds in successiveyears so that pupils might gain fromthe anticipation, planning andimplementation of new initiatives.

Management andMaintenanceWithout specific guidelines andregular user involvement, groundsmaintenance has tended to follow aconvenient and essentially staticregime. Educational use shoulddetermine the type and pattern ofmaintenance and the school shouldbe the prime mover, with the adviceand support of landscape staff.Enrichment of outdoor resourcesdoes not necessarily mean an increasein the revenue budget and quite oftensmall savings may accrue. Aprogramme of gradual improvementwhich allows for participation ofpupils and teachers is more realistic interms of funding and is more likely tostimulate change. Some comparativeinformation on capital and revenuecosts on hard and soft landscapes isincluded. (Figures 19 & 26)

Section

1.11.21.31.41.51.61.71.81.9

1.101.111.121.131.141.151.161.171.181.191.20

Section 2

2.12.22.32.42.52.62.72.82.9

2.102.112.122.132.142.152.162.172.182.192.202.212.222.23

Introduction

Educational Use of SchoolGroundsPupils' impressionLearning through landscapes researchPhysical educationOutdoor educationEnglishMathematicsScienceTechnology and DesignInformation TechnologyGeographyEnvironmental educationHistoryReligious educationDramaArtMusicPupils with special needsGifted childrenOther uses of the groundsImportance of different kinds andsizes of space

Providing for EducationalUse of Grounds: Qualitiesand FeaturesLandscape - a flexible resourcesThe settingBoundariesSensory qualitiesMicroclimate and pollutionAccess and circulationHard landscapeSite furniture and enclosureSoft landscape and pressure of useEarth modellingSoil managementTreesHedgesScrubShrub bordersBulbsLawns and wild flower meadowsWaterCropsAnimalsSports pitchesSecuritySafety

vi

Section 33.13.23.33.43.5

Section 44.14.24.34.44.54.64.74.84.9

4.104.114.124.134.144.154.16

Section 5

Roles and RelationshipsPotential participantsDiffusion of landscape skillsAn inter-disciplinary approachTrainingImplementation

Design and DevelopmentThe new school siteThe briefSite selectionA site appraisalOptionsBudget estimatesDevelopment of the landscape schemeAdvance plantingThe landscape budgetContract arrangementsExisting school groundsContactsDeveloping ideasSite meetingsPlans and phasingFunding

Management andMaintenance of the Grounds

5.1 Management and maintenance5.2 Value of guidelines5.3 Specifying the work5.4 Grass areas5.5 Shrub borders5.6 Hedges5.7 Trees5.8 Litter5.9 Competitive tendering

5.10 Size and supervision of contracts5.11 A school ranger5.12 Local Management of Schools5.13 Options5.14 An environment fund5.15 A management policy

Appendices1. A suggested landscape survey checklist

2. Possible site features

3. A landscape brief for a new school

4. Management Policy: Statement ofObjectives

5. Publications relating to each sectionfor further reading

Useful Organisations

DfEE publications in print 1999

Notional arrangement ofoutdoor uses and access

Edwalton Primary School,Nottingham - using adjoiningwoodland to develop a curriculum-related nature resource

John Port Secondary School,Etwall, Derby - Adaptation of thegrounds of a manor house

Fencing and enclosure

Using trees to provide shade

Using trees to provide shelter

Crestwood Secondary School,Eastleigh - sheltered school parkland

Crestwood Secondary School,Eastleigh - the 'Street'

Using trees and earthmodelling to screen out pollution

10 Kings Copse County PrimarySchool, Southampton - linkingfeatures

12

Surface textures and patterns

Coombes County InfantSchool, Arborfield Cross, Reading -playground markings, features andsetting

Informal shapes of tarmac andmown grass

Pitches at an angle to siteboundaries

Potential participants indevelopment of the grounds

vii

17

Landscape appraisal

Options for site development

External works as a proportionof total building cost

is

_0

Soft and hard landscape costs

Erantfield Nursery School,Kendal - Adaptation of the grounds ofa Victorian house

21 Crawley Ridge Middle School,Camberley - adaptation of thegrounds of a Victorian house

St Mary's High School,Cheshunt - preserving and developingexisting features: a moat and site of anold house

Coombes County InfantSchool, Arborfield Cross - 'beforeimprovement'

Coombes County Infant SchoolArborfield Cross in 1990 'afterimprovements'

Molehill Copse County PrimarySchool, Maidstone - groundsmaintenance regime changed to suitthe curriculum

26 Comparative landscapemaintenance costs

27/2', Denmead First School,Portsmouth - changing design andmaintenance - 'before change'- 'after change'

The outdoor

classroom - a sheep

shearing

demonstration can be

organised in the

grounds.

Introduction

1. In England there are some25,000 schools and 60,000 - 70,000hectares of grounds. It has beenestimated that the cost of groundsmaintenance alone is of the order of£125 million a year. The Education(School Premises) Regulations 1999prescribe minimum areas and qualitystandards for team games playingfields. The details are given in theEducation (School Premises)Regulations 1999 (SI 1999 No.2) andnon-statutory guidance on grounds isgiven in Building Bulletins 82 AreaGuidelines for Schools' 1996 and in 85School Grounds, a Guide to Good Practice'

1997. The guidance covers all aspectsof grounds including playing fields,games courts, informal and socialareas, habitat areas, and total siteareas. In the early 90s school groundswere often only developed for physicaleducation. However, due to publicityand the work of the Learning throughLandscapes Trust' and that of otherorganisations the benefits ofdeveloping grounds to support thecurriculum have become widelyknown. It remains that a balance mustbe struck between the competingdemands of the curriculum with moreflexible uses of the grounds.

2. Most schools strive to maketheir indoor teaching and non-

viii

teaching areas stimulating andinspiring places. A theme is sometimesallowed to take over the classroom andits environs completely. The mostsuccessful themes may run for severalweeks and various stimuli, such as two-and three-dimensional wall displays,interesting artifacts and models, mayaccumulate as the investigations,explorations and discoveries followtheir course. Outside the schoolbuilding the situation is frequentlyquite different. All too often thegrounds are bleak and open to theelements. Apart from the extensive usemade of playing fields and hard-playareas for physical education, thegrounds are often under-utilised as aneducational resource.

3. Ventures outside the classroommay usefully stimulate cross-curricularwork in a variety of subject areas andsupport and complement work doneinside the classroom or provideopportunities for learning whichcannot take place inside. Motivationmay be strengthened since outdoorlearning is likely to be more practicallybased. There is much learning,common to a variety of curricularareas, that can be promoted stronglyand naturally outside. This includescommunication skills, problemsolving, observation, identification and

10

Classwork - the wool

can then be spun in

the classroom

classification. It has been noted thatsuch skills improve as pupils see morepurpose and relevance in first-handexperiences outside. By enhancing theopportunities for learning in thegrounds, the range of work is enrichedand the potential for direct practicalapplication much increased.

4. The Learning throughLandscapes project's researchidentified many schools where thegrounds have been developed andused as a resource for teaching andlearning to support a wider range ofcurricular studies. It confirmed thatthe grounds in which the schoolstands are a valuable asset. However,grounds maintenance practices havenot always been completely in tunewith the educational requirements ofthe curriculum. The need for bettercollaboration between schools, theiradvisers and other agencies wasrecognised.

5. The research also indicatedthat the scale and range of spacesinside and outside should relate moreclosely to the needs of the developingchild, and that more variety should beprovided in the outdoor environment.This might include sheltered bays(paved or soft areas) where smallgroups of children can gather tooccupy themselves quietly in a pursuitwhich may be self-chosen or may bepart of a curriculum-based activity.Larger sheltered spaces can enablegroups of class size to work together.Extensive open spaces can provide forfield games and other events, whichmay be anything from a celebration ofa seasonal festival to a hot air balloonlaunching.

6. There are schools whereprovision for child-chosen activities,including unsupervised play, is made,although these are comparatively rare.More commonly, unsupervised play isnot well provided for and 'playtime' isseen to take place in dull playgrounds,often supervised by other than thequalified teaching staff. Theoutstanding exceptions where

thoughtful provision is made includeplay environments with equipment,stimulating artifacts and arrangementsfor quiet gathering places whereindividuals and small groups can meet.

7. In many schools where thegrounds have been developed andused as an educational resource thishas usually been achieved byenthusiastic teachers, often incooperation with pupils, parents andthe local education authority, andsometimes with the help of membersof the community and other outsideagencies. It may have started with ideasabout extending the learning from theclassroom to outdoors, as aconsequence of which the need forchanges in the landscape has beenidentified and work on the schoolgrounds has begun. Such curriculumled change has taken teachers andpupils outside and the development ofthe grounds has been closely related tolearning needs. In other cases changehas been resource led, where anythingfrom a small part of the grounds to thewhole site has been enriched with newfeatures and improved qualities byseeding, planting and other landscapeworks. Generally it has proved moresuccessful to provide for recognisedcurricular needs than to createresources and then contemplate theiruses

8. The ensuing description of theeducational use of school groundscontains more examples from theprimary phase than from secondary.Primary schools have tended to usetheir grounds more extensively and ina greater variety of ways thansecondary schools where the use of thegrounds is at a more embryonic stage.The reasons for these differences mayrelate to the relative sizes of both theschools and their grounds, theirapproach to the curriculum, and theavailability of time for specialistsubjects and space for activities.

9. It is hoped that both primaryand secondary schools will be able todraw on the information in this

' This is a charitable trust providing advice and publications on the development of school grounds tosupport the curriculum and other activities.

1ix

Bulletin to make their grounds bothmore attractive and moreeducationally useful. Those schoolswith little or no green spaces can alsobenefit, albeit at a different scale or inan amended form. Currently about15% of primary schools have groundswhich are almost entirely hardsurfaced; this is rare in the case ofsecondary schools outside Londonand large urban areas.

12

1.1 Pupils' impressionThe first public building which mostchildren use and come to knowintimately is their primary school.Their judgement of design andmaterials will begin to be formed here,as will their attitudes to stewardship ofland and landscape. A large part ofthe pupil's early education derivesfrom the influence of the building, thegrounds and the whole ethos of theschool and its organisation. Insecondary schools also, grounds canbe a valuable resource for subjectteaching and a context for the fulldevelopment of the pupil as a person.

1.2 Learning throughLandscapes researchThis section is a summary of the ideasand perceptions of the Learningthrough Landscapes research team,and their thoughts on the way inwhich curriculum subjects and crosscurricular work can be supported bystudies in suitably developed schoolgrounds. The National Curriculum,with its attainment targets andprogrammes of study, provides veryspecific points of reference forpurposeful development of grounds tomeet curriculum need.

1.3 Physical EducationThe subject most commonly associatedwith the use of school grounds isPhysical Education, which hastraditionally given strong emphasis toteam games and athletics, using themto develop and extend the learning ofphysical skills, to encourage balancedphysical development and to provideopportunities for the improvement ofpersonal and social skills. In someinstances 'fitness stations', 'trim' orjogging trails' have been establishedin school grounds with the aim ofpromoting good attitudes to health

Team games have

traditionally been the

major reason for

providing school

grounds.

The range of

activities has

broadened to include

challenges to the

individual as well as

the team

learning and.play areindivisiblen the use .

of this hundied

square.

and physical fitness. However, sportspitches are often exposed and barrenin character; this might be relieved bythe planting of shelter-belts of mixednative species to create an improvedenvironment for players. This extendsoutdoor learning opportunities bycreating nature trails.

1.4 Outdoor educationOther subjects can also utilise theschool grOunds. For example; inoutdoor edutannn;nOrinali)i anintegral part of the physital'educatiOnprovided in schools,. the skills needed=foi ekiiedidOriwoik .such-as camping,'mapand compass work and selfcaterink,.Can be praetiSedikthegidnrids:Weekerid"Ot overnight cam shave been run by some schtiolS.Ori

.'"

their site using the school facilities forcooking, dining and toilet purposes.

1.5 English,In English, the school grounds canprovide rich langtiage experienceswhich maybe sensory and largelyconcerned with observation and mayinvolve asking questions andundertaking investigations. There isscope within such experiences to uselanguage purposefully and to arrangefor the development of specific skills,such as group discussion andnegotiation, oral and writtenreporting, and personal writing inpoetry and prose.

Mathematical games

on the grass - mobility

of resource affords

greater opportunities.

Walls offer

considerable potential

for measuring and

estimating, as well as

being space dividers

or seats.

1.6 MathematicsIn Mathematics there is scope for bothwork content and practical activity,some of which will help pupils tounderstand concepts. To take oneexample, percentages (or fractions)can be understood throughmeasuring the proportions of thegrounds showing differentcharacteristics, or by looking at thenumbers of different types of trees. Ata more advanced level, surveys of

Differenfshapes and

patterns of hard

surface facilitate a

range of

mathematical project

work.

materials, living things or humanbehaviour in the grounds and theconsequent analysing of the data canhelp pupils to understandfundamental statistical concepts.There are also endless opportunitiesfor measuring, estimating, andapproximating. In some schools theseinvestigations have become the basisof design work leading todevelopment of the grounds.

The variable growth

rate of plants, their

diversitY of shape and

foram create many

dimensions for study.

Outdoor experiments,

with air trapped under

a parachute, aid

scientific

understanding by

direct experience.

17 ScienceThere is no difficulty in finding scopewithin the broad content ofNationalCurriculum science forthe use.of theschool grounds and in finding ordeveloping features which are relatedto the content of the programmes ofstudy. The grounds hav-e, potential forthe study of biological,;inOterial, earth:'and physical sciences.

Some schools, for example,have a weather station, a compass rosemarked on the school playground or asun-dial on a plinth or fixed to a southfacing wall, which can contribute to acontinuous or an occasional study ofweather, seasons and time. Basicastronomy (part of the NationalCurriculum) can be studied if schoolscan use the night sky viewed from aroof or the grounds without theinterference of bright illumination.

Many schools are finding thattheir own grounds can providepossibilities for continuous ecologicaland scientific studies of plants andanimals: This can supplement work ata field studies centre or at a uniquesite. A number of schools have madesuccessful attempts to increase thevariety of animal and plant life in theirgrounds. Small beginnings havegradually grown to encompass adiverse range of resources such asponds, meadows, woodlands,hedgerows, paddocks, andsmallholdings.

Sound levels within

-'and round the school

11, ground's can be

measured'and.:'

ts`',Aisiessed,

4

Other science studies seen inthe project included flight, using hotair balloons, rockets, parachutes,movement and travel propulsion(sometimes in connection withphysical education). Projects on soundmay include testing sound velocityusing a large outdoor wall.

A sip' dial ,Providesp

historical time

'machine and-aidirin

understanding of the

earth's rotation.

Kite flying highlights

the dilution, powerand variability of the

Wind.

The construction of a

primitive kiln has

more meaning when

the raw materials are

obtained from the

grounds.

18 Technology andDesignTechnology and design activities willalso often benefit from the nature andsize of the space available outside. Oneexample is that of constructing largemodels, especially those intended fortravel, which can be tested more fullyand thoroughly. Several secondaryschools have built hovercraft and landyachts and have looked no furtherthan the school grounds to find a testarea. The Learning throughLandscapes research identified severalprojects which could not have beencompleted as successfully indoors,like the building of an Iron AgeRoundhouse and settlement at amiddle, school in'the South West', itcould only have been done outside. Anumber of these projects, such asbridge building, have been cross-curricular, embracing the study of

' Ancient Technology Centre, Cranborne Middle School, Dorset.

The err of weaving

canbediaieloped

'frOMraw:materials

and. ,

grasiei - grown in the

grounds.

Clair dug from the

school grounds can

be used in pottery

malting.

The construction of

,t1Iron Age buildings

r.:-" and enclosures in the

grounds brings history

to life.

Creation of features

in the grounds can

afford endless

opportunities, some

not even envisaged.

Relating features in

the school grounds to

a map of the site can

improve

geographical skills

structures, of suitable materials and ofmechanics, such as the properties oflevers; balances, Allem andcantileVers. A forestry project hasincluded coppice crafts, tree fellingand converting timber for use infurniture Making. The principles ofprimitive btilliling construction can beintroduced, together with smallerscale experiments in powergeneration from wind and water ormaking control mechanisms foraiding.plantgroWth.

Samples of different

geological rocks can

be set into a

permanent display orincorporated in a

wall.

6

1.9 InformationTechnologyIn the National Curriculum all subjectworking groups are encouraged toadopt Information Technology insuch a way that pupils becaine awareof its power and are able -to use it.There is :much data about the schoolgrounds which can be collected oncomputers, stored and correlated.This data can then be manipulatedand used to assist in developingthoughts and ideas.

1.1Q, :0.egg1740,tlyGeography aims tb,h*pupils makesenSeof their surroundings *Vibegain a better appreciation of thevariety of physical and humanconditions on the Earth's surface andof patterns and processes. These aimscan be achieved by studies in thelocality of the school, beginning in theschool grounds. The grounds provideopportunities to practise the skills ofgeography and to study environmentsin miniature. Activities can include theconsideration of scale, variation inplaces and orientation, and followingmaking maps and plans, the study ofpeoples, movement and their use ofspace. Concepts such as spatialorganisation and the change andshaping of the environment can beincluded.

Construction of an

Iron Age ditch

fortification also

affords an insight into

underlying geology

and a buildingmaterial for but walls.

. .

Curiosity about the

local eilvirOnment

encourages

questioning and

prOblem tolVing.

EnvironrneritareducatiOn is 'crowcurricular and can embrace studythrough observation andinvestigations of the school s built andnatural environment There arenumber of important aspects of thecumculum recognised in the:',;dri. ofNational Curriculum subject basedgrOups, which fá lbètveth Sithjetts oraie-elernenf,a-rangeorsuhjecth. ,

Li

.1-

,The.listestablished bytheQualifications & CurnculumAuthorityincludes environmental education,together with educanon.,for,econonnc,, :"

careers'edhcatiOW and :cihzenShip,,,With personal and social ediictin as Cerkali;ecin'

an umbrella for all of these . The grown, harvested

Authority produces curriculum and ground into flour

6

C23444.:

Bee-keePing provides

a means of studying

social insects; , ,

pollination and honey t

production. r

nt.`t' 1 t

" jla1,Le

'

.

ts5 1

Study of insects

demands

concentration and

good skills of

observation; it leads

to further

investigation in the

classroom.

7

ConstructioU of

artificial habitats

presents a challenge

in design technology

and aids an

understanding of

wildlife.:41,4

Maypole dancing has

links with beliefs,

history and the

performing arts.

1.12 HistoryThe study of histciry caniSOMetiines beenriched by looking at the:schoOlbuildings aridlgrounds; 0600h*what was happening there during theperiod being studied and consideringthe school in the context of its localityand social history. There might bescope for simple archaeology, fieldwalking and the sifting of soil forevidence. Local archivists andhistorians can often providedocumentation On school sites.Landscapes reveal the story of theplace and its people; grounds can beused for dramatic reconstruction ofhistorical events, battles may besimulated, famous meetings enacted;trenches, foxholes, walls and defencescan be made; roundhousesmentioned earlier can be built;ancient kilns can be constructed andused in the way our forebears usedthem.

1.13 ReligiouseducationThere are many decisions to make inrelation to the school environmentwhich raise religious and moral issuesfor the school community. These areconcerned with caring and respect forall living things and for property.

In one school, a range ofactivities involves the pupils inexperiences concerned with birth, lifeand death. Seeds are sown, cherishedand finally the vegetable or fruitharvested. Animals are born andbred, cared for and, if death occurs,the animal's body is treated withrespect and reverently buried. Noopportunity is lost to develop thechildren's sense of wonder at the

8

Animal visits &law

first-hand experience

of giving and caring.

Milking a goat

reverses the process

of giving, and

encourages respect

for animals.

This dead fox and the

skeleton of a badger,

buried and later

unearthed by pupils,

hold a variety of

educational

messages.

The gathering of crops

gives meaning to the

Harvest Festival and

Thanksgiving.

beauty of nature, at the intricate detailand meticulous design in plants andflowers. They are encouraged toobserve and to wonder at thearrangements of the colours in acockerel's plumage, the sheen on thefur of a fox, the intricate yet regulardouble helical pattern of the seeds inthe head of the sunflower. Pupils canbe made aware of religion through theobservation of ceremony, thecelebration of Harvest Festivals andthe keeping of special days. Theymight celebrate Mothers' Day withdaffodils which they were responsiblefor planting and nurturing.

1.14 DramaThere are several schools where thedesigners have taken advantage of theland levels and slopes to provideoutdoor amphitheatres. Some schoolshave worked to create distinct spacesthrough having planted enclosuresand sometimes they have addedlighting. A sheltered space is neededwhere an audience can be seated,perhaps on a grassy bank or stone

steps, to watch and participate. Muchless formal arrangements can be madefor the pupils to enjoy the benefitsderived from drama, through, forexample, role play, self expression andmime. At a nursery school visited, thecelebration of the Chinese New Yearprovided an opportunity for thechildren to fabricate Chinese artifacts,make face masks and together toconstruct a dragon. The children ateChinese food which they had helpedto prepare. Some dressed up in thedragon, and in the nursery groundsthey re-enacted a Chinese play theyhad seen on television or had

Preparation of a video

can be more relevant

and rewarding in an

outdoor setting.

a,

<

15,

pno:a

witnessed in Chinatown. Other schoolshave also been host to Mummers, toMorrismen and to street theatregroups who make use of the outdoorspaces to display their skills to thechildren.

1.15 ArtA wealth of experiences in Art can beprovided on even the most limitedschool site Indeed Art can be astimulus:far developing, the grounds.Pupils, staff, and parents, through theneed to broaden the quality of theefiviionnient, can develop their ownsensory awareness and creative skills

Grounds can give opportunitiesfor the expressive visual representationcif a pupil's einotionS and id.s,asresponse to'What hag beenmay be through,drawingipainting,printing, photography,'scuipture ormodelling, perhaps using materialdeveloped or produced in thegrounds. The school and its groundcan provide for observation andjudgement and the development ofmanipulative skills through a variety ofmedia. These might include pencil,chalk, charcoal, paint and dyes, someof which may be derived from thegrounds.

/.0

10

Outdoor

performances by

visitors or school

groin create a newand-often less

inhibiting aspect of

dratne. '

Outdoor features arid

views afford a rich

vein a raw, matOrial

fat art waik.

<4? : ;'

Pavement art is yet

another use of the

tarmac playground

as a canvas for the

whole class.

Making music outside

also affords a sense

of freedom and

uniqueness.

1.16 MusicMusic skills can be developed outside.Natural or recycled materials can beused to make simple musicalinstruments, including drums andpercussion instruments, reeds andpipes. It is possible to record soundsheard in the grounds and achieve thebeginnings of simple musicalnotation. Singing and music makingcan be novel and exciting in theoutdoor environment. They mightderive from a study of folklore,religious festivals or 'stately' occasions.

1.17 Pupils with specialneedsAll pupils can benefit greatly fromwork outside and pupils with learningdifficulties gain particular advantagefrom outdoor practical experiences,which provide relevance to their workthat may be difficult to replicate in aclassroom. Some of those who are notphysically disabled but have learningdifficulties have been found to gainconfidence, learn well and becomemore settled through working in theoutdoor environment. Experienceswith animals, particularly largerlivestock, have proved to have atherapeutic effect upon children with

emotional and behaviouraldifficulties. Involvement in activelearning through observation andparticipation and in design andchange in the grounds are particularlyeffective activities with these pupils. Afirst principle in providing for thosewith physically disabilities concernsaccess, and this affects the design ofthe spaces, paths, pond-sides,entrances and structures such ashides. For example, raised beds forplanting out specimens and studyingtheir growth would be useful for thosein wheelchairs. At one centre for thephysically disabled, ramps, suitablyfitted with raised edges, extend intothe pond to allow students inwheelchairs closer access to the water'sedge for pond dipping.

Providing opportunities in theoutdoor environment for pupils withdisabilities has considerableimplications for design, but thesolutions to the problems posed mustnot deny those challenges that are theright of all pupils. It is notappropriate to provide undue helpandquidance to pupils withdisabilities; they need to learnthrough their successes and mistakeslike everyone else.

1.18 Gifted childrenIn a discussion paper onsiftedchildren in compreheriiive schools,HMI' recommended; that the sciencewhich is taught needs to be of aninvestigative nature, that able pupilsshould be given access to suitableresources, and that they needenriching experiences. In the samedocument it was suggested that giftedchildren geography shouldundertake ide-ranginginvestiationS using a:Spread oresources iriclUdiUg equipmerit formeasuring and recording. in the _field.:The - grounds can betiSed to extendthe'learning eXperierices.Ofpupilsidentified as highly gifted acrossrange of currithilunuareas:

1.19 Other uses of thegroundsUp to 28% of a child's time in school(for example, before and after lessonsand during breatts) can be spent in theschool grounds. The nature of thegrounds wilfhave:a profound effectupon Wh'atgoes on duringMitch wilialSo depend. Upon theattitude of the school staff and theschool's policies for the manageinentof people.and spaces dining thesetimes. The School is obliged to provide"supervision but for a variety ofreaSonS, this'iS;not,a1Ways undertakenby qualified teachers. The possibility ".

of there being inexperienced.stipervision'Means thatspecial

' DES HMI Series: Matters for discussion 4: Giftedchildren in middle and comprehensive secondaryschools.

12

e r

Playground features

can provide settings

for drama and

informal play.

Informal play between

partners is best in a

backwater, away from

more boisterous

games.

f,ri4.433.vx

Constructive play,

such as this den

building, requires a

wild area with raw

materials and

sympathetic

supervision.

The designation of a

skipping corner is a

simple and effective

means of zoning play

activities.

consideration needs to be given toplanning and locating play activities.

During this time oftenreferred to as 'playtime' children arefree, within certain' limits imposed bythe school; to choose what they do.Children Learn through play; it givesthem opportunities to,explore theirown capabilities and then-limitations.Through the medium of play theylearn about themselves and otherpeople. By trial and errOr,.imitatingothers, praCtice and refinement, theydevelop a range of physical and socialskills. They begin to understand socialcustonii,:the.,ProPertieS of arange ofnatural materials and man -madeobjects found in their environment.They learn to judge size, speed,distance, height, depth and width.They appreciate the benefits derivedfrom caring and sharing, and theconsequences of non-cooperation andselfishness. They have opportunitiesto develop and exercise theirimagination.

Young children are curiousand like to explore their environmentThey may be attracted to slopingground, mounds, hiding places, trees,and climbing equipment. They love tofantasise, to build, to dismantle andsometimes to destroy. As theydevelop, children indulge in moreformalised play which demandsregular patterns of behaviour andcompliance with rules some initiatedfrom outside, some self-imposed.Later on, play may become ritualisedand peer group led. Team andindividual activities, including ballgames, become a means for achievingsuccess, impressing friends and self.

m.

13

testing, as well as fun. Elements ofdrama and social exchange provideopportunities to develop associationsand friendships, to handledisappointment and failure, to controlanger and to cope with grief.

Many pupils like to playtraditional ball games according toseason and may dominate the asphaltplayground to the disbenefit ofothers, especially where space isscarce. Statistics show that mostaccidents occur in the largeunrelieved wide open playgroundthrough falls and C011isions.l3oiSterous gaMes have their Place,but they should be contained andother areas should be provided forthose who may have no interest intraditional team games, so a variety ofspaces should be created. There is aneed for sheltered places with seatingwhere children can meet in twos andthrees to talk and listen, to exchangeviews and to sit quietly. There need tobe places where a child can be alone to

There should always

be an opportunity for

quiet reflection.

Play markings are

often the basis for new

games or individual

challenges.

think. For older pupils especially,there is a need for a campus style ofdesign, with spaces of differentqualities and sizes, well endowed withsite furniture for meetings andgatherings. Clearly the challenge is toachieve lively and varied externaldetailing whilst successfully providingfor robust and heavy usage.

There are rich opportunitiesfor study and the consolidation oflearning, in addition to play, whenplayground markings provide for atraditional game like Hopscotch, ormathematical games which includelogic tracks and problem solvingpatterns. Some board games can beadapted for the playground. There is alarge range of play apparatus availablefrom manufacturers who comply withthe European Standards EN1176.

If the grounds are designed tobe an environment for learning, therewill be many instances of pupilsexperimenting independently withequipment and ideas previously usedin curriculum time, or continuing topursue an investigation started inlesson time using the opportunitiesprovided in the grounds for thatpurpose. To the participant this maybe 'play' but the reinforcement oflearning which is taking place and thenew ideas which are being exploredare important components oflearning. Play is made up of selfchosen enjoyable experiencesconcerned with physical or socialactivities, both of which must beprovided for. There is a need to allowfor a wide variety of' activities which

can go on at the same time in anumber of different locations. Thesecan he paved or grassed, can besheltered by walls, trees, shrubs or abank, or left relatively open.

Sometimes 'pump priming' ofideas from a teacher can lead to a newrange of interesting pursuits forenthusiastic pupils. They may find allsorts of options to develop (often inmost ingenious ways and with littleequipment) from an activityintroduced by the teacher as a simplegame. Selected junk material is alwaysuseful - often more so thansophisticated single purposemanufactured playthings - forbuilding and constructing imaginativecreations of the children's owninvention. Sometimes what teachershave observed happening in play canbe put to good effect in the teachingprogramme .

1.20 Importance ofdifferent kinds and sizesof spaceStudy of many different schoolgrounds has confirmed theimportance of varied sizes and typesof space, particularly for informal andincidental learning. Such space, if it isof high quality, can lead to a close andtrusting relationship between thevarious users of the grounds and torespect for their local environment.The detailed nature of this landscapeis examined more fully in Section 2.

If a suitable area for

toy cars is not

available it will be

created.

Providing for EducationalUse of Grounds:Qualities and Features2.1 Landscape a

flexible resourceThe school grounds are a potentiallymalleable resource that can beremoulded over time to meet thechanging demands being placed uponthem. The 'soft' landscape of grass,shrubs and trees is totally flexible.Only the more substantial elements ofthe 'hard' landscape, such as roadsand car parking, and of course thebuildings, mitigate against change. It isimportant to examine how thislandscape might be harnessed to thegeneral and specific educational needsdiscussed in Section 1 and illustratedin Figure 1. Whilst there aredifferences in funding between newsites and existing grounds, the aimsare essentially the same. It is wise to beaware of the practicalities on existinggrounds, but not to restrict horizonsunnecessarily. Emphasis must also beas much on longer term aftercare ason the initial implementation ofchange .

Large and healthy

mature trees are an

asset on any school

site.

2.2 The settingThe local environment around aschool is fundamental to educationaluse of its grounds. The appearanceand activities of adjacent land-usersmust be reflected in the design anddevelopment of the grounds. Theycan, indeed should, contribute to itseducational value. A view of the localscene costs nothing but it can say agreat deal. Different neighbours anduses call for different responses interms of their impact on both sitelayout and detailed boundarytreatment. The challenge is to reflectthe surrounding townscape orlandscape in the broad pattern of sitedevelopment, to the benefit of bothschool and local community. It mayeven be possible to use adjacent landchurchyard, park, wood or meadow asan extension to the grounds andperhaps to afford resources thatcannot be created within the siteboundaries (Figure 2).

Every locality is in some wayunique as a result of its geology, soils,landforms and vegetation. In the pasthuman activities have worked withthese natural factors rather than beimposed upon them. As a result, it isstill possible to distinguish localvariation in the character of thelandscape and the built environment.The school site should express thisindividual identity rather than berenowned for its sameness or itsdullness. The demands for breadth ofopportunity and consequent resourcesin the grounds must be set alongsidethe need to convey a sense ofbelonging. In this respect it isimportant to remember that views are`two-way', those into the schoolgrounds being as relevant as thosefrom them. Teachers and pupils cantake the lead in assessing the visualqualities of their local environment aspart of the curriculum in Art andDesign (Figure 3).

NOTIONAL ARRANGEMENT OFOUTDOOR USES AND ACCESS

GangmowerMaintenance

FireAccess

rchardsCoppice

SchoolGardens

ServiceYard

00.

WildlifeHabitats

S

Quiet/SocialAreas

I-

Outdoor Sports

Building(Indoor Facilities)

OverflowParkin

Caro Parking o

oo

o 0Segregation

Vehicular o0 Pedestrian

O 0

HardPlay

Areas

Arrivaeceptio Arena

atheringsMeeting

E

R

Woodland

InformalPlay/

Adventure

EarthMounds

EDWALTONPRIMARYSCHOOL,NOTTINGHAM

Using adjoiningwoodland todevelop acurriculum-related natureresource

The school was built

in 1950's on a site

which includes Iwo

hectares of

woodland and in the

1970's it wished to

extend the

possibilities for

outdoor study. With

help from Rushcliffe

Borough Council, the

British Trust for

Conservation

Volunteers, and

pupils and staff, the

woodland was

transformed into an

educational

resource. This was

achieved by clearing

rubbish, tree

planting, building a

replica Saxon

settlement, and

creating a pond,

stream and drama

area. A school

council was formed

of elected pupils

giving them

opportunity to

contribute to

improving their

surrounding

environment. As a

result, gardens were

created and these

are tended during

breaks and at

'16

weekends. A farm

unit was established

with stables and

hutches in paddocks

for small farm

animals, birds and

rabbits. These are

cared for by pupils

throughout the year.

In addition other

features are provided

for different kinds of

play. The features

0 metres 50

provided encourage

pupils to participate

in caring for the

environment and in

the taking of

responsible attitudes

towards living things.

These initiatives have

made life at the

school a positive and

pleasurable learning

experience.

.6

1,11;[.;RF. 3

JOHN PORTSECONDARYSCHOOL,DERBY

Using groundsof formermanor, housefor curriculumdevelopment

John Port School at

Etwall was

developed in the

eighteen hectares of

landscaped grounds

of Etwall Hall

founded in 1540 on

an earlier manor site

that predates

Domesday. The hall

was bought in 1955

by Derbyshire

County Council and

Almshous

ConservationArea

Birch

thielar-15-"-hur

e. filo;

;1

Houses

Mixed \NativeWoodland \

demolished to allow

a site for two schools

which later became

one. The existing

landscape features

Were extended to

create grounds in

keeping with their

surroundings, the

village, gothic

church, almshouses

and a lake.This

forms a focus and

2.3

0 CY.0 0

Playing FieldsYew

(\Game1-'Court

Stream

provides a haven for

wildlife induding

birds. The pupils and

staff have

extensively planted

the site. The grounds

are used by the art,

geography, and

science departments,

the last uses the lake

in their studies.

Surveys on

vegetation take

BoundariesThere can be no standard solution toboundaries, even around anindividual school. They should bedesigned to reflect visual and practicaluse criteria and demand specificsolutions that are both cohesive andeffective in relation to the localenvironment and neighbouring uses(Figure 4). Boundaries sendimmediate messages about the schoolto pupils, parents and visitors.Chain link on concrete posts rarelyachieves either visual or functionalobjectives. There is a strong argumentfor the positive use of hedgeswherever possible. These provideboth a boundary and an educationalresource. If robust activities, abuse or

II

ii

III

1

roilway

odlond

track

place and biologists

use a conservation

plot for studying

vegetative success

and with the plot

butterflies have

returned. Classes

visit the church and

graveyard to study

weathering and

organic growth and

groups do voluntary

conservation work

0 metres 100

at a nature reserve.

The school gains by

an improved

landscape of unique

quality which

provides benefits to

pupils' learning

experiences and

enhances their

school life.

incompatible neighbours demandmore substantial boundaries, such aswelded mesh (ballstop fencing) oreven earth mounds, these can besoftened by planting. With youngerpupils, there is, of course, the vitalquestion of their security in thegrounds, which must influence thedesign of boundaries and gates.Problems of trespass and of dogs are asmuch an issue of site management asboundary treatment, and relatedirectly to the involvement of the localcommunity. The condition and thenature of the site boundaries reflectthe image of the school and depend asmuch on good management as onsound design.

FENCING ANDENCLOSURE(numbered in order of

cost)

2.4

Lower Cost

s'e1 Hedge

1.1111111111

1111111111111111numsismsmommalsi

2 Chestnut Pale

3 Chainlink

Sensory qualitiesThe school grounds should appeal tothe senses of sight, sound, smell andtouch and should be able to cope witha range of personal preferences forenclosed and open spaces, for activeand passive uses, and for formal,structured and 'wild' unstructuredareas. In order to satisfy educationalrequirements, it is important not todetermine what will happen in everypart of the site but to create a variedand flexible landscape that will affordmany opportunities, some expected,others not even envisaged. The schoolgrounds should be ever changing notstatic, stimulating not boring,welcoming not hostile, varied notbland. Although the reaction ofvisitors and the attitudes ofneighbours are important, theyshould not predominate, but ratherbe reflected in the pattern ofeducational uses. Provided there is alandscape structure to create maturityand setting, change can be dynamicand ongoing, even to the extent of

4 Timber 'Hit and Miss'

5 Close Boarded

6 Diagonal Boarded

Higher.Cost I.-

7 Welded mesh

8 Mild Steel Railings

I MITII I I I I I II IIIIII1111[11

9 Brick Wall

undoing or redoing earlier initiatives.The school building, its style, thematerials from which it is built and itsappearance all contribute towards thedevelopment of pupils' ideas andideals about architectural quality andsense of place.

There is an immediate need onmany school sites to create contrastingspaces of varying sizes and qualitieswhich can appeal to differentindividuals and accommodatedifferent uses. Given the sense ofopen space invariably conveyed bysports pitches, emphasis elsewherecan be on varying degrees ofenclosure the amphitheatre, thedell, the glade, the jungle or theoutdoor room with complete visualbarriers, filtered glimpses and openviews. These can afford potential forseparation of active pursuits, such asball games or chasing, and passiveactivities for groups, such as chatting,and for individuals, such as reading orreflecting. The way these spaces arelinked is equally important in

USING TREES TOPROVIDE SHADE

extending the range of educationalopportunity. Their arrangement canafford a changing collage ofexperiences that create intrigue,anticipation and surprise (Figure 5).There is opportunity for teachers andpupils to be involved in sensoryappraisal of their site and indeveloping ideas to enhance itscharacter and qualities.

Where younger pupils haveput forward their own suggestions aspart of a wider consultation exercise,they are both revealing andsignificant. For example:

a place for adventure where we canmake up our own games;a place for reading;a place to watch birds and otherliving things;an area for conversations;places to hide;a frightening place;a place where we can be quiet;a place where we can build things.

The essential feature is thatboth teachers and pupils are seekingvariety and quality of space with asuitable ambience and usefulness,which does not necessarily mean theprovision of expensive artifacts orsurfaces.

:0 3

2.5 Microclimate andPollutionBoth the school buildings and theschool landscape should seek to workwith natural elements rather thandefy them. The location of thebuilding complex, its level in relationto its surroundings, its configurationand its orientation all have a majorinfluence on microclimate. Teachersand, pupils can take the lead byobserving, recording and analysinglocal weather patterns. They can thendesign and implement measures tomitigate climatic extremes andthereby conserve energy indoors andassist greater use outside.

Even on an existing school sitemuch can be done to overcomeexposure and wind funnellingbetween buildings by shelter-beltplanting. It is not just the buildingsthat require shelter, it is equallyimportant for outdoor classrooms,study or play areas and sports pitches.Shelter-belts may vary from a densehedgerow to a 20 metre widewoodland, but only wider, higherdesigns allowing about 40% filtrationwill combat winds and reduce the chillfactor over a greater part of the site

a

A cool orchard or

open woodland

1931

b

A mature standard

tree provides shade

A belt of trees

provides shelter, as

well as being a

feature and habitat

in its own right.

Even large shrubs

and quite small trees

can create intimate

shaded spaces for

younger pupils.

(Figures 6 and 7). Another advantageof shelter planting is the possiblelonger term savings on the building'senergy budget. The benefit fromshelter-belts often considerablyoutweighs any possible increase inheating demand due to shading. Sinceit is difficult to ensure all pupils wearappropriate clothing and footwear foroutdoor activities, sheltered spacesand all-weather surfaces will do muchto achieve all year round use.

Overhead elements, such as aroof canopy or the tracery of leavesformed by a tree's branches, create asense of enclosure and refuge. Theycan also provide a large outdoorumbrella to give protection from therain and form a shield from the sun. Alarge covered yard or even a smallveranda is somewhere to sit or play, tofeel secure from the rain pattering onthe roof or the sun blazing down andyet to be part of an outdoor worldrather than be confined to a building(Figure 8). It is another means ofencouraging greater use throughoutthe year. Trees or even large shrubsare ideal sunshades but isolatedspecimens may attract excessive weararound their trunk. Retaining walls orcircular seats might cope with the

20

problem but dispersion of wear byincreased opportunities an orchardfor example is a more attractiveproposition .

Noise and air pollution areincreasingly familiar obstacles to theuse of the school site. Trees andshrubs are not successful inattenuating noise, which requires asolid barrier like a wall, fence or earthmound close to the source. At mostthey may achieve a psychologicalreduction by screening the noisesource. They are more successful infiltering air pollutants, especially thefiner leaved deciduous species andcertain conifers. such pollutionscreens would also create anothereducational resource. Walls andfences are high cost elements whichoffer an immediate screen and soundbarrier and are valuable where spaceis restricted. Earth mounds or simplemanipulation of site levels can achievesimilar ends, by creating a steep,densely planted embankment facingthe noise source and more gentlysloping land within the site (Figure 9).It could be available for use by theschool and might be modelled into astage, terraces or ramps.

The individual

standard tree with

dense foliage is a

wonderful sunshade.

32

Log seats and grass in

the shade beneath a

large tree provide a

unique and attractive

setting for lunch-

breaks.

This enclosed space or

'shell` is ideal as both

teaching and

recreation space.

The link between

inside and outdoors is

stronger with glazed

halls and atria.

USING TREES TOPROVIDE SHELTER

Shelter-belts must allow

some wind through

them (ideally 40%) and

they can reduce its

speed by as much as

60% over an area up to

ten times the shelter-belt

height to windward and

thirty times to leeward.

.0' .4. .4, 31 .4, .4,

10 times 30 times height of shelter

Reduction inWind Speed

>60

3321

40-60 20-40 10-20%

CRESTWOODSECONDARYSCHOOL,EASTLEIGH

Sheltered schoolparkland

Shelter belt

C

Playing Field

The landscape brief

on this site was to

create a sheltered

environment with a

range of different

sized spaces for

educational use and

thereby parallel and

continue the design

concept established

in the architecture

Tennis CourtsSchool Buildings

Fie Id

--C

010 000 0 00-----------------------------

/1 NatureResource

of the school.

Grounds provision

was based around a

framework of tree

planting to modify

the worst of the

weather for those

pupils involved in

sporting and outdoor

activities.

The requirement was

for winter and

summer games

pitches, hard

surfaced games

courts, an

amphitheatre for

events, a

conservation area to

contain a pond and

wetlands, and smaller

eatre

.._......- --..--..-

---/..,..---\ n i\ 1 t

i.14)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80metres

enclosed and

sheltered areas for

quiet reading and

leisure.

To realise these

ideas,

hedgerows wead shedexgiertiosng

trees

and were

retained and

reinforced with new

planting. In other

4

areas tree planting

were introduced. A

differential mowing

regime created

ywit ht heand

distinguished

between different

CarPark

The resulting overall

school campus

environment, inside

and outside, gives a

strong sense of

enclosure, variety,

and excitement in

moving from one

space to another.

CRESTWOODSECONDARYSCHOOL,EASTLEIGH

. The 'Street'

This simple concept

creates an indoor/

outdoor protected

recreation space

which can be used in

breaks and after

school. All the school

facilities flank either

side of the glazed

roofed 'street'. The

original thought was

that the school 'street'

should form a piece

of urban fabric by

providing a

pedestrian link

between the new

housing and

shopping area.

Although for the

present the 'street' is

entirely used by the

school, the potential

remains for a public

link.

EEJ

Trees

Planted Area& Car Park

EntranceGround Floor 0 10 metres 30 00

USING TREES AND EARTH MODELLINGTO SCREEN OUT POLLUTION

Trees can filter dust

but are far less

successful in reducing

noise

A combination of

modelling and

planting can reduce

impact of traffic from

above (d) below (c)

or at grade (b).

23 4.

KINGS COPSE

COUNTYPRIMARY

SCHOOL,

SOUTHAMPTON

Linkingfeatures as acurriculumrelated natureresource

The school was built

in the 1970's on the

outskirts of

Southampton and

enjoys a relatively

level site in a semi-

rural setting with the

advantage of

established native

trees. The pupils and

staff have expanded

this resource by

progressively adding

and extending its

wooded environment

to include:

2.6 Access andcirculationThe main entrance to the schoolshould be obvious and welcomingwithout the need for extensivesignposting. Both hard surfaces andplanting can be used to identifyroutes, which might be as bold andformal as an avenue of trees. Carparking should not dominate theschool grounds in terms of eitherlocation or detailed design treatment.Change of level, earth modelling or acombination of the two offer thepotential for immediate containmentwhich, if reinforced by substantialplanting, would also create summershade. Internal walls or fences arealternatives which might save somespace but these are generally more

expensive. There is a greaterargument for their use where they aredual purpose, as for example in thecreation of a walled garden. Detaileddesign of the car park needs to caterfor car overhang and doors openingby reducing the standard to a 5 metrebay and forming a 600 mm wide hardedge detail above the kerb.

Access has two distinctelements pedestrian and vehicular(staff, visitors and service) andpositive segregation is vital on bothaesthetic and safety grounds. Roadaccess for fire appliances will benecessary, and the Chief Fire Officershould always be consulted early inthe planning stage of buildingprojects about fire fighting facilities.Where large numbers of pupils arelikely to arrive by bike, they should be

1. Wind driven

sculpture,

2. Quiet play area

with features,

3. Scented garden,

4. Living withy

maze,

5. Study patio,

6. Meeting place for

start of studies,

7. Copse

(evergreen),

8. Log pile,

9. Bat walk,

10. Raspberry

bushes,

11. Copse

(deciduous),

12. Native trees,

13. Nuttery & walk,

14. Allotments,

15. Compost heap,

16. Bird-feeding

stations,

17. Bird hide (Birds

on wing feeders),

18. Nature pond,

19. Fox walk,

20. Butterfly walk,

21. Bog/Wetlands,

Lb.

24

22. Secret walk,

23. Orchard (apple,

pear & plum),

24. Paddocks,

25. Wild flower

meadow.

Adding features is a

continuous process

0 metres 50

which provides

curriculum support,

a pleasurable

learning experience

for pupils, improves

the grounds in the

environment and

enriches school life.

separated from other vehicles andsuitable storage should be provided insecure areas such as a lockedcompound that is frequentlyoverlooked. Segregation ofpedestrians should equally aim toachieve not merely spatial divisionright from the entrance, but should,wherever possible, be separated fromthe road by modelling and planting.In the same vein, positive provisioncould be made in primary schools forparents at the beginning and end ofthe school day by inviting them ontothe school site to sit or chat in apleasant, restful space that affordssome covered shelter. since there israrely a conflict in time, suchprovision could have a multi-usefunction as a social play area, outdoorclassroom or arena.

Where there is a need for anumber of pedestrian access points itis usually better to provide positivelyfor them and to manage the site toensure such access is not abused.Separate pedestrian entrances areanother means of achievingsegregation and may well precludedamage to boundaries and creation of'desire lines', or natural routes. Theycould be researched, designed andused by pupils whilst being available toparents and the wider community.These footpath links might also be

incorporated into a matrix of routesand trails across the site. Such linearfeatures are most efficient in their useof space and can be designed to offeran ever-changing kaleidoscope ofexperiences. There could be ahierarchy of routes, some hardsurfaced with tarmac, paving slabs orself-binding gravel, others defined byclose-mown paths meanderingthrough meadow, or wooden plankwalks over wetlands (Figure 10). Fullconsideration of the needs of all whouse the grounds should be given;these include pupils with disabilities,parents and visitors. The width ofpaths must also cater for groups ofpupils, requiring 3 metres in somecases, and the direction must be themost natural, with an absence of sharpcorners and the creation of largerareas around entrances where pupilsgather.

2.7 Hard landscapeRoads, turning areas, lay-bys, parkingbays, footpaths patios, hard playareas and sitting areas demandindividual hard surface detailing tocreate a rich diversity of materials,colours, shapes, textures, patterns andsizes (Figure 11). The challenge is toachieve these ends within both thebudget and the brief so as to maximisethe potential for educational use, yet

SURFACE

TEXTURES ANDPATTERNS

Lower Cost

Self Binding Grovel

2 Tarmocadam

3 In situ Concrete

(numbered in order of cost)

4 Concrete Paving Slabs

5 Slabs and Paviors

6 Paviors and Slabs

25

Higher Cost

pI1..,lnge1010NAINNIN444444$vsoesOsevoseN

"s",44,11,14,4444,1I:osoleok:*%oss"V411 % (4.4004001

7 Brick Paviors (herringbone)

8 Granite Setts

9 Cobbles

Cars should be

screened and

preferably not heard-

quite low planting can

afford an effective

visual barrier.

not to appear like an exhibition ofbuilding materials. Even simpletarmacadam offers different size orcolour of aggregate by means ofsurface dressing or pigment.Resurfacing work allows existingschools to take advantage of thisflexibility. Indeed it is valuable if thehard surface detailing distinguishesbetween different uses on bothamenity and safety grounds. Concreteand clay paviors and small elementpaving slabs have substantiallyextended the range of choice. Suchhigh cost surfaces should not,however, be introduced at theexpense of impoverishing the softlandscape around the site.

Tarmac has been adopted bypractice and convention as anexpedient hard-wearing surface forschool playgrounds. It is usuallymarked out for a variety of playfeatures for younger pupils andsporting activities for older pupils(Figure 12). Yet there is no reason whythe tarmacadam area must berectangular; an irregular, flowing

Bike stores are often

forgotten; siting in a

visible, 'self-policed'

space is essential.

outline containing the court(s) willcreate bays for informal play (Figure13). Nor do two courts need to abutone another, especially in primaryschools where infant and junior pupilshave interests in different activities,but teachers may need a line of sightfor observation of both for teachingand supervision purposes. Pitches setat angles to the boundaries offeropportunities for other activities,including nature resources (Figure14). Whilst division of play areasrequires astute detailing, the use ofrebound walls and bays for seating,with related tree/shrub planters, canallow different uses on the separateareas and reduce the scale and impactof tarmacadam. At the secondary levelthere will be a demand for team gamesthat require two or more netball-sizedcourts as multi-games areas. Wheresuch hard surfaces have beenconstructed primarily for sports use, itis essential to allow separate provisionfor informal kick-abouts, gatherings oroverflow parking so it is essential thatthe quality of surface is maintained.

The recent

introduction of small

element paving slabs

now makes such

marking-out of a

chessboard on paving

slabs unnecessary.

Walks around the

periphery of the

grounds make

excellent use of space,

but regular foot traffic

demands hard

surfacing.

26

Playground markings

have educational as

well as play uses, but

surface materials must

be suitable.

Marking-out of large

Features on the

playground demands

a suitable surface like

tarmac.

COOMBESCOUNTY INFANTSCHOOL,ARBORFIELDCROSS, READING

Playgroundmarkings,features andsetting

In this example, all

curriculum areas are

served by using the

grounds as a setting

or reference for

study, particularly

that of mathematics,

science, language,

history and social

education. There has

been an attempt in

the playground, as

elsewhere in the

grounds, to provide

opportunity for

learning through

Cannon

roor,

WallSeat

PaintedCaravan

Nature Trail

-1111110111

re" 111.1,111rJ411111111111i

tnt ca DStepping Stones

C=3 Seatw

BoatsTyres.

ffol

Fort

0110

NumberSnake

Humps

4lo411,

PP do

Saddle

IfEMOT

Magic Circle

I

gHollowBlocks

contrast and variety

of experience. Skills

learnt in the

classroom can be

practised out of doors

and vice versa. The

playground is

principally a forum

and theatre for school

gatherings,

spectacles and

demonstrations. It is a

place for organised

teacher-led games

and activities which

can be reinforced

00 Square

and extended by the

use of marking. There

are painted markings

in different colours on

an asphalt surface.

They are specially set

out to define and to

subdivide space into

areas and shapes

and there is provision

for chess, hopscotch,

snakes and ladders,

the numbered grid,

and the Schlegel

mathematical figure.

Other features

:0)

O

Logs

...2..m.-,.:-. ry...z..-,,...4.e * s ,...,.

c.,iluze,Mf.7,1 l'h

Iv,

Yi

0

stimulate thought,

social interaction and

games or relate to

specific curriculum

subjects a compass

and a clock. For

children's play, this

whole range of

playground markings

is available, together

with further options

the 'Big foot', a chain

of islands, the Zig

Zag, the Spiral, and

flow diagrams of

chance and choice.

metres 10

These markings are

reinforced by other

features for play,

such as fixed tyres to

climb on, a boat, a

concrete

humpbacked bridge,

the concrete saddle

and shelter.

The playground

boundaries offer

other opportunities

a log pile and dwarf

walls to climb on or to

sit on. There are forts,

Shell/Seat

InsectGarden

tunnels, steps, a

refuge and a multi-

purpose sand pit

which can double as

a barbecue area.

For informal groups

of two, three or more,

there are 'shells',

protected enclaves

for story telling or for

informal gatherings.

The playground is the

hub of the grounds

and the outdoor heart

of the school.

INFORMALSHAPES OFTARMAC ANDMOWN GRASS

Football Pitch

PITCHES AT ANANGLE TO SITEBOUNDARIES

create moreviable spacesfor other usesor activities

These can contain court or pitch areas.

0 metres 30

28

2.8 Site furniture andenclosureSite furniture is a broad category thatis too often narrowly interpreted inthe design of external spaces. Itusually means seats and more rarelyapplies to tables or worktops, litterbins, lighting, fences, trellises,pergolas, archways, hides or huts.There needs to be co-ordination andcohesion. in such provision to avoid,for example, hollard lights beingplaced in shrub borders that will soonengulf them as plants mature. Thethree-dimensional elements candivide areas of varying character,create more space by taking thegarden up into the air and beattractive in their own right. There is aclear requirement and evidentdemand on many school sites formore seating. This is more than just aquestion of benches on the edge ofplaygrounds, and must be related tosmall spaces and niches of varyingcharacter and quality. In social areassuch provision might allow forcooking and eating outdoors, thepicnic tables and benches alsoproviding surfaces for drawing or

Clusters of seats

away from the main

playground are more

conducive to informal

play.

29

writing. If properly designed andlocated, even a low retaining wall or abrick planter can function as a seat.The different demands and pressuresbetween primary and secondaryschools must be positively addressedin design terms.

Play equipment may be aproprietary product, an acquiredartifact, such as a boat, or a do-it-yourself construction. It is often notprovided as part of the capital budgetand is inevitably most successful whendeveloped subsequently inpartnership with teachers and pupils.In either case it is essential for safetyto foresee the likely zoning andpattern of uses and to create spacesand surfaces accordingly. At the sametime it is important to maximiseincidental play or social opportunitiesin the form of ball walls, retainingwalls for sitting, earth mounds,sunken or quiet areas, slopes orramps, covered yards or verandas(Figure 12). Play equipment may alsobe mobile in the form of tents,movable logs, timber, bricks, tyres,wheeled toys, bean bags or carpets.They require suitable space for bothuse and storage.

Sheltered sitting areas

close to wildlife

habitats present social

and further

educational

opportunities at break

times.

A low retaining wall

around a standard

free provides both

protection and

seating.

Walls and picnic

tables in small spaces

created by planting

allow o variety of

different uses.

large og, forms a

simple"Seat, but such

sushiined'Use requires

a surroundins.su&Ce. ,

of bark Or gravel:.

2.9 Soft landscape andpressure of useMud is too often a'cotinnan feature Onexisting school grounds, Wherever thesoft landscape of grass or shrubborders has beervimable to sustain theintensity of use. In many casesperceived andactual pressures'on thegrounds, especially around thebuildings, have been very different.This is seldom a result ofindiscriminate or Undue patterns ofuse, or of poor site management. It ismore frequently a basic failure in theoriginal design or expansion .of theschool, without accompanyinginvestment in improvements to thegrciunds: 'Heavy, usage,particularly at ch-,4eciiriCiary level,

114st*:004"f4f;;n:,thes4e;laYOut.Large!COngreiatiOrlareas'WidfpathsCUIC;7§i: ...:alignments, changes.level aril appropriate edge detailsmusi Shouldbe no doubt that soft laridicapeareaswill not merely Sqrviye;bitt pOsitiyelythrive.,clearlYic,is not possible to get.

Mawn paths amidst

theadoW mayth is necessarylin

less frdquently used

areas.

Contrasting hard

surfaces and earth

modelling create an

ideal arena for

community events.

30

everything right at the outset of newdevelopments, and some resourcesshould be available to deal withunforeseen 'desire lines' or otherpressure points after patterns of usehave been established.

2.10 Earth modellingBefore looking at the diverse range ofvegetation that can be created withinthe school grounds it is vital to beaware of the importance of earthmodelling and soil management,especially on a new school site. Earthmodelling involves sculpting theground surface to create variedlandforms that can accommodate anew mix of uses. Thus it is possible tocreate changes of level in the form ofmounds, hollows, ridges, arenas,slopes, terraces, plateaux, hills andvalleys. If such modelling achieves abalance between 'cut' and so thatno soils are imported or exported, itcan be extremely cheap. If surplus soilfrom building footings can be utilisedfor earth modelling on site, it offersfurther potential cost saving. Theoperation of mowing machineryshould influence consequentgradients, but not dictate them.Afforestation of steeper slopes is aviable and attractive alternative tomown grass that may also make savingson the maintenance budget in thelonger term.

2.11 Soil managementAnother temptation has been to applya horticultural perspective to thestripping and placement of topsoil topromote maximum growth, whereaspositive manipulation of soils can beused to create areas of overburdenand subsoil with impoverishedconditions at the surface. It mighteven be possible to leave a natural soilprofile, a sand or a rock face or simplyexamples of underlying rocks as ateaching resource. Impoverishmentof soils will reduce grass growth andconsequent mowing and enhancediversity of flora. Surplus topsoil canbe used to improve the growingmedium in woodlands, orchards orgardens. Such variety will feed thecurriculum across a range of subjects.

2.12 TreesStructure planting of native trees andshrubs takes time to establish andmust be a priority on the school site sothat pupils can soon walk under trees,kick leaves and have the feeling ofbeing in woodland. Forestrytransplants 300-600mm in height,planted in random species groups of 3to 7 in number and at 1.5-2m apart,are ideally suited to the creation ofsmall woodlands, copses or shelter-belts. They can be easily grown fromseed or cuttings in the school nursery.

Earth modelling

around the pitch

provides a natural

grandstand.

Grass terraces formed

in a bank are ideal for

large gatherings,

provided grass

mowing has been well

planned.

Schooleaften need a

vaiietyat leaves,

flowers, buds,baric,:,

and seeds of both

native and

ornamentcdplants.

It is important not to

be tao tidy-minded,

since fiingi depend on

deCicianddecaying

wood.

Their growth is,rnore rapid thanlarger nursery stoek, often 300 Min orMore per anninn, and within5tO 8years they can make a meaningfulcontribution to thelaridScape. Theyare small enough for pupils to plantaridsufficient in niimberifor,them toidentify with indiVidually. For moreimmediate impact, much larger,heavy standard trees.3.5=4:5 in highprovide "a more robusf alternativeespecially suited to urban sites orareas close to heavy Usage: Specieschoice for wildlife value is best basedon those indigenous species commonin the locality, although educationaldemands may include a variety of leafshapes, colours and sizes, differentforms of Seed, buds, twigs, bark orblossom This is an area where soundlandscape advice is essential.

,

2.13 HedgesHedges usually require a simpleagricultural fence with plain wireduring their establishment phase, yetare still cheaper in capital terms thanchainlink. An attractive option is ablackthorn mixture of 70-90%,enriched by 2-4 occasional hedgespecies common in the locality Onceestablished the hedge can be cutregularly or be allowed to grow onand eventually laid in the traditionalmanner. If there are no neighbouringconstraints, trees can be included asindividuals or small groups in thehedgerow, thereby enhancing itslandscape significance. There is noreason why hedges should be thought

,

of merely as a boundary treatment.They may be used very effectivelywithin the school grounds to separate

Collection,

propagation and

study of tree seeds

affords a wide range

of educational

benefits

A great variety of

plants can be

propagated,

grown on and

used to enrich the

grounds over both

the short and the

long term.

32

A diveriity of plant Uges,-,to define Spaces: to;screen and tocanopies , Shelter. Beech ; hornbeam; evergreenirol,e'ilarier,,ihrtibs:2,:O6ither-OrriamentalsEtrubs_areand treei:- creates alternatives lo the blackthorn hedge invariety, ii lcmdscape tliesesituations. -

and habitat. ,

g'.14 ScrubAnother vegetation.,tyliel,worthy of '

consideration isssciiib,Ityriicarofuninanagedgrass'landwhich over aperiod'of 10 to '15 years has.beericolonised by ayariety of slirubiandtree,s1iet randomly in groups and inisolation. Scrub growth amongst

,

meadows with pathways mownthrough would satisfy a frequentdemand by teachers and pupils to'roughen the site up!' There is,however, a danger that the pendulumwill swing from the extreme ofhorticultural delight to that ofecological correctness with regard tochoice of species. In reality thegrounds present the potential for amore artistic and horticulturalapproach, perhaps closer to thebuildings, merging graduallyinto amore 'natural' and sylvicultural themetowards the periphery. There'is noreason why the former cannot bedesigned to be of value for wildlife orthe latter to provide visual delight.

Rather than burn logs

and branches, a range

of habitats can be

created with them.

I.

,-

search

mongst

4 ryaautana tsoften

iiigrediant in

4;' chool grounds.

This dose sofbirch bark highlights

the heed te`pfaii for,

and

investigation.

a-

Sowing a wildflower

meadow can be

organised from the

outset as a school

project.

2.15

Planting wildflOWers

raised fromseed is a

viable alternative to

sowing, especially

Whereltligeiditieg

ground flora is to be

retained.

Shrub bordersThere has been a tendency to useshrub borders for residual spaces orwhere windows open outwards. A lowsill then demands constant pruning ofshrubs beneath the windows to restrictheight and maintain light, in whichcase they are rarely visible from theclassroom. They are at the same timeprone to wear from adjacent, heavilyused footpaths. That is not to say thatshrub borders should not be sited againstbuildings, rather that the design and useobjectives must be understood and asuitable growing environment created.They generally need to be at least 1.5metres wide and well away from the roofoverhang to avoid drought conditions.

34

Special edge treatment or change oflevel is necessary near to doorways,paths and other areas of heavy usage.Shrub borders can be as expensive toestablish as cheap hard paved surfaces.Their maintenance costs are alsorelatively high, if done properly, whichargues for their being used judiciouslyand for a purpose. It mightbe to clothe a blank wall, for visualdelight, to form a herb garden orherbaceous plants for cut flowers, toshelter, screen or define externalspaces, or, most importantly, to attractbirds and insects right up to theclassroom window for observation bythe pupils.

Climbers, used in this

case to form a unique

school entrance, are

often a neglected

resource, especially

where space is

restricted.

Monitoring Wildflower

meadows affords.

educatiOnal

opFiortUniiie's'acros-i

rangetine'-tfiroughO'"

I hear and I forget,

I read and I

remember,

I do and I truly

understand.

2.16 BulbsFor the price of one heavy standardtree it is possible to purchase fivehundred bulbs, so creating amagnificent drift of flowers that maycontinue to multiply and vividlyherald the optimism of a comingspring. Bulbs and corms have been aneglected aspect of the soft landscapeon the school site. Frustrations to themowing regime can be overcome bysiting a spring meadow around andbeneath groups of trees, thereby alsorestricting the danger of mowerdamage to trees. This is another casewhere teachers and pupils can take onresponsibility for planting and with ita sense of involvement andownership.

35

2.17 Lawns and.Wiflower meadowsIncreigIngJiiterestin wild floWer.Meadows Might.iminediately,be Metin certain areas* allOWing occasionalbreaks.in the;moWing regline: onlaWns, so that daikeg, haterCups,speedwell or clover can flower.Variation in the mowing regime alsopresents the opportunity to breakdown the scale and monotony of closemown grass and to avoid rectangularshapes. In the same way that thenetball court does not need to be sitedon a rectangle of tarmac, so the pitcharea(s) could be contained withinflowing curves of longer grass ormeadow. Positive enrichment orreplacement of an existing sward bysowing or planting demands soundadvice as to the site and the species.Successful techniques include turftransplants from a species-rich sward,using late-cut species-rich hay as aseed source, sowing a proprietary wildflower seed mixture or raising wildflowers from seed and setting them in

7

an existing sward as young plants.They all require close monitoring andcareful management, both of whichhave direct curricular application, asindeed has the initial choice andvariety of techniques used. It can beparticularly attractive and useful ifwild flowers are brought right up tothe classroom windows. At the sametime, it is important to make thegrounds, especially near thebuildings, appear loved and cared for.Close mowing of a single swathe widthor larger area close to paths and hardsurfaces is one means of achievingthis. There could equally be a placefor the formal, manicured lawn in

6

DiffereMiaf mowing

regimes reate

contrastingrteklikes,

colours .and hahltafs.

and breal4dOWnitiie:

scale oftge grOMidi.

Where resources and

supervision allow,

learning often

continues outside

lesson time.

courtyard or sheltered spaces to allowfor croquet or outdoor bowls.

2.18 WaterWater should always be considered asan integral part of the soft landscapesince it affords a uniquely stimulatingand attractive medium for teachersand pupils. Questions of safety mustaffect how and where water is usedbut they should not preclude it.Existing ponds, ditches and marshland on new school sites should beretained wherever possible andappropriate. Clean surface waterfrom hard surfaces could be directedto a wet meadow, marsh, or pond,

Soft edges to a pond

are more natural, but

often mean more

difficult access and

cannot sustain

intensive use.

A hard edge to one

side of a pondalb:vs

ft7.61ifin5-6401,.dippiilg and sampling.

provided any surplus overflow iscatered for. This might be by meansof open ditches, thus creating afurther rich resource, rather thanhiding all water underground inpipes. Poorly draining soils in low-lying areas may only need to bescooped out to hold water, at least inwinter. More permanent water areasmay require .a butyl liner, concrete orpuddled clay. Study and observationdemand specific and safe edgedetailing in the form of paving slabs,timber decking or shelving gravelaround a part of the pond. A raisedpond is an attractive alternative,suited to use by pupils withdisabilities, but less attractive towildlife if it is completely enclosed,and it is more expensive.

2.19 CropsIt has already been seen how thegrowing and observation of plants hasapplications across the curriculum.This can be far more than growingradishes or sunflowers, and mayinclude all types of vegetable andgarden flowers, cornfields, treenurseries, orchards, soft fruit, hops,nutteries, osier beds or even coppice.They offer the means not merely tobecome directly involved in cropproduction but also to diversify andenrich the grounds. Broadening thepotential for crop production on the

,

'.4 5.

r

el.- 4

, g

"7;,v,°:-

5

Orchard trees are

multi-purpose - food

source, landscape

feature and sunshade.

Location close to the

school has

encouraged this

dinner lady to help

with bulb planting.

41,

Planters allow the

introduction of flowers

to barren tarmac

yards.

38

. ,. 6. e A

restricted' areacif the `school 'Sit'e does Growing cricisclOse to

not mean the Oini§sionof-ckittainentat :;:play tifens may

plants but rather a- blending of the well require protechon,

two. Inisnme cases shrub borders have bilttliey, form an

been suces§ftiflYproduction; thus bringing 'it,righpup --..far both paricgagnts',

to the classroom window and Speitatori.

Alternatively ,specific: growing areas -

can be prOvidedeidier as long. narrow ,

strips or aS'family pints. Strips of-cultivated.grotind are easier for thegroundstaff to rotovate penodicallyand can be divided by rows of pavingslabs' to facilitate access.

2:20.:

The keeping of animals in the school.grounds can involve -both temporaryand permanent provision and extendfrom a pet 'corner to a communityfarm'. The creation of small enclosuresin courtyards or the corner of a

'Animals in Education-making your school animal

friendly', available free from the RSPCA, deals

with all aspects of animal welfare. See also

Department of Education and Science

Adminstrative Memorandum No 3/90: 'Animals

and plants in Schools: Legal Aspects'.

Artificial habitats can

also be a sculpture

and landscape

feature.

Pet hutches within a

larger, secure

enclosure afford

greater freedom for

animals and pupils.

building will allow pets or even smalllivestock to be kept during the daywith great potential for observationand study. Similarly, to have a smallpaddock area where larger farmanimals could be brought onto the sitefor a day or possibly longer wouldincrease the range of opportunities.

Sports pitchesThe provision of sports pitches hasbeen the single most significant factorshaping the appearance and characterof many school sites. It has beenamply documented in BuildingBulletin 852 and is the only outdoorresource that is subject to precisedefinition of space standards. Layoutof pitches at an angle to siteboundaries, rather than parallel tothem, can create triangular pockets ofland for other environmentalresources that might focus on aspecific educational aspect or subjectand enhance the school setting. It alsomakes more space behind goals andstill allows for moving pitches aroundon the larger school site (Figure 14).

2.21

A small paddock dose

to the school allows

short visits from farm

animals.

Recent research revealed thatnatural grass pitches without improveddrainage can sustain little more thanthree hours use per week duringwinter as against the seven hoursprescribed in the Education(School Premises) Regulations. At thesame time, advances in theconstruction of both natural andsynthetic surfaces offer the .

opportunity to exceed these targets.There is a good argument forimproving those pitches with the bestlocation and qualities, and achievingmore diverse usage on the remainder.Trim trails, assault courses, campingor other outdoor educational pursuitsare all possible on pitch areas withpoor potential for team games. Suchdiversification might include thecreation of varied habitats for wildlifewhich would also form a setting forthese outdoor activities.

On a new school site, it isvital that high specificationconstruction and drainage techniquesare used from the outset. Options for

2 The Bulletin additionally provides Area Recommendations and advice on Hard Surfaced Games

Courts, Informal and Social Areas, and Habitats. (Non-Statutory but essential to meet Curriculum and

Extra-Curriculum demands).

te7 39

Erection of

temporary fencing is

another way of

catering far animal

visits.

improving existing natural turffacilities range from introducing adrainage matrix of sand/gravel slits tocompletely replacing the rootzonewith medium fine sand, possiblycombined with the strategic use ofreinforcement materials to helpstabilise areas prone to intensive wear.Some of the cost of theseimprovements may be offset becausethey can then be used to generate agreater potential for shared use.

The DES (now DfEE) and theSports Council jointly sponsoredresearch into the construction,maintenance and use of natural turfwinter games pitches. The monitoringof the use by players and thecollecting of scientific data wasundertaken by the Soil Science Unit ofthe University College of Wales,Aberystwyth, and the Sports TurfResearch Institute respectively. Todate their findings from a smallsample of specially constructedpitches representing the pitchconstruction types most widely usedsuggest the following in terms ofhours of adult play per week duringthe winter months.

WTI"

The establishment of

young trees creates

many tasks that can

beneficially be

performed by pupils.

Maximum adultusage per week

undrained pitches

pipe drained pitches 3 hours

slit drained pitches with sand 6 hours

top dressing

sand carpet pitches 9 hours

sand profile pitches with 12 hours

controllable water table

The researchers estimate that a pitch'sability to sustain wear related to 8-16aged pupil play would approximate tonearly double that of adult play'.

The research indicates thatregardless of construction-types,usage and maintenance, guidelinesand advice must be strictly adhered toin order to prolong the life span of thefacilities, maintain acceptable playingquality of the surface and reducerenovation costs. Undrained and pipedrained pitches will inevitably sufferfrom poor playing quality during andafter heavy rainfall, and usage cannotbe planned as accurately as with theother types of construction.

Even where

maintenance skills

require external help,

the educational

potential of such work

need not be lost.

I This research may be useful when assessing the

need to provide grass pitches capable of

sustaining the playing of team games by pupils

for seven hours a week as required by The

Education (School Premises) Regulations 1999.

5240

_

, cr..4

When pupils take on

care of the grounds it

often leads to a sense

of ownership and

responsibility

Moveover, the undrained and pipedrained pitches are more likely tobecome totally unusable if played onunder adverse weather conditions.

2.22 SecurityThe school, landscape must minimisethe likelihood of wanton damagewhilst ensuring a safe and secureenvironment for pupils and teachers.Security has been the subject of a DfEEpublications. The argument thatmanagement approaches should aimat ensuring the premises are, at alltimes, kept in a state of good repairand should encourage constructiveand supportive attitudes amongstpupils, staff and parents is equallyapplicable to the grounds. 'There isseen to be a relationship betweenappearance, ethos and image of aschool and the way it is perceived andtreated both by pupils and thesurrounding community.' Such agood housekeeping approach isconsidered to be the most cost-effective security measure. Moreover,

41

the grounds have more potential thanthe buildings for the pupils to becomeactively involved in care anddevelopment and thereby to assume asense of ownership.

2.23 SafetyThorny shrubs, uneven hard surfacesand broken fencing can all affectsafety in the grounds, but it is surfacesbeneath play equipment which havebeen the subject of most recentdiscussion. Yet the majority ofplayground accidents involvecollisions and related falls on the samelevel, where overcrowding or poorlayout of equipment may becontributory factors.. This does notnecessarily result from a lack of space,rather a lack of choice, the dearth ofstimulating and interestingopportunities causing local crowding.Clearly, play equipment must never bedangerous, although it may only beattractive to pupils if it incorporatessome risk. Indeed pupils may wellcreate risk-taking situations where theplay environment does not providethem4. Impact absorbing surfaces thatare available include sand, wood chipsand bark, rubber tiles or shreddedrubber, but they all require ongoingmaintenance and only constantvigiliance can minimise the risk ofaccidents. Supervision must be astuteyet not restrictive, since the moredispersion of pupils that is allowed,the greater their opportunities forplay and the less the problem ofconsequent wear, especially to the softlandscape.

3 Managing School Facilities Guide 4 'Improving

Security in Schools' (HMSO 1996)

4 Most safety aspects are covered in 'Play Safety,

Guidelines, for Outdoor Play Provision'. National

Playing Fields Associations 1997

as

Roles andRelations

3.1 PotentialparticipantsAchievement of any design ormanagement initiatives to enhancethe educational use of grounds isabsolutely dependent on partnershipand teamwork. Their disparate natureand the lack of a common purposehave been major impediments toprogress in the past. Every localeducation authority is to some degreeunique in the way in which care anddevelopment of the grounds arearranged. Yet the issues of closepartnership between education andlandscape staff, and within the lattergroup between designers andmanagers, relate to all of them. Thosewho could be involved are set out inFigure 15.

Whilst success can be achievedby one individual and there aremany examples of this it is richerand more lasting where it involvesteachers and pupils, educational

POTENTIALPARTICIPANTS INDEVELOPMENTOF THEGROUNDS Parents

Governorsommuni

VoluntaryGroups

LocalAuthorities

DistrictCouncils

The SchoolTeachers and

Pupils

Advisersand

Inspectors

LandscapeArchitect

ArchitectsEstate

Managers

LandscapeManager

GroundstaffContractors

advisers and landscape specialists. A'whole-school' approach can recognisemutual benefits, resolve conflict andovercome a notable reluctance, at alllevels and even within the educationservice, to involve pupils right fromthe outset. There may well need to bea small working group and onemember of staff taking on a liaisonrole for the grounds, especially as itrelates to day-to-day maintenance.Communication is the key. Everyonemust participate and if someoneleaves the school there should alwaysbe two or three potentialreplacements. If there is a writtenpolicy commitment to educational useof the grounds by an individualschool, and preferably by the LEA, itwill provide a firm platform fornewcomers to develop this role.

3.2 Diffusion oflandscape skillsPersonal qualities and informalworking relationships have had moreinfluence than organisationalstructures in determining the quality ofthe landscape service. In the hands of asensitive landscape manager, attunedto the value of the school siteeducationally and environmentally,initiatives in the school grounds haveflourished. The absence of suchattitudes and teamwork has resultedin the adoption of traditional andessentially unchanging maintenance.

A major feature of all localauthorities is that design andmanagement of grounds are seldomunified. Location in quite separatedepartments is commonplace. Yetthere is no clear distinction betweenthe two roles in practice; designersinfluence the nature and type ofmanagement, and managersinfluence the establishment of a newlandscape scheme. The achievementof educational objectives is totally

42 5 4

dependent on partnership betweenthese interlinked disciplines. There is astrong argument for encouraginggreater contact either by interdepartmental working teams or bysecondment of staff. By such means,daily, as opposed to monthly or evenyearly, contacts can be maintained.

3.3 An inter-disciplinary approachThe relationship between landscapeand education staff is even morecritical. As one teacher observed: 'It isgenerally felt that the schoolsthemselves must have an active role inmanaging their sites. The problem isthat no-one in education is trained tocontrol standards of groundsmaintenance. The Local EducationDepartment is the client but oftendoes not know what it wants andtherefore allows groundsmaintenance officers the dominantrole in the process!' This isolation hasbeen breaking down and it acceleratedwith the introduction ofLocal Management and the potentialfor greater participation by teachersand pupils.

Teachers plan and understandtheir own work but are not alwaysaware of what they need from theschool grounds or what they couldquite easily have. Conversely,landscape architects and managersmay not appreciate educationaldemands on the outdoorenvironment, which are often mostably expressed by pupils. There ismuch to be gained from the inter-disciplinary approach. Landscapestaff could directly assist the educationadvisory service by showing schoolshow new outdoor resources can becreated and maintained. Teachingstaff and pupils could work withlandscape managers to ensure theservice is more directly tailored to theneeds of the school. Such liaison mustbe co-ordinated so that schools alwaysknow who to contact and for whatadvice or services.

43

1_ 3.4 TrainingGreater benefits can also accrue if aninter-disciplinary approach is adoptedtowards training. Thus teachers couldcontribute to landscape trainingcourses and landscape staff toeducational courses. Indeed this couldultimately extend to courses by onediscipline for the other. Only by thismeans can there be a fullerunderstanding of the constraints andopportunities, the means and theends. It is another way of ensuringthat designers, managers, educationaladvisers and teachers work inpartnership on a daily basis.

3.5 ImplementationA school.taking on sole responsibilityfor an area or landscape staffproviding resources in isolation areboth approaches prone to failure. Theactive type of learning demanded bythe National Curriculum requiresinvolvement leading to a sense ofownership. At the same time,extensive new works and aftercaremay depend on specific technicalskills, labour and machinery. A mixedeconomy, where the school identifiesthose tasks it can undertake to theeducational benefit of the pupils andthose for which it needs support fromlandscape staff, is likely to be mostsuccessful. It relies on the closestliaison and understanding beiweenthe school and the local landscapesupervisor. He or she must exercise alight touch in supporting and advisingteachers and pupils, frequently in thebackground but always available. It isa far more challenging, yet aninfinitely more rewarding, role.

The degree to which a schoolmay need such support depends onthe age range of the children and theattitudes, skills and contacts of theteachers. Some teachers may have theability, although not necessarily thetime, to undertake much of the workin partnership with their pupils andmerely require occasional logisticalhelp in the form of labour, machinery

a5

or materials. Others may have usefulcontacts with local voluntary agenciesor through the governing body.Consultation with parents,neighbours and the local communityis also essential, and it may lead tooffers of support and directassistance. Such voluntary help is farmore feasible for new works than foron-going maintenance, since there isno long-term commitment. Greater

44

emphasis on showing schools howthey can do things for themselves andwhere they can get advice andmaterial support can only furthertheir direct involvement. Fullparticipation by pupils throughoutthis process achieves educationalobjectives, such as skills in English,Mathematics and Design, togetherwith learning in environmental andsocial education.

4.1 The new school siteWhilst the principles of landscapedesign and management to maximiseeducational opportunities can applyequally to new sites and existinggrounds, their implementation takesplace within totally differentframeworks. New sites form part of acapital programme, where specificfinancial resources are allocated andthere is a building team directlyresponsible for the works.

The brief4.2

The development of the brief for anew school site is an evolutionaryprocess. The landscape deserves asmuch attention as the building. Itshould never be standard or staticsince changing ideas and techniquesmerit experiment and evaluation forinclusion in future briefs. Beyond theneed to state size of areas and numberof facilities, it should explain the aimsand aspirations of teachers and pupilsand the character, qualities andfeatures to be created for maximumeducational opportunity. Design ofthe overall site layout and detailedlandscape treatment demandsguidance on their purpose. The adultperception of designed orderliness,colour, texture and scale is oftendifferent from that of the child and itis important to consult widely withteachers and pupils to create anoutdoor environment that they willvalue and use. Since there should beno such thing as a 'standard' brief,emphasis must be on the approachand the areas it should cover, asoutlined in Appendix 3.

Site selection4.3

In the same vein, the choice of agreenfield site should include not justfinancial, land ownership andplanning factors but also that of itspotential use. A flat featureless piece of ,

45

land is ideal for convenience ofbuilding and playing fieldconstruction but it is not for the earlyestablishment of a landscape form. A'site with diverse landform or extensivevegetation that relates well to the localcommunity it serves may presentdesign problems but it also providescharacter, challenge and opportunity.If these considerations can be fed intothe local planning process earlyenough, they will reap rewards andprovide cost benefits.

4.4 A site appraisalIt is important that all members of thebuilding team should present thesite's constraints and opportunitiesfrom the specialists' viewpoint. Inlandscape terms it may involvesignificant landform or existingvegetation, shelter or exposure, viewsfrom and to the site, soil conditionsimplications of playing fieldconstruction, access, orientation andcirculation (Figure 16). It makesSound Sense to retain mature treeswherever possible rather than wait30-60 years to see items replaced. Ittakes only a few hours to destroy whatmight have needed generations toestablish. Existing overhead orunderground services, planningrequirements, easements, covenantsor public rights of way are other issueswhich must be addressed at the outset.In order to meet future planningdeadlines such details can be preparedby the landscape architect as soon asthe site enters the buildingprogramme, and should always beavailable to the architect before anydesign work commences. It could takethe form of a site appraisal whichaccompanies the brief or, whereapplicable, is incorporated within it.the documented history of the site,ats past development and the related

FICIURE If;

LANDSCAPEAPPRAISAL

(This has been

simplified for

publication purposes,

and a detailed

checklist is set out in

Appendix 1.)

PollutionFrom adjacent bus

depot affects western

Part of site and must

be reflected in pattern

of use and detailed

design.

SlopesDistinct area of

steeply sloping

ground (8-10%).

i.,

/

eriP \ \ \

ViewsExcellent long

distance views to

north and east, but

very exposed from

this direction.

/

/.- /--..- // /

1 I /

/ I1 1 //I /

ShadeExtensive shading

...-,...*s,..,.

...k.

t

N.,....;:.,.-,

',.

I

\ ' /

From tree belt on

southern boundary, a

major issue for site

development.

reports and drawings will form thebasis of useful indoor/outdoor classstudies later on. It is important thatcopies of all these documents aremade available to the school.

4.5 OptionsSince the spatial disposition of themajor elements on the site locationand relationship of building(s),playing fields access, servicing andparking, hard and grass play areasare absolutely crucial to landscape andeducational opportunities, it makessound sense to be flexible and look atall the options. Two, three or morenotional layouts, incorporating thesemain elements, may be feasible and

46

0 metres 50

worthy of discussion and developmentwith teachers and pupils (Figure 17).Design, management and useconsiderations will need to beplaced in a financial context whenappraising options but costs shouldnot be the only selection criteria. Inessence, the preferred option shouldlook and work best. This stage shouldnever be rushed since in landscapeand educational terms the main issueis not the detailed treatment but theoverall site layout. It is essential thatsubstantive work on site is notundertaken until a preferred option isagreed, to avoid negating site featuresit might be possible to retain ordevelop.

I

Tree RetentioEssential

Desirable

0 Not Essential

FIGURE 17

OPTIONS FORSITE

DEVELOPMENT

4.6 Budget estimatesOnce a site is included in the capitalprogramme an overall cost needs to beestablished and it is often requiredbefore detailed site planning isundertaken. It is vital that thelandscape architect prepares an outlineestimate for external works at thisstage for inclusion in the total projectcost. Provided due allowance is madefor the uniqueness of the individualsite, such an estimate can be based ona simple elemental rate for the maincomponents sports facilities and

Car Park

playing fields, site furniture,boundary fencing, play and socialareas, tree surgery and management,habitat creation, planting, seedingand aftercare (Figure 18). The last isespecially important as LocalManagement means a global groundsmaintenance budget is no longeravailable for each authority to coverestablishment costs. Aftercare as partof capital works should include at leastone year's maintenance for grass areasand three years' maintenance forplanting areas.

FIGURE IS

EXTERNALWORKS AS APROPORTION OFTOTAL BUILDINGCOSTS

The proportion is

usually between 10%

and 20%, although it

may be lower if

playing fields are not

included, and higher

on difficult sites with

abnormal costs.

Roads Paved Areas DrainageBuilding Services

Site Layout/PlantingBoundary Walls and Fences

Playing FieldsOther Items

20% and higher

on difficult sites

BEST COPY AVAILABLE47

Buildings

10% or less without

playing fields

4.7 Development ofthe landscape schemeIt is far preferable if the landscapedetails accompany the planningapplication and, as a result, the designof the site is developed in partnershipwith the architect. It gives both theclient and the planning officer a muchbetter indication of what the wholesite should look like. Similar liaisonshould ensure that much of thelandscape scheme can be implementedin tandem with building construction,provided individual contract areas andrelated access are clearly defined. It isthen possible not only to createplateaux for playing field (s) but also toremodel any other parts of the siteoutside the building contract area.Unless future teaching staff areavailable for discussion, there is muchto be said for creating severalprotected, partially screened spaces ofvarying size and character which couldsubsequently be developed by theschool in liaison with their landscapeadvisers.

4.8 Advanced plantingBy no means all of the site will requireremodelling. Indeed there isadvantage in retaining partsundisturbed, especially whenplanting is to be established. Treesand shrubs generally grow better andfaster in such conditions, and,importantly, can be established at anearly stage. Ideally, such advancedplanting should take place a few years

prior to building construction, so thatthese new landscape features havetime to establish. The main obstaclesto overcome are usually ownershipand/or tenancy and funding, butevery year that can be gained is aseason's growth. At the very least it isessential to have the landscape budgetapproved so that all works outside thebuilding contract area can proceed atthe same time.

4.9 The landscapebudgetThe financial provision for externalworks, and for soft landscape inparticular, should not be arbitrarilyreduced as a result of overspendingon the building. Whereas the buildingtender is a known sum at approvalstage, landscape costs have usuallybeen in the form of an estimate untilbuilding works are nearly complete.Thus the landscape estimate hassometimes been treated as acontingency sum, since finances havenot been committed. This can beavoided by emphasis on advancedlandscape works, by early and phasedimplementation of the rest of thescheme and by the fact that the designis curriculum based rather thansimply cosmetic. It is neither desirablenor efficient to believe that externalworks are somehow less importantand can be added at a late date.Indeed it is preferable if a smallproportion of the landscape budget isretained to fund adjustments required

SOFT AND HARDLANDSCAPECOSTS

(Based on an average

of 1999 prices)

Grass (Seedling only)

Woodland

Grass (Turf)

Ornamental Shrub Borders

Self-binding Gravel

'Tarmac

'Paving Slabs

'Concrete Paviors

*Bad( Paviors

'Cobbles

'Granite Setts

'Excluding preparation costs10 20 30 do

Cost (£/re)

Note: These are typical price ranges for various types of soft and hard treatments (excluding preparation). Theyare, however, only

indicative and in practice they can vary considerably depending on factors such as location, site, accessibility and scale of work.

For more detailed information on landscape costs refer to E & FN Spon's Landscape and External Works Price Book 1999

ISBN 0419 24130 2

6048

by the new users. Where funds arelimited, it may be better to invest inearth modelling and extensive`natural' planting, which help definespace as major three-dimensionalelements, rather than ornamentalshrub borders or expensive pavingdetails as an alternative to tarmac(Figure 19).

Contract4.10

arrangementsTo some extent the above discussiondepends on whether the landscapescheme is implemented as a sub-contract of the building contract or asa separate main contract. Yet even inthe first case any possible cuts shouldalways be referred to and agreed withthe client. There is certainly a strongargument for hard landscape worksbeing included in the buildingcontract where most of the necessarytrade skills lie. Dealing with alllandscape works in this way has theadvantage of one contractor beingresponsible for the whole project.

Where landscape works are asub-contract however, top soiling isoften undertaken by the buildingtrades and can result, if unsupervised,in a 'clean' blanket of top soil overcompacted or debris-riddensurfaces. There is much to be said forsoiling being under taken by thoseresponsible for sowing, planting andestablishing the soft landscape inother words the specialist landscapecontractor employed under a separatemain contract. Shrub borders can beleft 300 mm below finished groundlevel and grass areas 150 mm below.The builder's responsibility to leave aclean and tidy site, which mustinclude the works area, is then self-evident and surface compaction can beremedied before soiling takesplace. This arrangement allows for amuch longer defects and maintenanceperiod than would be acceptable in abuilding contract. It also affords

greater potential for pupils'participation in the implementationof the landscape scheme.

It is a great advantage if thelandscape contractor is fullyresponsible not merely for thegrowing medium but for earlyestablishment over at least a 36-monthperiod. Emphasis in the contract canthen be more on performance and theachievement of an objective, ratherthan on completing a series ofoperations. Such long-termresponsibility cannot but encouragehigher standards at the outset. Forthis and other reasons it is equallyimportant that the landscapearchitect's design aims and theschool's use requirements are setdown in a management plan. Itshould fully describe their objectives,both for the site as a whole and itsindividual parts. Such a plan could bedevised from a checklist of criteria forconsidering the development andmaintenance of outdoor educationfacilities at schools.

4.11 Existing schoolgroundsThe process of enriching existingschool grounds must recognise thatteachers' time is limited, that they mayneed help in identifying theindividual and unique qualities oftheir own site, that historically thegrounds maintenance service mayhave been essentially negative andinflexible and that they may beconcerned about the acquisition ofresources to implement change. To besuccessful, especially over the longerterm and that is the objective thesevarious factors must be tackled.Specific issues and processes toconsider before commencing theenrichment of existing schoolgrounds are set out in the appendices.Figures 20, 21 and 22 provideexamples of how advantage has beentaken of existing site features.

6149

FIGURE 20

BRANTFIELDNURSERYSCHOOL,KENDAL

Adaptation of thegrounds around aVictorian house

Brantfield is not a

purpose- built

nursery; it is a three

storey adaptation ofa large Victorian

family house on the

outskirts of Kendal.

The grounds have

been changed by the

Cumbria County

grounds maintenance

staff, and they now

Playground

Wooded Mound

provide a useful

resource for learning.

The original owners

had imaginative

ideas about garden

design and they hod

created interesting

path systems

incorporating amound on the steeply

sloping site, and

these have been

retained. The nursery

is provided with a

playground

containing a covered

sand pit to cope witha variety of weather

conditions, water

facilities for play, a

separate covered

play area adjoining a

playhouse fitted with

kitchen and dining

0 metres

furniture and fittings.

On the top of the

mound a treehouse is

linked into the trees

and to a platform/lookout area.

Elsewhere, there are

timber climbingframes.

Behind the house

there is a tank pond,

conservation area,

50

62

30

and paddock on thehillside. An orchard

has been planted

which allows the

children to harvest

apples. The outdoor

environment has been

developed over a

period of time and

reflects the school's

commitment to

environmental

education out-of-

doors which extends

and enriches the

experience provided

in the nursery.

1111201=IFCRAWLEY RIDGE

MIDDLE SCHOOL,CAMBERLEY

Adaptation of thegrounds of aVictorian house

Pitch

The school was built

in the 1970s on the

outskirts of

Camberley. It enjoys

the advantages of

having been built in

the well planted

grounds of a former

Victorian house.

Every effort was

made to preserve the

trees and shrubs

while creating hard

paved games courts

and grass playing

fields. The building is

multi-level to cope

with the steeply

sloping ground and

the school makes

extensive use of the

original terrace which

gives a commanding

view of the gardens

and playing fields

below. The grounds

have been so well

endowed that there

51

0 metres

has been little to do

except create a

'wilderness' area forwildlife and a pondwith wetlands. The

pupils have made

miniplots and a

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

6 3

50

project area to gainfirsthand experience

of growing plants and

have built working

models for

experiments out-of

doors.

FIGURE 22

ST MARY'S HIGHSCHOOL,CHESHUNT

Preserving anddevelopingexisting features:a moat and site ofan old house

School grounds often

contain relics of the

past, for example

foundations of old

buildings, old timber

barns, ancient

boundaries, disused

railway track beds,

and quarries. At St.

Mary's High School,

the grounds include a stocked it with coarsemoat and the remains of fish. It has kept alive aa fortified house long sense of history andsince gone. given pupils theThe school has turned opportunity to bethe island site of the involved in a wideold house into a range of plant andwoodland nature wildlife studies.reserve, and it has

cleaned the moat and

r(..\ Games Courts

.-''\ \\ .....--.

Borough CouncilPlaying Fields

Nature Reserve(site of old

mooted house)

'r41

11.4)

11.

MI

Stream

Borough CouncilPlaying Fields

School PlayingFields

Pavilion

Serviceroad

-M 52

0 metres 150

I

til

ti

COOMBESCOUNTY INFANTSCHOOL,ARBORFIELDCROSS

'Beforeimprovements'(soon aftercompletion in19711)

For details see Figure

24 below.

COOMBESCOUNTY INFANTSCHOOL,ARBORFIELDCROSS, IN 1999

'Afterimprovements'(change has been,

and remains, a

continuous and

evolving process).

The school was built

on the edge of the

village in the early

1970s. When it wasopened the grounds

were a rather barren

combination of short

cut grass and tarmac.

Over the last 30

Grass

Playground

L

Maze

School Road

Grass

Car park

-------- -----------------------

Amphitheatre

10 20metres

30

ootc?4,30000_020o0c 0000 0 0 0 0 00o 0 0 0 0Nursery Play round

0 Glass Play Area

000:Playground

MixedNativeSpecies

Mixed Native Species00

0

-----Playing Field ------ '-Service gate Enclosures

years and at the rate

of one outdoor project

a term tree and shrub

planting in the

autumn, pond, ditch

or wall making in the

other two terms, the

grounds have been

transformed by-

Grass

y -

teachers, the

caretaker, pupils,

parents and agencies

into a teaching,

learning and

recreation

environment. Funds

for materials were

raised by money-

reirritmi---------------------------------

School Lone

making school

events, and through

entering award

schemes which

provided cash prizes

to create

environmental

curriculum- related

grounds

10 20metres

improvements.

Enrichment of the

grounds continues

and features that are

no longer required

are reformed into

new projects. More

recently classrooms

and a nursery were

30

added displacing

made features. These

were replaced

elsewhere, now a

nature trail encircles

playing fields (not

shown) and a pond

and amphitheatre

were created.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE53 65

4.12 ContactsTwo of the most useful initial contactsare the educational and inspectorialservice and the landscape architect ormanager involved in promotingdevelopment of school grounds.There is every reason to establishearly contact and find out who doeswhat, but there is little value inrushing forward with vague requestsfor development of the grounds or anisolated resource. Invariably the replywill be 'Why do you need it?' or 'Howdoes this fit into the overall sitecontext and other potentialdemands?' or 'Have you discussed itwith teacher colleagues and pupils?'These issues must be addressed in theschool's preliminary plannning.

Developing ideasThus, at the same time as establishingcontacts and identifying their rolesand relationships, it is valuable for theschool to develop its own ideas aboutoutdoor resources and their uses.Everyone should contributeteachers, pupils, secretary, caretaker,supervisors, crossing attendants,parents, neighbours and the widercommunity and all suggestions,however extreme or obtuse, should bediscussed and recorded. A site plan ata scale of 1:1250 or preferably 1:500will aid this process immensely, aswould a simple model. Schools canusually obtain plans directly from theLocal Education Authority or therelated Estates, Property orArchitects' Department. Otheressential information concernsunderground services and details ofthe current landscape maintenancecontract.

4.13

4.14 Site meetingsBefore ideas become too specific it ispreferable to meet either, andpreferably both, the inspector/adviserand the landscape architect/manager.This will allow proposals to bedeveloped in the unique context ofthe site. It will help if the school'sideas have been forwardedbeforehand to those attending the sitemeeting. This could be a short writtenreport, supported by a plan, whichexplains how the school hasdeveloped its ideas and what its

objectives and priorities are.It is important to survey and

appraise all the existing and potentialresources within and around theboundaries. They may already existand have simply not been recognised.Alternatively, a small change may beall that is required, such as creatingaccess to an existing wild area, torelease a rich new teaching resource.Current site features might beadapted to more relevant andrewarding uses. Finally, newopportunities for teaching andlearning could be created, based onthe needs of the school and thepotential of its grounds.

4.15 Plans and phasingOptions might include upgradingparts of the playing fields for betterand more sustained sports use,thereby affording other areas forenrichment of educationalopportunities across the curriculum,provided these alterations areconsistent with the Education (SchoolPremises) Regulations. It mightinvolve digging up tarmac, importingtopsoil, sowing seed and establishingplants. Trees and shrubs can dividethe new areas, provide shade andshelter and form different sizedspaces. It often means rationalisingthe pattern of access and circulationaround the building. These variousissues are best brought together in theform of a development plan that mustbe flexible, determining a range ofpossibilities and potential phasing ofworks. It should then avoid theinherent danger of pursuing oneinitiative which subsequently provesto have prevented a number of otherstaking place.

If successive years of pupils areto gain from the anticipation,planning and implementation of newinitiatives, the grounds should beforever changing. One solution is tothink in terms of, say, a five-yeardevelopment plan, identifying what isproposed each year. It can bereviewed annually to match objectiveswith the availability of resources andensure that all changes are picked upby the annual maintenanceprogramme. As regards this, the closestco-operation with the local grounds

54 - -CO

maintenance supervisor is essential.Thorough recording, possibly in theform of a permanent diary for thesite, will inform future teachers aboutwhat was done, why, when and bywhom. The need for planning,consultations and the continuity ofprojects and management cannot beover-emphasised. A school rangerservice would be an excellent way ofcomplementing the teachers' input.

It may be that after two orthree such development plans it is timeto start afresh to clear and replantornamental shrubs to reshape areas, tocoppice woodlands or lay hedgerowsor even to rotovate and re-seed wildflower meadows. All this activityoffers far more scope for teachingand learning than just passive studyof existing features. At the same timeit is important to be opportunisticand not stick too rigidly to apreconceived plan or timetable ifresources suddenly become availablefor a specific project.

4.16 FundingSimple adjustment to maintenanceregimes need not involve greatadditional cost and may result in smallsavings. Indeed the move towards amore diverse and less manicuredlandscape is unlikely to havesignificant revenue implications. Theslight increase in costs resulting fromsmaller, more intricate areas can beoffset by the lesser frequency, orabsence, of operations elsewhere. Theissue that every school must face ishow to fund the capital cost of majorchange. If the proposals are directlyrelated to the National Curriculum,the Local Education Authority mayhave a central fund under LocalManagement specifically for

environmental initiatives. Guidancemay also be available on grant aidingbodies, voluntary groups and possiblesponsorship. A rolling programme ofgradual improvement is an obvioususe of limited resources, which mightwell afford greater educationalbenefits and more direct participationthan sudden and complete changeorganised and implemented by'outsiders'.

Community service, armedforces, employment or environmentalinitiatives, local and nationalvoluntary or community groups may allbe able to provide labour and possiblymachinery, although in some casesthere is a small charge. Secondaryschools could help primary in theimplementation of newprojects. There are also the school'sown resources, including its localmanagement allocation and fund-raising activities, the latter involvingParent Teacher Associations who maythemselves support environmentalinitiatives. The flexibility afforded byLocal Management might underpinprovision of more expensive facilitiessuch as artificial sports surfaces via apartnership with the District Councilor a local sports association. Suchsharing of resources with the localcommunity on a well planned andregulated basis rarely leads to conflictin time zoning of these various uses.

Whatever new initiative iscontemplated by the school, the issueof subsequent care and managementmust be addressed and resolvedbefore commencement. The mostcommon cause of eventual failurehas been the lack of provision forongoing maintenance. It might notmean additional money, merely talkingto and involving other people.

Management andMaintenance of the.Grounds5.1 Management and

maintenanceManagement plans set the broadobjectives for development and use ofthe outdoor environment over thelonger term. Maintenance involvesday-to-day care of the grounds toachieve these ends. The prime movermust be the school, which shoulddecide the pattern and intensity ofactivities and phased implementationof the related resources. There maybe a need on heavily used sites forboth space and time zoning. It is veryimportant that positive action is takento organise site usage and to monitorclosely the condition of the grounds,otherwise there is a danger thatmaintenance procedures willdetermine educational use ratherthan the other way around.

Whatever is practised by way oflandscape management will haveenvironmental implications. Forexample, it may raise issues regardingthe care of flora and related faunawhich certainly demand discussionand a full understanding of thevarious options. The feasibility of amore organic approach as against theconvenience of herbicides, is animmediate and topical theme. Theschool must make these decisions butneeds the advice and support oflandscape staff to achieve andimplement them.

Value of guidelinesWithout specific guidelines andregular user involvement there hasoften been a clear tendency forgrounds maintenance staff to pursuetheir own convenient and essentiallyunchanging maintenance regime.Work study and contract systemswhich lay greatest stress on the waysand times of doing things rather thanthe end result may well blunt initiativeand discourage craftsmanship, besides

5.2

supporting this static approach.There is a further danger thatperipatetic landscape teams erode thesense of personal responsibility andcommitment to the individual school,especially where they are swappedfrequently from one area to another.

5.3 Specifying theworkPerformance specifications, which setdown what is to be achieved, havebeen encouraged by competitivetendering in preference to operationsspecifications, which define exactlywhen and how many times tasks are tobe undertaken They give moreresponsibility and flexibility tocontractors by telling them what iswanted and leaving them to organisestaff and machinery to these ends. Incertain respects they are easier tosupervise since standards for checkingare always evident. If a performancespecification is backed up by a userguide, rather than the actual contractdocuments, school staff can quicklyunderstand what standards have beenagreed, what to look for and whom tocontact, and thus manage their ownsites more effectively.

Grass areas5.4

The maintenance of amenitygrassland demands more input andpresents more seasonal problems,especially at the peak of the growingseason, than any other form ofmaintenance. There is also a greatrange of options with regard to theform and make of machinery. Thechoice of machinery directly affectsoutput and consequent costs. Tractormounted equipment is vastly cheaperthan pedestrian mowers and this mustinfluence, though not determine,design and management of grounds.There is a great temptation to deridethe gang-mower as the cause of green

56 cs

855

MOLEHILL COPSECOUNTYPRIMARYSCHOOL,MAIDSTONE

Groundsmaintenanceregime changedto suit thecurriculum

Over a number of

years, the teachers

and pupils have

planned new outdoor

resources to match

curriculum needs in

partnership with

dose mown grass

Culling from Juneonwards (bulbs)

Spring MeadowJuly-end of year cutting

Summer MeadowMarch-early june cutting

No herbicide onthese boundaries

No cutting

September-end ofyear cutting

grounds maintenance

staff. They have

reduced the amount

of grass gang-

mowing which

extended over the site

by limiting the area of

short grass to the

games pitches. As a

result of the reduction

in grass cutting it has

been possible to

establish a nature

trail, a copse with a

`deserts' in school grounds. Yet theycan be extremely cost-effective forlarger areas with good accessibility.They are, however, less suitable forsand carpet and sand profile pitches,and some damage may even occur toslit drained pitches. An alternative is acompact tractor fitted with a system ofhydrostatic drive cylinder mowerunits.

Since the pedestrian cylindermower is relatively expensive it isimportant that only those areas whichdemand such fine cutting on amenityor use grounds should be included.Difficult shapes, corners and steepslopes might be better planted up ormown less frequently. It is only when

variety of young

trees, a pond,

wetlands, and wildflower meadows. A

new grass

maintenance regime

has been devised by

57

0 metres

the pupils to show the

zones in the grounds

requiring different

kinds of grass

treatment and the

frequency of cutting

to allow these

frequency of cut is reduced, whichdemands the use of a rotary or flailmower on longer grass, that savingscan accrue. Extensive use ofpedestrian machines may well bediminished by redesign or areappraisal of the approach to annualmaintenance. Reduction in mowingfrequency, even if it does not makesubstantial savings because of thegreater amount of time taken, will atleast use less non-renewable resourcesand enhance habitat and landscapediversity. Even so natural successionmust be held in check to maintainsuch variety, and this requires someannual mowing to achievemanagement objectives.

6 9

50

resources to flourish

and be an asset to

curriculum.

Mowing some areas less oftencreates diversity in appearance andpotential uses. Established wild flowermeadows need one or two cuts peryear and the cuttings must beremoved to preclude enrichment ofthe soil. As a rule of thumb a singlecut and collection equates with theannual cost of gang-mowing. This ispartly because collection on ahorticultural rather than anagricultural scale is very expensive.Better machinery or collection by theschool would make the comparisonmore favourable. For convenientusage it is essential to mow pathwaysand larger gathering areas within themeadow regularly (Figure 25).

Another option is conversionof grass areas to woodland, and in thiscase the time-scale of actual savingsdepends on the relative costs of grassmaintenance and tree planting.Where grass mowing is expensivethe costs of planting up a woodlandcan be recouped in as little as 5 to 10years in the form of savings in theannual maintenance budget. Where itis exceedingly cheap, such as on large,gang-mown areas, it may take over40 years. It is thus in difficult corners,on steep banks and other areas whichrequire pedestrian mowing thatplanting up with trees is likely to bemost economic.

5.5 Shrub bordersWider use of selective herbicides, andconsequently less hand cultivationand failure to replace dead or dyingshrubs or to cope with trampling anddamage, have meant shrub bordersare often a negative rather than apositive feature on the school site.There is every indication that manyschools would prefer to see a smallerarea of shrub border maintained to ahigher standard. Given their currentproliferation this might be a positivemove in landscape terms, especially ifit is balanced by more natural shrubplanting amongst meadow orwoodland. Such comments apply withmore force to hybrid, floribunda orgrandiflora rose beds, which demandan even higher level of maintenancebut offer less in terms of educationaluse.

5.6 HedgesThese may be informal floweringshrubs, more formal ornamentalvarieties or a mixed native hedge, withestablishment and maintenance costsgenerally decreasing from first tolast mentioned. Informal hedges offlowering plants demand careful andmore frequent pruning, whereasbeech, hornbeam and more nativehedges can be trimmed once a year.Native hedges are best kept in an 'A'shape for both ease of cutting andhabitat value. Increasingly, tractor-mounted hedge trimmers arereplacing hand-held mechanicaltrimmers, greatly reducing annualmaintenance costs. A further option isto allow the hedge to grow on and layit every ten years or so. This is anothercase where educational use and cost-effective maintenance may well be inharmony rather than in conflict. Aphased programme of hedge layingon a large school site would allowpupils to be involved every year.

5.7 TreesTree management on the school sitemay extend from young plantationsto mature specimens. In the formercase a three-year, and preferably afive-year, maintenance programme isessential once planting has takenplace, to ensure successfulestablishment. Herbicides can beprecluded by use of a mulch, theeasiest being a metre squarepolypropylene mat, provided it issecurely anchored at the edges underthe surrounding turf. Watering maywell be necessary, especially in thefirst year. Stakes, ties, guards and anyfencing will need regular, saymonthly, inspections and occasionalformative pruning may be beneficial.These tasks are all within thecapability of the school, as indeed ismost of the original planting, and itcan afford great potential for teachingand learning.

When woodland planting isdesigned it is important to have inmind the management systemcoppice, coppice-with-standards orhigh forest and the prime purposeof educational opportunity. Coppicehas the advantage of change anddevelopment, woodland products for

058

school crafts and fewer demands onlimited space or problems with theultimate size of trees. The harvestcycle varies from one year for osiers,seven to ten years for hazel, 15 to 18years for sweet chestnut and 30 yearsfor hornbeam. Like laying a hedge,small areas could be cut each year.With mature trees on the school sitethe major issue is one of safety and atthe very least there should be anannual inspection by a qualifiedarboriculturalist. Prevention is betterthan cure and each well-treed schoolsite should have, as part of itslandscape management plan, aphased programme of felling,replacement and, of course,additional planting. Absence of thelatter encourages resistance to fellingover-mature specimens.

Litter5.8

This is primarily a case for good sitemanagement being enshrined inschool policy. Whilst there has beeninadequate provision of suitableclosed-topped bins in the past, thisdoes not solve the problem in itself.The main issue may well be aslackening of vigilance that can spreadthrough the school to the point wherethe grounds reflect this prevailing,laissez-faire attitude. Once littergathers it tends to proliferate.Mowing through litter strewn grassmakes the problem much worse. Itmust be dealt with at source with aschool policy aimed at sustaining asense of care and responsibility.Indeed, the source of the problem andthe remedial measures may present avery useful project.

5.9 CompetitivetenderingUnder the Local Government Act1988 local authorities whoseexpenditure on grounds maintenanceexceeds £100,000 per annum had toput it all out to competitive tender ona phased programme of 20% per yearfrom 1 January 1990 until 1 January1994. With a maximum length of fouryears, contracts are subject toregular re-tendering. Clear and totallyseparate 'client' and 'contractor'responsibilities have been establishedin local authorities. The former

prepare contract packages, specifywork to be done and advise schoolsbefore and during the contract. Thelatter or private contractorsundertake the work they have won, inaccordance with the specification.

Size and5.10

supervision of contractsThe financial size of these contractpackages has varied considerably.Larger contracts are easier to managebut may attract only a few, oftendistant and non-specialist, contractors.Smaller contracts involve greaterproblems of administration andsupervision, but may provide a local,more specialist service. If the emphasisis on quality of service to the client,there can be decidedadvantages in smaller contracts, evento the point of arranging a contractfor a single, but usually large, site.Schools may need to be more involvedin day-to-day supervision and thisdevelopment will further educationaluse of the grounds. Such involvementis a means of returning schoolgrounds to their owners and users,but it does depend on sound technicaladvice being at hand.

5.11 A school rangerThe new 'client' groups should beseen in the same category as theadvisory service, since their primefunction is to provide outdooreducational resources. The landscapecontract supervisor's remit needs to befar wider than merely checkingcontractor's work and shouldencompass liaising with and advisingteachers and pupils on all aspects ofgrounds development andmanagement. It demands workingwith the schools to implement changeand directing the contract service tothis end. The landscape contractsupervisor thus becomes more of aschool ranger, akin to the nowfamiliar countryside ranger. Theservice requires user surveys todetermine needs, regular liaisonmeetings with schools, news-sheets topromote ideas and maintain contactand the strengthening of links withthe advisory service. They can workwith teachers and pupils to plan newresources, to establish priorities, to

support phased implementation andto advise on subsequent managementplans on which annual maintenancecan then be based.

5.12 Local Managementof SchoolsMany schools have more directresponsibility for the care anddevelopment of their site as a result ofthe Education Reform Act 1988. Thisprovided for delegation of budgets toschools under a formula fundingsystem and the freedom to shiftexpenditure across all budgetheadings. They have a tenantresponsibility for the grounds andmay spend more, less or just the sameon maintenance of their site. Theirmain choices for implementation ofthis work are to join the LocalEducation Authority's groundsmaintenance contracts, to employtheir own private contractor, toestablish a school-based organisationor possibly a combination of theseoptions. Some authorities havealready responded to LocalManagement by offering differentqualities of service to schools via theircentrally arranged maintenancecontracts.

5.13 OptionsA desire to spend less does notnecessarily mean a reduction ineducational opportunity. Indeed, theplanting of trees and theestablishment of meadows, with areduction in close mown grass, shruband rose borders, may well meet bothobjectives. Since the higher cost softlandscape elements are relativelysmall in area, the potential savingsmay not be as great as the differentialmaintenance rates suggest.Conversion to woodland or scrub,where appropriate and desirable,offers better opportunities for costreduction in the longer term (Figures26, 27 and 28).

Where a school wants toincrease financial outlay on itsgrounds, it may also wish to becomemore fully involved and even take ondirect responsibility. Thus it maydecide to opt out of the authority'scontract system, either partially ortotally. Those tasks that demandexpensive machinery, such as gang-mowing, or specific skills, such asherbicide application, can continue tobe bought in. Other landscape workcan then be undertaken bygroundstaff or a sports technician,

FIeril0E

COMPARATIVE Gang Mow (20x)

LANDSCAPE Meadow (2x)

MAINTENANCE Rough Grass (8x)

COSTS Informal Lawn (15x)

Fine Lawn (26x) (Boxed off)

(based on anaverage of 1999prices)

Woodland and Native Shrubs

Groundcover

Shrub Borders

Herbaceous Borders

Rose Borders

3(20x) = 20 visits per annum Annual Cost (rid)

Note: These are typical price ranges for various types of soft landscape maintenance. They are, however, only indicative, and in practice they can

vary considerably depending on factors such as location, site, accessibility and scale of work.

For more detailed information on landscape maintenance costs refer to E & FN Span's Landscape and External Works Price Book 1999

ISBN 0 419 24130 2

7260

DENMEAD FIRSTSCHOOL,PORTSMOUTH -CHANGINGDESIGN ANDMAINTENANCE

(a) 'Before change'.

Pitch

0 metres 50

DENMEAD FIRSTSCHOOL,PORTSMOUTH -CHANGINGDESIGN ANDMAINTENANCE

(b) 'After change'.

Gang mow

Triple mow

Meadow areas

BM) Woodland areasExisting trees

C52033 Native tress and shrubs

0

Rose beds

eZZO Groundcover

c=3 Ornamental shrub borders

Hazel coppice

Hedge

metres

WV,

Redesign of the grounds and changes to the maintenance regime can make savings in the annual

revenue budget but this usually requires significant c,trpiAoutlay on improvements.

3 361

50

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

provided that such an arrangementdoes not conflict with therequirements of the legislation.

An environment5.14

fundWhilst schools can and will makegradual adjustments to the design andmanagement of their grounds,substantial change is not provided forunder formula funding. New landscapefeatures and habitats, such as ponds orwoodlands, provision of a rangerservice, improvements to playing fields,greater provision for social and playareas, extensive storm damage costsand major repairs to fencing may notbe fundable from the school budgetalone. Such major expenditure couldform part of the authority's mandatoryelement under Local Management, tobe implemented via the advisoryservice working in partnership withlandscape staff. Decisions could thenbe based on an assessment ofindividual school need within thecontext of the local authority and thedemands of the National Curriculum.

5.15 A managementpolicyThere remains the presumptionoutside the education service, andunfortunately sometimes within it,that the aim of grounds maintenanceis essentially cosmetic. The provisionof outdoor resources for educationmerits presentation in a managementpolicy. It could be a statement ofobjectives by the LEA for all itseducational establishments or by theindividual school for its own grounds.An example is set out in Appendix 4.By this means, the multiplicity ofeducational uses in school groundscan be recognised and provided for.Failure to achieve such goals in thepast has had much to do with amisunderstanding of objectives and alack of knowledge amongst thevarious parties involved. Hencesuccessful and sustained use acrossthe curriculum depends very heavilyon a close working partnershipbetween all those concerned witheducational use, design and care ofthe grounds.

Appendix.-.1A Siigg6teSp.tvey.

irrr<STUDY4.*

The briefRequirements of client, users and planning

authority, with accompanying plans, reports

Land ownership/usesExtent, lessees or tenants, covenants, adjacent

owners, responsibility for boundaries, right to

light

Easements/rights of wayFootpath, bridleway, road used as public path,

access points

Wayleaves/underground servicesGas, water, electricity, telephone, oil, foul or

surface water sewer

Relevant grantsMAFF, Forestry Commission, Countryside

Commission, Local Authority

Planning requirementsPrevious consents/refusals, relevant conditions,

local and structure plan policies

Past developMentsRecord plans, reports, surveys and photographs

Statutory designationsTree Preservation Orders (T.P.O.), Conservation

Areo, Site of Special Scientific Interest, Ancient

Monument, Listed Buildings or features, other

national ar local landscape and nature

conservation status

HighwaysMotorway, trunk or county road proposals, site

roads' width, loading surface/construction, sight

lines, turning/junction requirements

Geology /landform /soilsSolid/drift geology and soil maps, reports or

surveys, trial hole information, agricultural land

classification or detailed surveys

Climate

General weather information, details of local

microclimate, air pollution

63

Water/drainageFloodplain, liability to flood, field capacity,

extent, nature of and limits on discharges, water

pollution

Aerial photographsRecent and past, vertical and oblique (for

vegetation cover, evidence of ground

disturbance/ancient monuments)

Historical recordsLocal library/museum, evidence of former uses/

inhabitants and Features /associations,

archaeological or historical remains

SITE INVESTIGATIONS

SettingRelationship to surrounding landscape, land

uses and occupants (Nate: where relevant, the

listed investigations should be extended beyond

the site)

LandformDistinct changes of level, ridges/valley, high/low

points, configuration and degree of slope

Water/drainageDepth, visible quality, origin and speed of flow,

streams, ditches, ponds, springs, wet flashes,

badly drained or flat marshy land, outfalls,

culverts, drainage falls

MicroclimateAspect, sunny/sheltered areas, air drainage,

frost pockets, damp hollows, severely shaded/

exposed areas, wind Funnels

Soils

Trial holes (machine dug), hand auguring or

digging of pits, samples for analysis, depth of

topsoil and subsoil

VegetationSize, species, form of growth, condition, location

Boundaries/surfaces/servicesFences, walls, gates, steps, ramps, retaining

walls, roads, paths, paved areas, overhead

cables, manhole covers

BESTCOPYAVAILABLE

Access/circulation/rights of wayLocation, type, alignment, intensity of use,

potential for new/improved access

Transport/community facilitiesPublic transport, bus stops, railway stations,

shops, toilets, local recreation facilities

Current use(s)

Agriculture, industry, commercial, housing,

recreation, transport - detail of type,

appearance, intensity

Environmental impactsCurrent incidence/source, type/pattern of air,

water and noise pollution

Visual appraisalViews into/out of site (type/extent/quality),

spatial division (contained and open areas),

features and eyesores, zone of visual influence

(where the site can be seen from), skylines and

intermediate skylines

DETAILED TREE SURVEY

Brief/aim of surveyDevelopment site, T. P.O. record, safety/highway

inspection, woodland management plan

Type/dimensionsWoodland, tree group, specimen, hedgerow;

species, age, height, canopy spread (north,

south, east and west); clear height, diameter at

breast height and exact location of trunk

Visual appraisalForm/shape (relate to species), visual

significance (quality and character), implications

of removal

ConditionDeadwood, dangerous limbs, fungal fruiting

bodies, weak fork/abrupt bends, pruning

wounds or basal cavities, soil cracks, damaged

roots, pollards, perennial ar target canker,

crown foliage diebock

Legal/site issues

T.P.O., Conservation Area, planning condition,

relationship to buildings/boundaries

Classification by condition codeEssential (green), desirable (blue), not essential

(brown), not desirable (red)

Wade! habitatsBird and bat boxes

Stone/brushwood/log piles

Corrugated iron sheets

Carpets

Compost heaps

Butterfly gardens

Dry stone walls

BoundariesHedges

Hedgebanks

Walls

Fences

Ditches

Shelter-belts

FeaturesSand-construction pitch

All-weather pitch

Orienteering trails

Archery area

Survival training area

Camping space

Fitness circuit/trim trail

Outdoor art areas

Amphitheatre/stage

Spaces for drama

Geological exhibits

Textured surfaces

Geomorphology demonstration area

Model landscapes

Hills and valleys

Different slopes and ramps

Contours marked on ground

Spot heights

Sundials

Compass

Large scale map

Weather station

Rock and soil profiles

Nature or theme trail

Technology project area

Waterwheel

Prehistoric hill-fort

Iron Age but

2D and 3D shapes/patterns

Quiet areas for study/reflection

BESTCOPYAVAILABLE

HusbandryVegetable plots

Flower beds/gardens

Plant containers/boxes

Trellis for climbers

Herb garden

Herbaceous border

Tree/wild flower nursery

Ornamental shrubs

Soft Fruit

Orchards

Nutteries

Hop gardens

Annual cornfield

Greenhouse/cold frames

Smallholding

Animal enclosures/paddocks

'Natural' habitatsWoodlands

Trees

Scrub

Shrubs

Spring/summer meadows

Moorland/heathland

Play/social areasHard surfaces

Grass areas

Seat clusters

Sitting/social areas

Parents waiting area

Play equipment

Play markings

Ball wall

Boules/croquet

Sand pit

Play mound

Rubber tyres

Logs

Construction materials

Tables

Cooking/barbecue area

Huts/tree house

Covered play space

Arbours/mazes

Hiding places/den/refuge

Mobile play equipment

Movable furniture

Walls to sit on

6577

WetlandsStream.

Pond

Island

Bog marsh

Waterfall/rapids

Stepping stones

Damp meadow

Wooden boardwalk

9.49E OVERALL OBJECTIVE

For example: The creation of opportunities for teaching and learning, recreation, play, meditation

and social interaction that span the whole curriculum, are available throughout the year and extend

to all corners of the site and possibly beyond. A rich variety of spaces, colours, textures and patterns

should provide exciting stimuli for imagination and enquiry. The layout should make possible rather

than determine a wide range of uses, allowing both flexibility and potential for further development

by teachers and pupils. The design solution should be cohesive and lively and makea positive andunique contribution to the local environment.'

2. CONSULTATIONS

There should be close liaison with new teaching staff both prior to and after occupation, so that

educational use of, and demands on, the grounds can be fully explored. Fine tuning of the

landscape scheme may well be required after initial implementation and both time and resources

might be reserved for this. On new sites where teaching staff are not available for such discussions,

the aim should be to achieve a flexible solution in the form of several distinct spaces of varying size,

quality and character that can subsequently be developed or amended by the school.

3. SITE SURVEY AND APPRAISAL

Record all existing landscape features (especially landform, trees and other vegetation), make a

thorough visual assessment (both within and outside the site), fully appraise the local microclimate

and evaluate the opportunities and constraints they jointly present for site development.

4. OPTIONAL LAYOUTSIt is essential to sketch out potential options showing access, circulation and parking, buildings, hard

play areas and pitches. The size, character and possible use of the outdoor spaces created by these

options should be indicated and fully discussed with teaching staff prior to arriving at a preferred

scheme.

5. SITE OF BUILDINGS

Building location should respect existing landscape features, respond to external views, promote

energy conservation by awareness of microclimate and how it might be used to advantage or

amended, provide easy access with a sense of arrival and direction and be used as a positiveelement in the creation of external spaces.

6. BUILDING CONFIGURATION, FABRIC AND SERVICESConsideration might be given to the inclusion of an atrium, courtyard, recess, covered yard or

veranda where they offer direct benefits for outdoor use. Allowance should be made for future

expansion and the location of temporary classrooms. Exterior walls could be valuable for ball

games or planting and their detailing in the form of colours, patterns and textures might present a

further educational resource. Underground and overhead services should be co-ordinated tominimise impact on external design.

66

7. ACCESS AND CIRCULATION

Fluid linking of internal and external spaces should be consistent with the overall pattern of

educational use. Vehicles and pedestrians should be completely segregated with contrasting hard

surfaces to define routes and full provision for disabled access should be made throughout the site.

There might be a distinct and visually contained area for service and maintenance vehicles,

including a separate tractor access to the playing fields and sufficient routes for emergency vehicles.

8. CAR PARKSThe location and detailing of car parks should aim to reduce their impact on the site to an absolute

minimum. In particular they should not dominate the main arrival and entrance points around the

building, with a preferred location on the periphery being screened by existing or new landscape

features.

9. SITE BOUNDARIES AND ENCLOSUREAdjacent uses, educational needs, site management and subsequent maintenance should all be

considered in determining the detailed boundary solution(s). Internal fences, hedges, trellises or

pergolas might be employed to define spaces, separate uses and create features.

10. HARD SURFACED GAMES COURTS, AND INFORMAL AND SOCIALAREAS1

The different demands of formal games, active pursuits and less robust activities, such as imaginative

play, relaxation, social interaction and discussion, should all be recognised in design and detailing.

Equally there is a need far varied and stimulating colours, textures, patterns, shapes and sizes

related to these demands. The intensity and direction of movements and congregation around

entrances by groups of pupils should be catered for in terms af path width, alignment and edge

detailing. Games court ball stop fencing should be included where it is necessary to protect pupils,

buildings and areas of special interest.

11. SITE FURNITURE

Ample seating might be included in a variety of spaces, from bays off the playground to small

hidden niches. Imaginative and original designs might reflect the intensity of use and be in scale with

the users. Wherever possible, incidental seating, such as low walls, might be considered. Tables/

worktops, litter bins, lighting, signs and outdoor storage might be provided in strategic locations to

facilitate educational use.

12. EARTH MODELLING AND SOILSNew landforms in scale and character with their surroundings might afford a range of slopes and

features to further outdoor teaching, sport and play whilst fulfilling specific design objectives.

Stripping, storage and placement of soils should be related to the varying demands af the different

site uses.

13. GRASS PLAYING FIELDS AND ALL-WEATHER PITCHES, AND SPORTSFACIUTIES2

These should accord with Building Bulletin 85 including marginal areas, banks produced by creation

of plateaux and the need for shelter or other landscape works. The pitch layout should take full

account of the size, shape and potential use'`f residual areas and the proximity of public roads and

footpaths which may require ballstop safety fencing.

14. SOFT LANDSCAPE

Tree and shrub planting should aim to create a strong landscape structure which can define spaces,

provide shelter and shade, filter dust, screen or direct views and afford specific features and

habitats. Planting design should reflect the inherent character of the site and the objective of diverse

educational use. There should be great awareness of the intensity and robustness of subsequent use

and the general desire for low maintenance. Care should be exercised with the width, shape and

edge details for shrub borders, so that they thrive amid such intense use.

15. HABITAT AREALConstruction might be given to a proportion of the grounds being reserved for a wide range of

developments such as a wild flower meadow, scented gardens, copse, orchard, pond/wetland,

nature trail etc. All these will support the't:Nattral Curriculum and can link with structural planting and

other features.

677 9 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

16. GROWING PLANTSThere should be opportunities to raise and grow plants close to the school in tree nurseries, garden

plots and orchard areas with a rich growing medium.

17. KEEPING ANIMALSPotential may also exist for small enclosures and paddocks appropriate for pets and farm animals to

be kept or to visit.

18. ADVANCED WORKSIdeally, structure planting on sites in the building programme should take place as soon os the

project is listed and all works outside the building contract area should be implemented as soon as

detailed proposals and budgets are approved.

19. AFTERCARE

The ease and cost of subsequent maintenance, with particular regard to earth modelling and

planting, should influence but not constrain a landscape design aimed at maximising educational

use. Capital works might include a minimum 12 month maintenance period for grass and 36 months

for planting. A management plan should set down the design and use objectives and Form the basis

for the annual maintenance programme.

1 With references to BB52 (1996) and BB85 (1997)

2 With reference to the Education (School Premises) Regulations 1999.

4

68

11. A diverse and

stimulating

environment that

offers the broadest

possible range of

opportunities for

educational use, with

the flexibility to

accommodate

changing demands for

outdoor resources.

2. A landscape setting

of quality that is in

harmony with, and

makes a positive

contribution to, its

surroundings.

3. Outdoor teachingspaces that are both

safe and secure, and

conform to statutory

requirements for

sports provision and

the physical

environment, as set

out in the Education

(School Premises)

Regulations 1999, in

BB82 (1996) and

BB85 (1997), andrelevant planning

legislation.

4. Spaces andfacilities for all forms

of play and socialinteraction during the

school day, including

both active and

passive pursuits for

groups and

individuals.

5. An ability toaccommodate extra-

curricular social and

fund-raising activities

that are of benefit to

the school and

community wherever

the need arises and

the capacity exists.

6. The tailoring ofannual grounds

maintenance to the

educational needs of

the individual school.

7. A workingpartnership of

inspectors, advisers,

landscape staff and

individual schools to

achieve these ends

and provide sustained

support for change

and development.

Within the framework

thus created by the

Local Education

Authority, schools

could develop their

own policies for

landscape

management and the

care and maintenance

of the school site. They

could then formulate

plans to prOvide for

the phased and long-

term development of

the school landscape.

These should always

be available to pupils

and users of the

grounds.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Publicationsublications relating to each section are listed for guidance on further

reading.

Section 1Department for Education and Employment, Access For Disabled People to School Buildings

1999 ISBN 011 271062 X

Department for Education and Employment, The Education (School Premises) Regulations

1999 (SI 1998 NO 2)

Learning through Landscapes/Scholastic Art in the School Grounds 1996ISBN 1 85 741036 X

Learning through Landscapes/Southgate English in the School Grounds 1992ISBN 1 85741031 9

Learning through Landscapes Ecology in School Grounds 1990 ISBN 1 87 286502 X

Learning through Landscapes Geography in the School Grounds 1996ISBN 1 85 7410238

Learning throughLandscapes/Southgate History in the School Grounds 1997ISBN 1 85741 002 5

Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Mathematics in the School Grounds 1993ISBN 1 85 74102 1

Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Physical Education in the School Grounds 1997ISBN 1 85741 012 2

Learning through Landscapes. Learning through Landscapes Final Report 1990ISBN 1 872865 01 1

Royal Society for Nature Conservation/The Wildlife Trusts Partnership Watchword

published three times a year by Watch

Learning through Landscapes/Southgate School Grounds Pock - Mathematics 1997ISBN 1 85741 097 1

Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Science in the School Grounds 1992ISBN 1 85 741 05 8

HMSO The National Curriculum 1995 ISBN 0 11 270894 3World Wildlife Fund/Learning through Landscapes Special Places, Special People - The

Hidden Curriculum of School Grounds 1994 ISBN 0 94 761348 X

82

70

Section 2DES Safety Series

No. 1 Safety in Outdoor Pursuits

No. 4 Safety in Physical Education

Department for Education and Employment, Guide 4 Improving Security in Schools 1996ISBN 0 11 270916 8Department for Education and Employment, Our School, Your School, Community Use of

Schools 1995 ISBN 0 85522473 8HMI Publications, Primary Schools - Some Aspects of Good Practice

Deportment for Education and Employment, Building Bulletin 83 Schools' Environmental

Assessment Method (SEAM) 1996 ISBN 0 11 270920 6

National Play Information Centre, Children's Outdoor Play in the Built Environment 1989ISBN 1 87 175800 9Learning through Landscapes/Southgate, Active Playtimes 1997 ISBN 1 85522 594 8

Learning through Landscapes, Beekeeping - A Practice Guide 1991 ISBN 1 872 865 038

Learning through Landscapes, Bright Ideas: The Outdoor Classroom 1990

ISBN 0 59 053034 8Learning through Landscapes, Butterflies - A Practical Guide to their Study in School

Grounds 1989 ISBN 1 87 286500 3Learning through Landscapes, Exploring Woodlands 1991 ISBN 0 08 040451 0Learning through Landscapes, Grounds for Learning 1996 - A Celebration of School SiteDevelopment in Scotland 1996 ISBN 1 87286 517 8Learning through Landscapes, Grounds for Examination - The Challenge of the Secondary

School Site Video ISBN 1 87 286519 4Learning through Landscapes, Grounds for Sharing: A Guide to Developing Special School

Grounds 1996 ISBN 1 87 276523 2

Learning through Landscapes, Growing Naturally: Teacher's Guide to Organic Gardening1996 ISBN 1 85741 022 XLearning through Landscapes, Land and Water Invertebrates Identification in the School

Grounds 1995 ISBN 1 85741 086 6Learning through Landscapes, Recycling - Practical Guide for the School Environment

1992 ISBN 1 87 286506 2Learning through Landscapes, Making the Best Use of your School Grounds (Video)

ISBN 1 87 286521 6Learning through Landscapes/Southgate, People, Plants and Places 1995

ISBN 185 741017 3Learning through Landscapes, Play, Playtime and Playgrounds 1992 ISBN 1 87 286510 0

Learning through Landscapes, School Grounds Resource Directory 1994

ISBN 1 87 286515 1Learning through Landscapes/Southgate, School Orchard Pack 1996 ISBN 1 87 2865283

Learning through Landscapes, Season in the School Grounds 1991 ISBN 1 87 286508 9

Learning through Landscapes, The Challenge of the Urban Site 1996 ISBN 1 87 286516 X

Learning through Landscapes, Trees in the School Grounds 1992 ISBN 1 85 741095 5

Learning through Landscapes/Southgate, Using plants in the Notional Curriculum 1997ISBN 1 87 286514 3Royal Society for the Protection of Birds/Learning through Landscapes, Wildlife and the

School Environment 1992 ISBN 090 3138514

Section 3Department for Education and Employment, School Grounds - A Guide to Good Practice1997 ISBN 0 11 270990 7Learning through Landscapes, Fundraising for School Grounds 1995 ISBN 1 872865 20 9

Section 4Department for Education and Employment, School Grounds -A Guide to Good Practice1997 ISBN 0 11 270990 7Learning through Landscapes, Pond Design Guide 1988 ISBN 1 87 065122 7National Play Information Centre, Children's Outdoor Play in the Built Environment

BEST COPY AVAILABLE71 83

ISBN 1 87 175800 9National Play Information Centre Information Sheet No: 11 Health & Safety and Play 1998Tel: 0171 240 9590National Play Information Centre Playground Safety Guidelines 1992 ISBN 0 85 522405

Section 5Department for Education and Employment School Grounds - A Guide to Good Practice

1997 ISBN 0 11 270990 7Learning through Landscapes/Hampshire County Council Maintaining & Managing your

School Grounds (Video) 1996 ISBN 1 85975 099 0

72

84

Association of Community Technical Aid Centres (ACTAC)64 Mt Pleasant, Liverpool L3 5SD(0151 7087607)

Association of Landscape ManagementWiltshire Direct Services, Brook House, Bythesea Road, Trowbridge, Wilts BA14 8JH(01225 771670)

British Association of Advisers and Lecturers in Physical Education (BAALPE)6 The Beacon, Exmouth, Devon EX8 2AG(01395 263247)

British Bee-keepers Association

National Agricultural Centre, Stoneleigh, Kenilworth, Warks CV8 2LZ(01203 696679)

British Trust for Conservation Volunteers36 St Mary's Street, Wallington, Oxfordshire OXIO OEU(01491 839766)

Central Council of Physical RecreationFrancis House, Francis Street, London SWIP IDE(0171 828 3163)

Council for Environmental EducationFaculty of Education & Community Studies, University of Reading, London Road,Reading, Berks RG1 5AQ(0118 9756061)

Countryside CommissionJohn Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, Glos GL50 3RA(01242 521381)

English NatureNorthminster House, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, PEI UA(01733 455000)

Environmental Education Advisers AssociationMagic Hills Lodge, Rice Lane, Govray Haven, St Austell, Cornwall DU26 6JF(01726 843101)

Field Studies Council (FSC)C J Baylis (Secretary and Treasurer), Central Services, Preston Montford,Montford Bridge, Shrewsbury SY4 1 HW(01743 850674)

Groundwork Foundation85-87 Cornwall Street, Birmingham B3 3BZ(0121 236 8565)

Institute of Groundsmanship

19-23 Church Street, The Agora, Wolverton, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire MK12 5LG(01905 312511)

Institute of Leisure and Amenity Management

Ilam House, Lower Basildon, Reading RG8 9NG(01491 874222)

Landscape Institute

6-7 Barnard Mews, London 5W17 1QU(0171 738 9166)

Learning through Landscapes Trust

Third Floor, The Southside Offices, The Law Courts, Winchester, Hants SO 1 9D1(01962 846258)

National Association for Urban StudiesPlace for People

c/o ETP, 9 South Road, Brighton, E. Sussex BN1 6SB(01273 542660)

Qualifications & Curriculum Authority29 Bolton Street, London W17 7PD(0171 509 5555)

National Federation of City FarmsThe Green House, Hereford Street, Bedminster, Bristol B53 4NA(0117 923 1800)

National Play Information CentreDudley House, 36-38 Southampton Street, London C2E 7HE(0171 240 9590)

National Playing Fields Association25 Ovington Square, London SW3 1LJ(0171 584 6445)

Royal Agricultural Society: Countryside CommunicationNational Agricultural Centre, Stoneleigh Park, Kennilworth, Warks CU8 2LZ(01263 696969)

The Royal Society for Nature ConservationThe Green, Walham Park, Wa Ilside South, Lincoln LN5 7SR(01522 544400)

The Royal Town Planning Institute

26 Portland Place, London W1N 4BE(0171 636 9107)

Sports Council (Play Unit)The Sports Council, 16 Upper Woburn Place, London W1CH OQP(0171 273 1500)

Sports Turf Research Institute

St lye's Research Station, Bing ley, West Yorkshire BD16 1AU(01274 565131)

Tree Council

51 St Catherine Place, London SW I E 6DY(0171 828 9928)

World-Wide Fund for Nature UKPanda House, Weyside Park, Godalming, Surrey GU7 1XR(01483 426444)

8674

DfEE Architects and Building Branch

Publications in print January 1999.

Building Bulletins

BB77

Designing for Pupils with Special Educational Needs: Special Schools HMSO 1992ISBN 0 11 2707963BB80

Science Accommodation in Secondary Schools HMSO 1995ISBN 0 11 270873 0BB81

Design and Technology Accommodation in Secondary Schools HMSO 1996ISBN 0 11 270917 6BB82

Area Guidelines for Schools HMSO 1996ISBN 0 11 270921 4BB83Schools' Environmental Method (SEAM) TSO 1996ISBN 0 11 270920 6BB84

School Boarding Accommodation: A Design Guide TSO 1997ISBN 0 11 270977 XBB85

School Grounds, a Guide to Good Practice TSO 1997ISBN 0 11 270990 7BB86

Music Accommodation in Secondary Schools: A Design Guide TSO 1997ISBN 0 11 271002 6BB87Guidelines for Environmental Design in Schools TSO 1997ISBN 0 11 271013 1BB88Fume Cupboards in Schools TSO 1998ISBN 0 11 271027 1BB89Art Accommodation in Secondary Schools TSO 1998ISBN 0 11 271029 8BB 90

Lighting Design for SchoolsISBN 0 11 271041 7BB91

Access for Disabled People to School Buildings TSO 1999ISBN 0 11 271062 X

Managing School Facilities Guide

Guide 1 Saving Water HMSO 1993ISBN 0 11 270851 XGuide 2 Swimming Pools HMSO 1993ISBN 0 11 270871 4Guide 3 Saving Energy HMSO 1995ISBN 0 11 270880 3Guide 4 Improving Security in Schools TSO 1996ISBN 0 11 270916 8Guide 5 Purchasing Energy TSO 1998

ISBN 0 11 2701036 0

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for The Stationery Office

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BUILDING BULLETIN 71 2ND EDITION

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