ED 063 531

TITLEINSTITUTIONPUB DATENOTE

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

DOCUMENT RESUME

AC 012 627

Aging and Learning.Mayor's Office tor Senior Citizens, Chicago, Ill.May 7221p.

MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29Adult Educators; *Age; *Cognitive Processes;Educational Facilities, Educational Research;Financial Needs; Healta; Learning Processes;*Literature Reviews; Memory; Motivation; TeachingTechniques; *Time Factors (Learning)

ABSTRACTThe process of learning with respect to age is

discussed. Learning may be defined as the acquisition of informationor skills. Three non-cognitive factors varying with age are loss ofspeed, health, and motivation. Studies on learning in relation to agehave not controlled for non-learning factors. Perceptual andpsychomotor studies are not consistent in indicating whether learningrates vary with age. There are clear performance differences whichare independent of learning ability. Other research has compared agegroups with respect to the relation between immediate and old recalland have found that immediate recall falls off more rapidly than doesold recall with age. The available research suggests that bothlearning and non-cognitive deficits occur with age. Three problemsface the educators of older people. These are (1) What do they wantto do? (2) What can be done to motivate them? and (3) What principlescan be carried out in educating the aged. Seven principles have beendeveloped. These include: (1) Work through existing senior citizencenters and groups to satisfy the needs of the elderly as they seethem; (2) Establish a curriculum that recognizes the need forimirediate rkwards and useful courses; (3) Utilize instructors who areknowledgeable in the field of aging; (4) Provide courses at minimalcost; (5) Offer courses in safe, convenient location; (6) Avoidformal arrangements; and (7) Insure that participants understand thattheir success depends upon their commitment. (Author/CK).

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS SEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN.'IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EOU.CATION POSITION OR POLICY.fr-4

Pr N,......"

UN MAYOR'S OFFICE FOR SENIOR CITIZENSre.4) City of akago

RICHARD J. DALRY. MAYORft:3 RICIIIERT J. AHRENIII, DIRECTORtAill ANDRER OLIVER. ARRIRTANT DIRICCTOR

7444016223 North Michigan AvenueChlcago, Illinois 60601

Nk\J

May, 1972

AGING AND LEARNING

I. A Review of Experimental Studies

By Ronald JirovecSpecialist in Aging IMayor's Office for Senior Citizens

and

Mary MarmollM.A. CandidateDePaul University, Chicago

II. Teaching the Older Adult

By Karl KaiserSpecialist in Aging IIIMayor's Office for Senior Citizens

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. A Review of Experimental Studies

11. Teaching the Older Adult

III. Appendix

A. Types of Learning (A Review of Experimental Studies)

B. Footnotes (A Review of Experimental Studies)

C. Bibliography (A Review of Experimental Studies)

D. Bibliography (Teaching the Older Adult)

I. A Review of Ex erimental Studies

Learning may be defined as the acquisition of information or skills.

In the analysis of learning, a distinction is made between the internal

process and the external act. The reason for this is that we see the

act and not the process.

We infer from an improvement in performance that learning has taken place.

This inference may be in error. What may have produced the improvement

in performance may not have been learning as such, but an improvement in

non-cognitive factors about which we are unaware. For instance, improve-

ment in performance may be due to increased motivation or to better health.

Conversely, learning may have taken place in the absence of an observed

improved performance. Noncognitive factors may be operating against

improvement. If motivation is low and health is poor, then what was

learned may not be manifest.

4

These considerations are important in evaluating aging studies on

learning. If age groups differ with respect to the relevant non-cognitive

factors, then even if they do not differ in learning ability, they will

differ in performance. It is difficult to separate the contributions to

performance of the cognitive and non-cognitive elements, but without such

separations it would not be possible to make clear the cognitive changes

which may occur in later life and the psychophysiological alterations which1

may indicate these changes.

Three non-cognitive factors as they relate to differences with age in

learning are loss of speed, health, and motivation. There is a loss of

speed of response with age, and the more the learned response involves

speed, the greater the penalty for the older person.

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(Canestrari, 1963; Eisdorfer, Axelrod, and Wilkie, 1963; Arenberg,

1965; Eisdorfer, 1965; Arenberg, 1967; and Taub, 1967.) Data which

bear upon the relationship between physical health, motive states,

and learning performances are inconclusive (Botwinick, 1967).

Studies on learning in relation to age have generally not controlled

for non-learning factors. Botwinick (1967) classes these studies into

six mutually inclusive categories: conditioning, verbal learning, rigidity

in learning, perceptual and psychomotor learning, practical learning, and2

memory.

Several conditioning studies (Marinesco and Kreindler, IS34; Braun and

Geiselhart, 1959; Kimble and Pennypacker, 1963) clearly point to a

slowness of acquisition of the conditioned response (CR) with advancing

age. The data on extinction are inconsistent but they do seem to indicate

that the nature of the response may be a factor. For instance, in classical

conditioning of involuntary responses, CRs are readily extinguished in

advanced age (Braun and Geiselhart, 1959; Botwinick and Kornetsky, 1960).

While, with instrumental conditioning (with animals), resistance to extinc-

tion is high (Seneberg and Kline, 1958; Battig and Grandjean, 1959).

Acquisition is also relatively slow in later life in the learning of verbal

material (Ruch, 1934; Gilbert, 1935, 1941; Canestrari, 1963; and Arenberg,

1965). However, it is still not clear whether the deficit is in the learning

or performance aspect of the behavior, or with both. Botwinick's (1967)

interpretation'is that the data suggest an age decline in both aspects, with

the performance aspect being more easily and clearly demonstrated.

It has been suggested (Ruch, 1934) that the primary deficit is neither

in the learning nor in the performance, but in the modifying effects of

prior experience. The idea is not that the older person has a limited

ability to learn, but that he is too rigid to do so. Botwinick (1967)

after his review of the diverse human and animal studies of rigidity in3

learning stated that when an age decrement was found, it tended to be an

overall decline rather than a decrement specific to rigidity and added that

when there was an indication of an age-related deficit in "rigidity" in

learning, this deficit tended to be marginal and was a function of the

original learning. Botwinick (1967) concluded that research evidence

that rigidity in old age produces a learning deficit does not seem impressive.

Perceptual and psychomotor studies are not consistent in indicating

whether learning rates are different in older and younger subjects.

In most cases, however, there are clear performance differences which

seem to be independent of learning ability. BOtwinick, Robbins and Brinley

(1960), Clement (1962), Gladis (1964), and Noble, Baker, and Jones (1964)

found older adults performed at a level lower than younger subjects.

The literature on practical learning and age generally indicates that

the performances of older subjects are poorer than those of younger sublects,

although all age groups can learn. (Shooter, Schonfield, King, and Welford,

1956; Belbin, 1958; Moore, 1965; and Downs, 1965). Some methods of training

that are especially helpful to the elderly are those that eliminate or mini-

mize those features of the task which relate to functions that decline with

age. (Belbin, 1958; Belbin and Downs, 1964; and Moore, 1965.)

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5

Studies on memory and age are uf two types. One type of memory

study involves the recall of experiences which have taken place prior

to the time of the investigation. This would include recall of recent

events and would also include recall of the distant past (old 'memories).

The second type of memory study involves the recall of material which

was learned at the time of the investigation. It involves teaching

subjects new material and then testing for recall soon afterward. The

tests may be of immediate recall or longer, delayed recall.

One branch of the research has investigated whether it is the ability

of immediate recall or delayed recall which declines more with age.

Several studies (Jones, Conrad, and Horn, 1928; Gilbert, 1941; Bromley,

1958; Jones, 1959; and Peak, 1968) have found that ability in immediate

recall diminishes in later life. According to Botwinick (1967), the

results with respect to delayed recall need to be better validated before

being accepted as fact. Botwinick (1967) emphasizes that what has been

accepted as a deficit of the aged in ability to retain information over

pericAls of time may be an age deficit in the ability to acquire information

in the first place.

Another branch of the research has compared age groups with respect to the

relation between immediate and old recall. Generally, studies in this area

have concluded that ability in immediate recall falls off more rapidly with

advancing age than does ability in old recall. (Shakow, Oolkart, and

Goldmanj 1941; Van Zonneveld, 1958; and Klonoff and Kennedy, 1965.)

In evaluating the literature on the role of age in relation to immediate

and old recall, it would seem that it is necessary to differentiate old

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memories that are practiced from those that are not. To state that

the ability to recall old memories does not decline with age as rapidly

as does the ability to recall new material may not be saying much more

than that old material that has been constantly rehearsed or practiced

is not forgotten as readily by the elderly as ve recent and relatively

unrehearsed memories.

In summary, studies exploring the relation between learning and aging

consistently have found that elderly persons retain their ability to

learn. However, the same studies generally showed that learning performances

decline with increasing age. There is some question as to whether this

decline is due to a relative inability to learn, or to non-cognitive factors

which change with age. Botwinick (1967) concludes that an adequate basis

to resolve this doubt does not seem available but that a common opinion is

that changes with age in ability to learn are small under most circumstances.

Birren (1964) concurs and states that when age-related differences occur,

they seem to be more readily attributed to processes of perception, set,

attention, motivation, and the physiological state of the organism (including

that of disease states) than to a change in the primary capacity to learn.

Little research has been conducted in order to test the notion that non-

cognitive factors rather than learning factors produce performance deficits

with age. The available research seems to suggest that both learning and

non-cognitive deficits may occur (Botwinick, 1967).

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II. Teaching the Older Adult

Three significant problems face every educational endeavor for older

adults. First, what do they want to do--what is the felt need that

the enterprise can respond to? Second, what can be done to motivate

the brodd range of adults, especially the older ones, to utilize an

educational possibility? Third, and most important, what principles

can be followed in carrying out an educational program which responds to

these felt needs of older people?

In answer to the third question, the seven principles below have been

developed out of the experience and research of the Mayor's Office for

Senior Citizens in Chicago. While they do not pretend to be the ultimate

guide to teaching older adults, they have been valuable in a number of

different situations and have added to the success of educational programs

on a number of levels.

The principles listed below will give you a short, concise guide to

teaching older adults. Following the principles are seven corresponding

short paragraphs that expand the original statements and give basic biblio-

graphical references for those interested in further investigation of the

problem.

1. Work through existing senior citizen centers, groups and clubs toidentify and satisfy the needs of the older adults as they see them.

2. Establish a curriculum that recognizes the need for immediate rewards,useful courses and specific content.

3. Utilize instructors who are knowledgeable in the field of aging, andspecifically informed on the older adult in the geographic area tobe served.

4. Provide the courses at a minimal cost, just enough to establish acommitment by the participant without creating a burden.

5. Bring the courses to the community in easily accessible, safe, daytimeclassrooms that utilize a seminar arrangement.

ei

6. Avoid the formal, restrictive arrangements that often obtainin adult education.

7. Finally, insure that the participants fully understand thepurposes of the courses, the value of the instruction and thecommitment of all involved to the success of each individual.

1. "Work through existing centers...," -- the factors militating against

older people participating in an educational experience are many and varied.

One positive way to ameliorate these difficulties lies in providing a group

environment for learning. Give classes where older persons are already

gathered for activities. It is much easier to get an expression of the

group needs as they see them if you already have them gathered together,

an especially important factor. A person with 65 or 70 years of life

experience is not easily convinced that a study of Freudian theory is im-

portant, when he or she is concerned with individual psychological changes.

In short, the older adult will respond to his educational needs only if the

educational institution will provide the means to do it. (See Appendix D

3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25)

2. "Establish a curriculum...," -- the three most essential formal needs

of older people in an educational experience are immediate or short term

rewards to reinforce the learning experience, courses that have an immediately

useful aspect to them, and courses that have a specific, as opposed to a

broad, abstract content. The older person realizes his own mortality and

does not plan in terms of long range goals. In addition, he or she needs

oftentimes to be convinced of the value of intellectual stimulation. The

short term reward, combined with immediately satisfying course material, will

insure that the experience is a gratifying one for both student and leader.

(See Appendix D 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 17, 19, 24)

"Utilize instructors who are knowled eable in the field of 4121...,"

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this is perhaps the most essential element of the seven cited in this

paper. The person teaching or leading an education experience for

older people must be fully aware of both the strong and the weak points

of older people (see the first section of this publication.) That leader

must be able to use the strengths of the older person to establish the

nature of the instruction and can not try simply to force a pattern of

instruction on an unwilling audience. (See Appendix D 1, 2, 3, 71 90 150

180 20, 23 25)

4. "Provide the courses at a minimal cbst...," -- since we are _all aware

of the financial difficulties of older people, courses must be provided at

an absolutely minimal cost. Some fee structure should be provided, but

courses should be free if that fee would impose any restriction on access.

The caveat here is not to make the free tuition seem to be charity. (See

Appendix D 8, 9, 14, 17)

5. "Bring the course to the community in easily accessible classrooms...," --

especially in urban areas, where the crime rates are high, the classes must be

presented in a safe atmosphere. Additionally, the day-time class nas great

advantages of accessibility by public transportation, and day-time classes

allow the older person to structure meaningful activity into his daily schedule.

The seminar also adds to the desireability of the course by allowing the older

person to make an intellectual investment and commitment to the course. (See

Appendix D 5, 12, 14, 22)

6. "Avoid the...restrictive arrangements...," -- again, the need is to take

the course of instruction out of the elementary school teacher/pupil model

so widely used in adult education, and put it on a more sophisticated basis

of mutual respect. Those people teaching older adults must always be aware

of the great variety of life experiences one has in 65 to 70 years and must

be able to use those life experiences to strengthen the course. (See

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00 0

Appendix, D 5, 9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23)

7. "Mall , insure that the partIcipants fully understand...,"

-- so often classes for older people are run with a vague, loose

structure that leads the older person in a circular, non-goal oriented

direction. The exact nature and purpose of the course must be clearly

stated. At the same time, the participants must feet that they are getting

more than just information feom a course of instruction. Older people, general-

ly, are reglected and forgotten in our society. They are consistently denied

income, work, and a great variety of benefits that are their right in our

society. A small, but important, method of reinstating some of the esteem

lost through this neglect lies in making each participant know that they

are valuable, that their opinions and ideas are important, and that their

participation is meaningful. (See Appendix D 3, 9, 10, 17, 22, 23, 25)

APPENDIX

A. Types of Learning (A Review of Experimental Studies)

1. Claslical Conditionti.

Classical conditioning involves the acquisition of a response (CR) to

a neutral stimulus (CS). The abbreviation UCS stands for unconditioned

stimulus or a stiwulus which when it occurs elicits an unconditioned

response (UCR). The abbreviation CS stands for conditioned stimulus.

A conditioned stimulus is labeled a neutral stimulus because initially

it does not elicit a response. However, through conditioning, the CS

comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR). A diagram of the typical

classical conditioning experiment follows:

(1) UCS elicits UCR

(2) CS is repeatedly paired with UCS

(3) CS alone elicits CR

Thus, to begin with, the UCS elicits an UCR. Then the neutral stimulus

(CS) after repeated pairings with the UCS comes to elicit a conditioned

response (CR). The CR is similar but not identical to the UCR.

2. Instrumental Conditioning.

In instrumental conditioning, the subject must make the desired response

prior to receiving reinforcement. Because of the reflexive nature of classic-

ally conditioned responses, operant behavior is often theorized as voluntary,

and classically conditioned behavior labeled involuntary. Schematically,

operant conditioning appears as follows:

(1) Subject makes R (desired response).

(2) R is followed by S (reinforcement).

(3) R has higher probability of occurence.

3. Verbal iear1ig.

Among the studies of verbal learning most frequently undertaken is the

learning of paired associates. In brief, the experimenter presents a series

of paired words to the subject, whose job it is to learn the pairing, When

the pairing is learned, the subject is able to supply the second word of the

pair when the first word is presented.

Paired-associate learning is thought to be divisible into two phases: a

response learning phase and an associative phase. The response learning

phase is thought to precede the associative phase since the response (the

second word of the pair) must be available before it can be linked to the4

first word of the pair.

4. Rigidity in Learning.

There is a recurrent notion that old age is associated with a relative

inability to learn new things, not so much because of a reduced learniog

capacity, but because of prior learning which persists even when no longer

effective. The more incompatible the new is with the old, the more the

elderly are presumed to be at a disadvantage.

There are three related ways to investigate age differences in the effects

of prior learning. One way is to present the subject with a learning task which

is contrary in some manhar to a long-established habit. Age groups are5

then compared with respect to these effects.

5. Perceptual and Psychomotor Learning.

Studies of perceptual and psychomotor learning require the subject to employ

a perceptual and/or motor faculty combined with a thought process in order

to complete a task successfully. Studies of perceptual and psychomotor

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learning may be differentiated from studies of problem solving on the

basis of complexity. In this study, only relatively simple perceptual

and psychomotor learning tasks will be reviewed. Complex, problem

solving tasks will not be reviewed,

6, Practical Learning.

Historically, a distinction has been made between a "type of learning

that is largely uninfluenced by life's experiences and practical learning6

which involves compensating adjustments based upon experience." Due to

problems in effecting proper controls, the number of studies directed

toward practical learning is limited, and often the studies are of dubious

scientific merit.

7. Memory.

Learning ability and memory ability are closely related processes. If

learning is poor, the amount of information available for retention is

limited. Conversely, if memory is poor, then there is no evidence that

very much has been learned. In practice, it is difficult to determine

whether the primary problem is in the acquisition or in the retention of

information.

Traditionally, the memory process has been described as occurring in stages.

The first stage of memory has been referred to as impression or registration.

The second stage of memory has been labeled retention, which may be thought

of as the consolidation cf registered inputs. The third stage of memory is

recall and recognition.

B. Footnotes (A Review of Experimental Studies)

1

Paraphrased from Botwinicks 1967, pp. 189-191.

2

See Appendix for detailed descriptions of these types of learning.

3

Studies on rigidity in learning and age reviewed by Botwinick included:Snoddy, 1926; Stone, 1929; Ruch. 1934; Kay, 1951; Hanes, 1953; Speakman,1954; Korchin and Baswoitz, 1957; Gladis and Braun, 1958; Botwinick,BrinlEy, and Robbin, 1959; Entwisle, 1959; Botwinick, Robbin, and Brinley,1960; Bernstein, 1961; Birren, 1962; Botwinick Brinley, and Robbins 1962;Kay and Sime, 1962; Sime and Kay, 1962; Botwinick, Brinley, and R0bbin,1963; Belbin, Downs, and Moore, 1964; and Canestrati, 1964.

4

Paraphrased from Botwinick, 1967, pp. 83, 85.

5Paraphrased from Botwinick, 1967, pp. 86.

6

Botwinick, 1967, pp. 98.

A

Biblcgraply (A Review of Experimental Studies)

1. Arenberg, D. Anticipation interval and age differences in verbal

learning, J. Abnorm Psychoh, 1965, 70, 419-25.

Arenberg, D. Age Differences in retrouction, J. Gerontol,, 1967,

22, 18-91.

3. Belbin, Eunice. Methods of training older workers. Ergonomics,

1958, 10 207-221.

4. Belbin, Eunice and Downs, Sylvia M. Activity learning and the

older worker. Ergonomics, 195, 7, 429-437.

Birren, J. E. Psychological aspects of aging, Annual Review of

Psychology, 1960, 11, 161-198.

6. Birren, J. E. IhellychRloasf Poinl. New Jersey: Prentice

Hall, Inc., 1964, 151-170.

7. Botwinick, J. Canitive Process in Maturity and Old Att.

New York: Springer Press, 1967.

8. Botwinick, J. Geropsychology. Annual Review of Psychology.Jt

1970, 21, 239-272.

9. Botwinick, J. and Kornetsky, C. Age differences in the acquisition

and extinction of GSR. J. Gerontol., 1960, 15, 83-84,

10. Botwinick, J., Robbins J. S., and Brinley, J. F. Age differences

in card sorting performance in relation to task difficulty,

task set, and practice. J. exp. Psychol., 1960, 59, 10-18.

11. Braun, H. W. and Geiselhart, R. Age differences in the acquisition

and extinction of the conditioned eyelid response. J. exp.

Psychol., 1959, 57, 396-388.

12. Bromley, D. B. Some effects of age on short-term learning and

remembering. J. Gerontol., 1958, 13, 398-406.

13. Canestrari, R. E., Jr. Paced and self-paced learning in young

and elderly adults, J. Gerontol., 1963, 180 165-68,

14. Canestrari, R. E., Jr. Research in Learning. Gerontologist, 1967,

7, 61-66.

15. Chown, S. M., and Heron, A. Psychological aspects of aging in man.

Annual Review of Psychology, 1965, 16, 417-450.

16. Clement, F. A psychomotor learning test; influence of age$ sex,

and intellectual level. In C. Tibbits and Wilma Donahue (Eds),

Social and Psychological Aspeclolikain. New York: Columbia

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17. Denenberg, V. H. and Kline, N. J. The relationship between age and

avoidance learning in the hooded rat. J. comp. physiol.

Psychol., 1958, 51, 488-491.

18. Downs, Sylvia, Age in relation to part and whole learning. J.

Gerontol., 1965, 20, 479, 482.

19. Eisdorfer, C. Verbal learning and response time in the aged.4

J. Genet. Psychol., 1965, 107, 15-22.

20 Eisdorfer, C., Axelrod, S., and Wilkie, F. L. Stimulus exposure

time as a factor in serial learning in an aged sample.

J. Abnorm, Soc. Psychol., 1963, 67, 594-600.

21. Gilbert, Jeanne G. Mental efficiency in senescence, Arch. Psychol.,

1935, 27, (whole ro. 188).

22. Gilbert, Jeanne G. Memory loss in senescence. J Abnorm. soc.

Psychol., 1941, 36, 73-86.

23. Gladis, M. Age differences in repeated learning tasks in

schizoprenic subjects. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1964, 68,

437-441.

17-15-

24. Jones, H. E. Intelligence and problem-solving. In J. E. Birren

(Ed.), HandbookolAitandttidividuahPschological

jilBioloar. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press,

1959. (Chapter 19, pp. 655-699.)

25. Jones, H. E.$ Conrad, H. S.$ and Horn, A. Psychological studies of

motion pictures. II. observation and recall as a function of age.

Univ. Calif. Publ. Psychol., 1928, 3, 225-243.

26. Kay, Harry. Theories of Learning and aging. In J. E. Birren

(Ed.), Handbook_of Agin9 and the IndividttiLlsychological

mcaisapii. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press,

1959. (Chapter 18, pp. 614-654.)

27. Kay, Harry. Learning and aging. In K. W. Schaie (Ed.), lleal

and Methods of Research on Aging. Morgantown: West Virginia

Univ., 1968, pp. 61-82.

28. Kimble, G. A., Pennypacker, H. S. Eyelid conditioning in young and

aged subjects. J. Genet, Psychol., 1963, 103$ 283-289..

29. Klonoff, H. and Kennedy, Margaret. Memory and perceptual functioning

in octogenarians and nonagenurians in the community. J. Gerontol.,

19651 20, 329-333.

30. Marinesco, G. and Kreindler, A. Des reflexes conditionnels. III.

Applications des reflexes conditionnels a certains problems cliniques.

J. Psychol. norm. path., 1934, 31, 722-791.

31. Moore, B. M. Age and error in a rote learning task. Ergonomics,

1965, 8, 305-314.

32. Noble, C. E. Baker, B. L., and Jones, T.A. Age.and.sex parameters

in psychomotor learning. Percept. Mot. Skills, 1964, 19,

935-45.

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33. Peak, D. T. Changes in short-term memory in a group of aging community

.'esidents. J. Gerontol., 1968, 23, 9-16.

34. Peak, D, T. A replication study of changes in short-term memory

in a group of aging community residents. J Gerontol.,

1970, 25, 316-319.

35. Ruch.,F. L. The differentiative effects of age upon-human learning.

J. Gen, Psychol., 1934, 11, 261-285.

36. Shakow, D., Dolkart, M. B., and Goldman, R. The memory function in

psychoses of the aged. Dis. nerv. syst. 1941, 2, 4348.

37. Shooter, A.M.N., Schonfield, A.E.D., King, H. F. and Welford, A. T.

Some field data on the training of older people. Occup. Psychol.,

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38. Taub, H. A. Paired associates learning as a function of age, rate,

and instructions. J. Genet. Psychol., 1967, 111, 41-46.

39. Van Zonneveld, R. J. An orientation study of the memory of old

people. Geriatrics, 1958, 13, 532-534.

19

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D. piplimunst (Teaching the Older Adult)

1. Birren, James E., ed. Relations of Development and Aging.Springfield, Illinois, 1964.

2. Butler, Robert N. "The Life Review," Psycholkgy. Today, vol. 5,

no. 7, pp. 49ff.

3. Continuin9 Education in the Later Years. Institute of GerontologySeries (Vol. 12),inigirlif-U7of Florida Press, 1963.

4. Crabtree, Arthur P. "Education - The Key to Successful Aging,"Adult Education, vol. 17, no. 3 (Spring 1967).

5. "Education for Aging," Daily Needs and Interests of Older People,ed. Adeline M. Hoffman, SPIiiiffiTa,

6. Eisdorfer, Carl. "On the Issue of Relevance in Research,"The Gerontologist, Part 1, Spring 1970, pp. 6-10.

7. Feldman, Marvin. Making Education Relevant. New York: Ford

Foundation, 1967.

8. "A Great University Studies Educational Needs of Older People,"

Adult Leadership, vol. 16, no. 1 (May 1967), pp. 2-4.

9. Hand, Samuel E. "What it Means to Teach Older Adults,""Education

for Senior Adults Leadership Institute - Florida State University,lrefaaFfiaTn of-Adult Education, Florida Stiti-UMWRITy,Tallahassee, Florida, 1969, pp. 40-51.

10. Havighurst, Robert J. "Adult Education and Human Development, "

Centro Sociale (International Edition), vol. 14, no. 76-78

(1967),-W-19-30.

11. , and Neugarten, Bernice G. Society and Education, 3rd

edition, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., ior12. Hendrickson, Andrew and Barnes, Robert F. The Role of Colle es and

Universities in the Education of the AgiaTreaRs, o: 0173

State University Press, 1964

13. Hiemstra, Roger P. "Continuing Education for the Aged: A Survey

of Needs and Interests of Older People," Adult Education,

vol. 22, no. 2 (1972), pp. 100-109.

14. Hixson, Leroy E. Formula for Success: A Step-1475tep procedure

for Organizing a Local Institute of LitetimeLearninTlar

20

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15. Kastenbaum, Robevt. "Getting There Ahead of Time," PlitgAlsgx

!pedal, vol. 5 no. 7 (December 1971), pp. 52 ff.

16. Kauffman, Earl , "Educare: An Investigation of a Method for

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