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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 118 696 UD 015 737

Jesser, David L.,Education in the Big Cities: Problems and Prospects.Report 'No. 63.

INSTITUTION Education Commission of the States, Denver, Colo.SPONS AGENCY Improving State Leadership in Education, Denver,

Colo.PORT NO ECS-R-63

,PUB DATE Jun 75NOTE ,53p.

AUTHORTITLE

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$3.50 Plus PostageDESCRIPTORS Change Agents; *Change Strategies; Consortia;

*Cooperative Planning; Educationally Disadvantaged;*Educational Problems; Interagency Cooperation;*Metropolitan Areas; Minority Group Children;Municipalities; School Community Cooperation; SchoolIntegration; *Urban Education; Urban Schools; UrbanTeaching

IDENTIFIERS Suburban Migration; Urban Migration

ABSTRACT \

Some of the current thinking on planning and(effecting improvements in education in the big cities is togetherunder four major chapters in this publication. A section on majordevelopments, problems, and needs addresses such issues asaccelerated rate of change, crisis confrontations ano brush firetechniques, and unanticipated consequences of change. Four issues(educational leadership in the mainstream of society, dilemmas in bigcity education, recent developments and insights, and next steps) areincluded under a section on problems and challenges of big cityeducation. Sub - issues such as migration of the disad-vantaged, quality)of education amid the process of ethnic desegregation of schools,accountability, and effective governance are also treated here. Asection on preparing to meet the challenges and needs focuses oncooperative arrangements between groups, organizations, and agencies,planning and change, bringing schools closer to the people, andrecognizing and removing constraints. The fipal section addressesemerging roles and relationships and discusees state educationagencies, consortia of local administrators, institutions of higherlearning, and intra-governmental efforts. It is copcluded that.cooperation throughout the entire governance system will continue todevelop and improve the quality of the education programs.(Author/AM)

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Education in.the Big Cities

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTHEDUCATION &WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

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Problems and Prospects

Report No. 63

Written by David L. Jesser.Director

Career Education ProjectCouncil of Chief State Schobl Officers

Education Commission of the StatesDenver, Colorado 80203

Wendell H. Pierce, Executive Director

June 1975

Financial support from the Improving State Leadershipin Education (ISLE) Project for the preparation of

this report is gratefully acknowledged.

2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

L

It is difficult indeed to acknowledge assistance thathas been proffered and gratefully accepted as thismanuscript has been prepared. To the many peoplewho have critiqued material and offeredsuggestions, my sincere thanks.

would be remiss, however, if I failed toacknowledge.certain specific kinds cif assistance.The contributing authors to the volume, tRevitalizing Education in the Big Cities, havebeenan extremely important source of help, as have thestaff of the tducation Commission of the States,who assumed responsibility for preparation of thecase studies of state efforts to aid big city schoolsystems. To the people at the EducationCommission of the States, Gene Hensley and RonSmith in particular, my appreciation for theirsupport and constouctive suggestions.

Lastly, I want to acknowledge the help of anesteemed colleague, respected mentor and valuedfriend, Edgar L. Morphet. To him, my sincereappreciation. Dr. Morphet was the director of theImproving State Leadership in Education (ISLE)Project at the time I served as associate director.

David L. JesserDirector

Career Edric.a von ProjectCouncil of Chief State.School Officers

3

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 1MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS, PROBLEMS ANDNEEDS 3

Accelerated Rate of Change 4

Crisis Confrontations and Brush Fire Techniques 4

Unanticipated Consequences of Change 5

Chapter 2PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES OF BIG CITYEDUCATION r 9

Educational Leadership in the Mainstream of Society 11

Equality of Opportunity and EducationalLeadership 11

The Roots of the Problems 13

Educational Isolation 13

Migration of Disadvantaged Peoples 14

OutMigration of Affluent Reydents 15

Dilemmas in Big City Education 17

Quality Education Amid the Process of EthnicDesegregation of Schools 17

New Visions Amid Massive Concentrations ofPreviously Bypassed People 19

Planning for the Future Amid ImmediateEmerOncies 19

Accountability Amid Deterrents 20Burgeoning Necessities Among Dwindling

Resources 1,

Effective Governance and Obsolete Structures 23

Concentration and Coordination AmidSeparated Endeavors 14

iii

4

Some Re lilpkt Developments and Insights

Next Steps 27

Chapter 3PREPARING TO MEET THE CHALLENGES ANDNEEDS

Cooperative Arrangements 2R

Some Possible Pitfalls 29

Planning and Change 30

Bringing Schools Closer to the People 33the PACTS Program 34

The New York Effort 34

Recognizing and Removing Constraints 37

Chapter 4EMERGING ROLES AND RELATIONSHIPS 41

State Education Agencies 41

Consortia of Local Administrators 46

Institutions of Higher Learning 46

Intragovemment al Efforts 4()

AFTE RWORD 47

I V

INTRODUCTION

During the past few years, many speakers and writershave directed attention to the increasingly seriousproblems of the big cities. In particular, most havecommented on the acute problems of education andhave noted that inasmuch as the more serious problemsare closely interrelated, effective solutions will have tohe interrelated as well. Numerous solutions have beenproposed, but there have been relatively few attempts todevelop comprehensive long-range plans for effectingimprovements in most cities. Only, limited progress hasbeen made in reaching agreement on goals and prioritiesor on strategies for ensunng that they are implementedpromptly and effectively.

Meanwhile, the nation's metropolitan population con-tinues to increase, and the problems are compounding.Within 'a few years, if current trends persist, three-fourths of the entire population will live in metropolitanareas. Our decisions relating to education finance andgovernance- -along with ao host of other decisions affect-ing metropolitan life -will significantly affect the des-tiny of the nation. We can neither afford to continuethe unplanned growth of the past nor to enact piece-meal changes merely because they appear momentarilypromising or are advocated by influential groups.

To say that urban problems are serious is, unfortunate-ly, an understatement. The professional literature andthe communications media show ample evidence thatsuch problem& are fast approaching crisis proportions.This evidence is not being presented by professionaldoomsayers, but by lay and professional leaders repre-senting virtually every facet of society.

As often happens in crisis situations, long-range goals orobjectives are at least temporarily forgotten. Moreover,deciSionmakers confronted with such situations Lend tooverlook, or at least fail to recognize clearly,. the rootcauses of the crisis.

F. lucution trs the Big Cities Problems and Prosper Is

6

As concerned citizens, including educators, legislators,government officials, parents and students, attempt todeal with the crises in big city governance and educa-tion, long-range goals must be kept in mind. Short-rangegoals, objectives and procedures must still he developedto surmount immediate problems, but they clearly needto he compatible with long-range goals. And, equallyimportant, procedures will have to be developed foridentification and resolution of the fundamental prob-lems.

This publication brings together some of the currentthinking on planning and effecting improvements ineducation- in the big cities. It is a product of thecooperative efforts of many organization's and individ-uals. Primary impetus, however, has been provided bythe recently completed project, Improving State Leader-ship in Education, by the Council of Chief State SchoolOfficers and- by the Education Commission of theStates.

Education renewal is essential for any jignificant prog-ress in prban renewal. The kind and quality of educationprovided during the next few years will he a majorfactoe its improving conditions in the cities. If we are toremedy the ills of our metropolitan centers, we mustcorrect the inadequacies of educationNpolicies andpiograms in those centers. Cooperative enaeavors on ascale seldom witnessed before will he needed. All,agencies, institutions and organizations concerned witheducation governance will have to become involved inthe search for solutions.

The need is urgent. The time for acticm is now.

Edgar L. Morphet

Byron W. Hansford

Wendell H. Pierce'

Edgar L. Morphet is professor emeritus, University of Californiaat Berkeley, Byron W. Hansford is executive secretary, Councilof Chief State School Officers, and Wendell H. Pierce is execu-tive director, Education Commission of the States.

2 Educatwn ommaswn ()I the Stater

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Chapter 1

MAJODEVELOPMENTS, PROBLEMS AND NEEDS

Throughdut its history, the United States has experi-enced many important changes,. in its structure ofgovernment, its geography its peoples and its society. Inretrospect, most of the chiNdges were probably morebeneficial than detrimental. Hence, most members ofthe society have accepted change and perceived changeas "good." This has been especially true as long as thechanges exhibited two basic characteristics:

A perceived quality of orderliness; and

A reflection all some' notion of social progress.

In this setting, the United States grew from a relativelysmall,- agricultural nation to one of the most powerfuland highly developed countries in the world. Vastchanges occurred, and these changes, at least in the eyesof society, were considered necessary for the growth ofthe nation.

More recently, however, increasing numbers of Artien-cans have been reluctant to perceive change per se aseither orderly or beneficial. Some changes formerly seenas boons have rapidly become sources of many societalills. Growth in metropolitan areas, development andaccessibility of private modes of transportation and thedevelopment of heavy industry and big business wereperceived as good. Many people now living can remem-ber thinking of such changes in a pq,sitive and favoral-ilemanner.

Yet today, as our society faces unprecedented problerrAand upheavals, many of those who formerly viewedchange with anticipation and satisfaction can no longerdo so. And it is primarily herein the kinds of ge

heretofore perceived as good for societythat otcauses of urban problems are found. What has hap-

Edueatton m the Big Ones Problems and Prospects 3

8

pened'? flow did the present situation develop?, What aresome probable consequences? flow can undesirableconsequences he avoided'?

Accelerated Men and women horn in the early decades of the 20thRate of century have participated in almost unimaginable break_dhange throughs in virtually every aspect of sqcietal life. In

their lifetimes they have watched transportation developfrom the horse and buggy to the Boeing 717 andbeyond. They have observed what can only, he termedfantastic developments in communcations the tele-phone, radio, television, satellite technology and nowthe laser. Instantaneous communication with almostevery area of the earth is not only possible, but is

accepted as an essential way of life. Our society haswitnessed dramatic breakthroughs in the fields of energyproduction, medical and health care, and delivery andinformation systems.

While the value of these changes must not he overlookedor minimized, it must he balanced against their suddenevolution which has c(Intributed to many of society'sproblems. The rapid pace of change has all buteliminated the desideratum of "orderliness" in change.At the same time, we see more clearly than ever beforethe undesirable consequences of unplanned change.There is an apparent inability or unwillingness amongdectsionmakerS to deal appro-priately with the rapidmanner in which changes are occurring. More and morecitizens are expressing concern about the ccm.se

quences to society to general and to individual humanbeings in particular of either unplanned or poorlyplanned change.

Crisis Con- In an interview reported recently, Secretary of tit;III'frontations Henry Kissinger observed that Amell1ca's inairir problemand Brush is that it directs its attention primarily to anediateFire problems. The real necessity, according to Kissinger, is

Techniques for discipline and foresight to carry out necessarymeasures that cannot in advance hr proven to In

necessary."

4

In the interview, Secretary Kissinger was reflecting on

I Time, October 21, 1971, p 72

9/Atli Cllr, HI I e 1,1 I e

. problems faced by the United States in a modern-dayglobal oeginiunity of nations. When he observed that"there is a need for farsightedvess of governments to anunusual degree," he could also have been referring tostate governments, local governments or local systems ofeducation. Most of ,these administrative systems, caughtup in wave after wave of crises, have been so concernedwith the immediate problems created by arises that theyhave not been able to develop long-range goals.

These observations do not imply that we shouldoverlook immediate problems. Brush fires, if not con-tained, cat- become raging conflagrations; infectiousdisease, if not controlled, can result in epidemics orplagues; and social problems, if not remedied oralleviated, can foment upheavals of great moment. It isobvious that immediate problems must be solved, andthat to do so will require a continuing high expenditureof energy and resources. At the same time, however, wemust institute long-range goals to lessen the probabilityof crises occurring in the future.

It may be difficult to keep long-range goals andobjectives in mind when dealing with immediate crises,but failing to do so is likely to result in a futurecomprised primarily of crises. Whether our society coulddo more than merely exist in such a future is open toerio us question,

How can a societyiSpe with the unanticipated conse- Unantici-quenes of change? Consider the breakthroughs that pated Con-have occurred in rece0 years in the areas of science, sequences oftechnology and general knowledge. Each of the break- Changethroughs, together with a series of serendipitous effectsor spin-offs, has resulted in heretofore unimagi4dbenefits for mankind and provided society with invalu-able insights and opportunities. They have also causedsociety to take more seriously the concept of the worth,dignity and integrity of the individual and have providedsociety with the tools necessary to build upon thatconcept. Clearly, as these breakthroughs occur, societycould anticipate many beneficial results.

Education in the Big Cities. Problems and Prospects 5

10

Yet there were, and continue to be, consequences ofthose changes that were not anticipated. Unfortunately,many of these consequences have been counterproduc%Live: poverty in the midst of affluence; inequitablerights and opportunities based upon race, ethnic originand sex; a population explosion reflected in the growingdensity of urban centers; and more recently, ecologicalconcerns relative to the use and misuse of essentialresources. Perhaps the most serious dilemma of all is therelationship between growth and progress. In thisparticular dilemma, many of the root causes of theperplexing problems of society can he found.

For many Americans, the idea that most societalproblems are linked to big cities is apt to he incoigruousand inexplicable. Many of us grew.up in a socle inwhich bigness and goodness were syronomous,P-rog esswas conceptually tied to bigness. It was only natural forAmericans to turn to the big cities in their searOli for thegood life. The bigger the city was, the better itwasexpected to become; and the better it became, thebigger it grew. This was envisioned as the saga of the bigcity.

Viewed in retrospect, the concept of bigness andgoodness as being synonomous should not be puzzling'As the nation grew in physical area, settled areas andpopulation, it became "better." Businesses and indus-tries, as they moved from small shops and homefactories to great skyscrapers and huge factories, bye-wise became "better." Throughout our history, theconcept has been: the more there is and the bigger it is,the better it will become.

It is not surprising that more and more people turned tothe cities. Bigness meant goodness, and cities were big.Therefore, big cities and big city life were- consideredgood. .And the perception was not altogether false insome respects.

During that period, the ultimate in housing, with itselectric lights and its indoor plumbing, was to he foundin the cities, readily available to industrious peoplewilling to work diligently for it. Cities offered the latest

6 Education Cornmirtion ol the .Stater

11

in public transportation subways, streetcars and busesAnd it was in the big city, with its businesses andfactories, that conscientious and hard-working individMils could climb upward, as many did, on the ladder of

cess.

As one result, small cares grew into big cities, and bigcities developed into bigger cities. And with bigger citiescame a need for expanded social institutions andagencies. New and larger hospitals, police departments,fire departments and schools came into being. Thewisdom of the. people in equating bigness with goodnessseemed apparent. It was, after all in the big city thatthe finest medical care, thy most modern protectiveservices and the greatest education opportunities werereadily available. The fulfillment of the American[)ream presumably was to be found' in the city.

But as the nation and its cities grew, it slowly andpainfully became apparent that growth could lead tosomething other than go-odness and that bigness andgoodness were not necessarily synonomous But whileominous signs were clearly visible to some, to othersthose same indicators were only irritating conditions

0 that stood temporarily in the way of progress. At thehalf-way point of the 20th century, there were conflicts 'between orderly growth and chaotic sprawling, betweenaspirations and realizations, and between existing andliving. Those conflicts have, in many instances, empty(into highly visible and volatile crisis situations

In the waning years of the 20th century, the urbansettings of America are rocked by one cnsis afteranother, each compounding the preceding one Virtuallyevery social institution has been seriously affected Andwhile the crises have been identified with urban centers,the impact is felt far beyond the big cities. As Ilaskewhas observed.

the pitfall we lair Is tailing to re, ,ignite thatbig ,Rids is 1. nsis in the Croted ',tate% A% ,11%%.1%%

is a Lornpound of opportunit% and ',col I he loh ahead do1,1111 governments is to aggrandity oppoitoniti, at thy

expense of peril 2

2 L. D liankew, "Big City Education lta Challenge to Governonce," In Ret :tat:zing Educatifin rn Nie Big itien. p 4

filueation in the Big Uitiel P.,,hlems and enispr, is

12 ,

If the crists confronting urban life are to be alleviated,strong and farsighted leadership must be exerted at alllevels of government and in all segments of society.People will again need to perceive appropriate change,and growth as having potential benefits, and they mustalso learn to live with both change and growth, for bothwill continue to occur.

But how is this to be accomplished? What tools can heemployed? In examining these questions, Hskew hassuggested that: ,

Ni, one will suffice. of course. Neither will uncoordi-nated use of Alultiplc tools. The e'xperience.of. the last 50yers, however. convincingly urgues that educatiop hats tohe o-»e key constituent o] targeted strateigixs to exptoitopportunities and to damper disintegration. Syste,ntsitifschools existing in big cities alone cannot solve any problemor exploit any opportunity composing our .crisis. But it isNrkl to idol rift- any problem or opportunity- that win yieldwithout key inputs from those school systems. 3

America look to education for solutions to many ofsociety's problems and expect public education toassume a dership role in bringing about constructivechange in al arts of our rapidly changing, dynamic andcomplex socia stem. Can educationbig city educa-tionprovide the help that is needed? Or will it be '-toocaught up in its own struggle for survival to make thecontributions so urgently needed?

p. 4.

8 Education Commission of the States

13

Chapter 24

PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES OF BIG CITYEDUCATION

Until a few decades ago the best education opportuni-ties and programs were usually found in the cities, andthe least satisfactory in rural and small town areas. Mostcities were relatively wealthy, could attract the bestl.educational talent and did not need, or recognize theneed, for state services and assistance. The states andstate education agencies were concerned primarily witheduCation in rural and small town areas, where most ofthe people lived. They were not in a position, andseldq.m were asked, to provide services or much financialassiitance for the schobls in the cities.

But since World War II, the 'situation of most cities haschanged significantly in party respects, including thefollowing:

For some years there was a tremendous migration tothe cities, including blacks from the South, poorwhites from Appalachia and Puerto Ricans and othersfrom Latin America, all seeking better economic andeducation opportunities.

More recently, many of the most affluent people,especially affluent whites in the cities, began to moveto wealthier suburban areas to find a "better"environment and escape the rapidly increasing prob-lems in the cities.

Few of the city school systems, which had tended tobecome complacent and bureaucratic, were preparedto cope adequately with new education problems orto meet the needs of new tudents, most of whosefamilies were from low-sodioeconomic,groups thathad limited education opportunities.

A

Education in the Big Cities: Problems and Prospects

-14

Many people thought the problems in the cities wereonly temporary and could be resolved by traditionalrelations and procedures. Gradually, urban, state andnational leaders recognized that the situation wouldcontinue to deteriorate unless appropriate new policiesand procedures were developed, accepted and utilizedperceptively. They recognized that t jere was indeed acrisis affecting the welfare and pro ess of the nationand that no simple changes would suffice to resolve the'situation. Bold and comprehensive planning was essen-tial and would require the insights and services of themost competent people from all levels as Well as thecooperation and support of the cities, the states'and thefederal government.

Plausible answers to the dilemmas of modern-day"society are to be found, in part, in the societal inputsthat can be provided by the big city school systems. It istherefore imperative that the, potential leadership benurtured and brought into full bloom. The style, ofleadership must necessarily be somewhat different fromwhat it often was in the past. The big city schoolsystems that flourished in the past did so primarily as aresult of the contributions of perceptive educationleaders. But if the complex problems of today's big cityschool systems are to be solved, education leaders willbe called upon to provide strong leadership for allaspects of the social systemnot just in the educationsector.

The new leadership must be able to work with andthrough the many segments of society. It will beessential that the new leadership be able to:

Accurately assess the needs of a changing society inrelation to the value systems formulated and held bymembers of that society;

Adequately explore alternative strategies that holdpromise of meeting or fulfilling the identified societalneeds;

Guide the development of rational, realistic andviable operational plans for the effective utilization ofresources in light of available alternatives; and

'10 Education Commission of the States

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Provide assistance to the various groups responsiblefor implementing the plans developed to meet socie-tal needs.

Implicit in effective leadership is the need for rapportand cooperation between all segments of society, andthis rapport and cooperation is most needed among theseveral discrete components of municipal, county aodstate governance. Education, it must be remembered, isonly one of the many components of governance. Therewill have to be an intertwining of leadership in the bigcities if rational answers to societal problems are to befound. It is no. longer possible or desirable for educationto be an autonomous segment of society. It mustoperate where it rightfully belongs, in the mainstream ofsociety; it must not function in its own channel thatmay not be closely related to the mainstream.

Equality of Opportunity and Educational LeadershipThe accomplishment of all the tasks requiring the newkind of leadership needed in education relates directlyto the conceptlong held and cherished by all Amen-cansof equal opportunity for all. Recognition andacceptance of this concept is fundamental to thedemocratic system of values that has evolved andemerged in this nation. The nTv leadership cannot beexempted from such recognition and acceptance. Theleadership in education, especially in the big cities, willneed to demonstrate a firm and 'positive corlimitment toequal opportunity. The education leaders in the bigcities will have to demonstrate, through appropriateactions, that they actually believe what they say theybelieve. In effect, they will have to work diligently toreduce the gap between what we say and what wedothe actions taken or notaken in support of theprofessed beliefs.

As a case in point, this nation has long held that abroadly based and adequately supported system ofpublic education is essential to its well-being andpreservation. This same society has held that, consistentwith a belief in the dignity and worth of each individual,every child should be given equal opportunity in thepublicly supported school system to develop his or her

qucation in the Brg ernes Problems and Prospects

16

EducationalLeadershipin theMainstreamof Society

talents to the fullest extent possible within the vviderange of abilities and needs.

Until relatively recent times, most Americans believedthat equal opportunity was being achieved through theschools. But in a system that was concerned primarilywith teaching the "3 R's," with preparing students forthe next step in education or with merely transmittingfrom one generation to the next those social andcultural heritages deemed to be of value, the fallacy ofadherance to the traditional concept of equality ofopportunity can readily be perceived.

Obviously, there has long been a professed belie in theconcept of equality of opportunity. Pe ps not soobvious, however, has been the reloct ce of societythrough its leadershipto demonstrate, through itsactions, its support of that belief.

A dynamic, rn.,: e and expanding society cannottolerate an education system that is limited in- purposeand scope or that de :s not genuinely make meaningfulefforts to meet the needs of all segments of society.Public education must adequately serve thosR, whopossess a wide-ranging variety of learning styles, abilitiesand .needs. This is imperative in every facet of educa-tion, but is especially important in the big city,sichoolsystems, where most of the population, divergentlearning styles and diverse needs are found. It is in thesesystems that failure to accommodate divergent abilitiesand needs q. is noticeable, as indicated in a recentmeasurement of educational achievement among youngAmeriCans.1

If public education is to provide meaningful educatio'nopportunities to match the abilities and needs of everylearner, instead of selected learners, the patterns, pro-grams and organizational structures that once wereacceptable no longer will suffice. As they develop newand diversified programs, education leaders will do wellto question the assumption that each generation will liveamid conditions that governed the lives of its fathers.

I"National Aaseument Rettults to Date," in ERS Bulletin,October 1974. Educational Research Service, Inc., Arlington, Va.


7

t

Changes. that have ..occurred in society must be recog-nized; changes likely to occur must be anticipated.

The Roots of the ProblemsA recent publication of the Chamber dIf Commerce ofthe United States, Blueprint for the Possible, noted thateducators, in their haste to find the proper solution,were often prone to jump right over the problem. Thismay have been the case to some degree as educationleaders have attempted to deal with the problems of thebig city schools.

But if many educators have tended to overlook theproblems, they certainly were not alone. The problemsoften developed in a gradual, subtle manner. And itmust be kept in mind that school systems in the bigcities, as they evolved and developed over the years,were able to move away from the more traditional andlimited programs to more diversified programs. Big cityschool systetns were able to do much to meet the needsof the different kinds of learners served. Indeed, untilonly a few decades ago, the very best in educationopportunities and programs were found in the big cityschool systems. As noted previously, the big citiesenjoyed the greatest concentrations of wealth and hadthe greatest 4esources available for education. Wealth,together with the drawing power of the city as a centerof culture, enabled big city school systems to attractand employ the best in educational talent.

Educational Isolationism. Ironically, this combinationof great wealth and educational talent gave rise to oneof the major problems of big city schools. The seeming-ly unlimited resources and a never-ending supply ofeducation expertise made it possible for big city schoolsystems to exist in "splendid isolation" from manyother segments of the education system. The big city ,school systems were virtual empires unto themselves.They did not need any help from other agenciesconcerned with education. Harold Spears, an administra-tor who has seen the transformation of big city schoolsystems, has eloquently described the situation thatenabled those systems to enjoy their isolution.:

Education in the Big Cities: Problems and Prospects 13

18

As- we recall. the large city school district was highlyindependent of the state educaimnal agency. hoth fiscallyand pedagogically. In J true Sense it was an operation thatso often overshadowed the state office. Major funding ofeducation was largely the property tax that tended towarddistrict individualism, and in the case of the large citymeant ample coffers for the chest 2

In recent years there has been increasing awareness onthe part of big city school systems of the need forcooperative relationships between those systems andother education agencies. Increasingly, big city schoolsystems have turned to other edudation institutions apdagencies for assistance in finding practal solutions forthe maze- of problems confronting tam. They havesought assistance from institutions of higher learning,from state Education agencies and from various agenciesof the fed era' government.

To some observers, however, the recognition by the bigcity school systems of the need for help has beensomewhat akin to closing the barn door after horseshave gotten away. The problemsoverlooked whiledevelopingbecame critical before assistance wassought. Until the crisis, big city school systems remainedcomfortable with their sense of security, well-being andisolation.

Migration of Disadvantaged Peoples. Prior to World WarII, the sense of security held by many of the education'system. was enhanced by the fact that the expandingeconomy of the big cities could accommodate the influxof many kinds of people. In this context, it should benoted that in the years immediately preceding andduring World War II, the nation and its industry locatedin the big cities enjoyed tremendous growth stimulatedby the general recovery that followed the depression ofthe 1930s. The big cities and the industries neededpeople, and every effort was made to recruit them. Thiswas quite logical, because it was through this same kindof growth that the cities had been able to develop asthey did. So the influx of people and growth of industrycontinued, and the big cities continued to thrive, or at2 Harold Spears, "The City Sheikdoms of the Past, p. 5.Unpublished paper prepared for the Education Commission ofthe States.

14 hchttuttun Cwrttntsstoti etl the States

19

Of

least to fare better than rho' other geographic anddemographic aspects of the society.

In the years since World War II, however, the situationin the big cities has changed dramatically. To manydisadvantaged groups, including economically distressedblacks from the Deep South, whites from the Appals-chian region, Puerto Ricans, Cubans and others, bigcities continued to hold the promise that they once heldfor many other disadvantaged immigrants. To thesegroups of peoples, the big city was the "promised land,"where they and their families could find their own"place in the sun" and where the answers to their ownproblems could be found.

As one result, the number of migrants to the big citiesincreased dmmatica,lly and has continued to increase inthe three decades since the end of World War II. And asthe number of migrants to the big cities increased, sodid the problems of big city education.

At- pointed out earlier, many of emerging problems inthe big cities were so gradual and subtle as to berelatively unnoticeable. And, as has been observed manytimes, the last gift of the gods seems to be foresight. Itwould be grossly unfair, however, to suggest that therewere no concerns about the migration of disadvantagedgr9ups to metropolitan centers. Nearly a decade ago,sociologists attempted to direct attention of educatorsto this as well as other population trends. In aperceptive and thought-provoking paper by PhillipHauser and Martin Taitel, for example, the problem wasclearly identified and reasonable guidelines were sug-gested .3 Unfortunately, little actron resulted.

Out-Migration of Affluent Residents. As Hauser andTaitel were examining population trends and projec-tions, especially those having implications for the largecities, they called attention to the fact that, while thepopulation influx presaged rough times for the cities, a

3Phillip Hauser and Martin Taitel, "Population TrendsPrologueto Educational Problems." Chapter 3 in Prospective Changes inSociety by 1980, Edgar L. Morphet and Charles 0. Ryan, eds.'New York: Citation Press, 1967.

Education in the Big Cities: Problems and Prospects .15

20.

countermovement of equal importance was also takingplace. As they described it:

Persons of the lowest income, education and occupatiogalstatus, usually the newcomers to the urban environment,tended to occupy the less desirable residences toward thecenter of the city. Persons of higher income, education andsocial status tended to locate- toward the peripheries of themetropolis. ( Emphasis supplied.] 4

It was largely during the years after World War IT thatthe exodus of affluent residents from central cities tosurrounding suburbs gained its greatest morrtentum-. As-Haskew has observed:

These inhabitants (of the lai-ge cities) themselves are inconstant motion; centrified in nature. They move tosuburbs at dizzying rates and are followed by businessservices and industry. The suburban rings thus createdcontinue their outward expansion.... 13y:1990, it is likelythat 60 per cent of the metropolitan population will be inthe suburban rings still moving outward. In the centralcities, people are in constant movement also; individualschools often show 40", 60, even 100 per cent enrollmentturnovers in a school year.5

The issues raised by Hauser and Taitel and later byHaskew point to deficiencies and imbalances that havebecome glaringly apparent in recent years. One needonly journey through the central portion of any largeAmerican city to observe firsthand the consequences ofmigrations to and from our cities. There is an unmistak-able atmosphere of obsolescence and decay in the innercities, gaping holes where buildings used to he and,where buildings are still standing, hoards where windowswere. Most important, however, is that in the midst ofthe decay of the inner city with its substandardhousing conditions that constitute a national disgrace-there are people. Perhaps, as Hauser and Taitel haveindicated,

. is likely that the physical and socioeconomic charac-ter of a communituture will depend less on thehistorical accident of its origin and more upon the will of

41bid., p. 35.

sLaurence D. Hitikew, "Big City Education: Its Challenge toGovernance," in Revitalizing Education in -the Big Cities, Edgar L.Morphet, David L. Jester and Arthur P. Ludka, eds. Depver,Colo.; Improving State Leadership in Education, 1972, p. 3,


21

organized population groups as manifest in the planningand development activities.6

the preceding paragraphs have described briefly some of Dilemmas inthe challenges confronting education in the big cities Big Cityand the root causes of some of the basic problems that Education

/ have emerged. Many other challenges and problem areascould have been noted; these, however, seem basic.

Some big city school systems have been able to providethe needed leadership to work effectively with othersocial agencies in the urban environment. While thereale problems in most school systems today, concernededucators, legislators, parents and other citizens areengaged in efforts that hopefully will lead to solutions.As alreadysnoted, however, there is a potential danger inseeking solutions too rapidly: it is always possible thatthe problem itself will be overlooked.

In his examination of the plight of big city schools,Haskew delineated seven concerns (discussed below)that constitute the major issues confronting educationin the big cities.' Each is a problem area of utmostimportance, with significant implications for concernedcitizens searching for solutions.

Concern: Quality Education Amid the Process ofEthnic Desegregation of SchoolsThroughout the history of the nation, high qualityeducation for everyone has been the persistent Ameri-can dream. Dochterman ,and, Beshoar have depicted thedream in terms of

. a land in which every citizen would have the opportu-nity for a richer and fuller life, with education opening thedoors to opportunities designed to enable each youngster tomach his jet her) maximum potentials

Although it may not have been technically possible toprovide "quality education" for everyone in the recent6 Hauser and Taitel, op. cit., p. 37.

'Laurence D. Haskew; op. cit., pp. 10-19.

8Clifford Dochterman and Barron Beshoar, in Direction toExcellence in Education. Denver, -Colo.: Improving State Leader-ship in Education, 1971, p. 4.


22

18

past, Americans are now in a position to provide, withtheir available insights and technologies, appropriateeducation opportunities for everyone. But as theseinsights and technologies have become available, schoolsystems across the nation have become involved inanother Manifestation of the problem of' providingquality education for everyonethe process of integrat-ing the schools.

The processes of desegregation and integration in theschools are far from complete. They have either beenhighly successful or abysmal failures to date, dependingsomewhat on one's frame of reference. But it is readilyapparent that desegregation is shaking the foundationsof quality education in the big city schools. And asthese events take Ace, there is notable evidence ofproblems in areas such as:

Viable governance;

Deployment of energy and manpower;

Aspects of schooling preoccupying professional staffsand boards of education;

Fiscal resources and their utilizp.tion;

Staffing;

School district structure for the metropolis;

Time and talent for curriculum renewal;

Acts and technologies for teaching and learning;

Planning for upward development;

Supportive, assistance from other governmental pro-grams such as housing, urban renewal and modelneighborhoods; and

Commitment and emotional support from the com-munity for its schooling organization.'

Laurence D. Haskew, op cit., p. 10.

23

/ (1111(Mon COMMISSIWI of the Stater

GS

tiConcern: New Visions Amid Massive Concentrationsof Previously Bypassed PeopleAs has been noted, the technologies and insightsavailable to the nation's education system have madequality education for all a real and viable possibility.The American Dream can become a reality. For thedream to become a reality, however, leaders in botheducation and governance will have to concern them-selves more with the problems of people, and less withthe data generated by statistics and percentages.

The need for information will always remain. But afixation on "headcount statistics" should not mean thatthe needs of all learners are forgotten or overlooked.There is also the possibility that when only "headcountstatistics" are used, many people will be bypassedandmany have been. These bypassed people have beenconcentrated, in large measure, in the big cities, wherethey constitute a large segment of the educationprogram, and at the same time, a large part of theproblem.

Concern: Planning For the Future Amid ImmediateEmergenciesThe concept of planning for a desired future is bothaccepted and supported by most educators, For some,such planning, _however necessary, may be perceived asbeing out of touch with the reality of the present-daysitution. The crises constitute very real problems, as tbglate Marcus Foster pointed out in a presentation to theCouncil of Chief State School Officers:

.The economic plight`&f [manyl families who send childrento our schools is staggering. During the past five years wehave seen the .number of children from AFDC families risefrom 10,000, or about 16 per cent of [the Oakland 1elementary and secondary enrollment, to rrtdre than24,000, or 38 per cent...

In a. $68 million budget our projected 1971-72 deficit is

$3.5 million with no provision for cost-of-living adjust-ments for our employee groups. To balance our budget wehave been obliged to cut 150 classroom teacher positions, 5principals, 2 vice-principals, 7 nurses and 48 positions in analready depleted custodial/maintenance staff. We have alsomade substantial reductions throughout all areas of theinstructional and supportive program. Thus, when ourteachers return to school this fall (if indeed they can be

ti


24

j

persuaded to return) they will find significantly largernumbers of children in their classrooms, and they will nothave the materials, the hooks and the other supplies thatthey will need to help these children achieve 1°

Similar situations are found in most big city schoolsystems. In the face of such crisis areas, it wou heunderstandable if the administrators of such s gatemswere most concerned with taking care of the h e andnow, and with "kteping their heads above wa ." But,as Haskew has observed, planning ahead by schooldistricts in big cities does occur, in spite of brinkman-ship. Haskew has further commented on a flaw thatperhaps exists in many planning efforts: projecting thepast and the present into the future, which can happenin 'the abience of a priority-targeted development-spanplan.'

Concern: Accountability Amid DeterrentsAt the present time the concept of accountability isriding on the crest of favorable public opinion. Whenblended ,,into practice, the concept holds considerablepromise for rectifying imbalances in the educationsystem of the big cities. But as education leadersproceed in their efforts to improve the education lot oflearners and make the school systemistruly accountable,they are encountering several pitfalls.

One of the major pitfalls has been related to thedefinition of accountability. As noted, everyone favorsaccountability. But what is It they favor? Vlaanderenand Ludka have observed that:

Legislators may believe that schools are accountableto the legislature because it appropnates money forschool operations.

Congressmen may believe that education should heaccountable for the manner in which federal moniesare expended in school programs.

°Marcus Foster "Urban Education an a Problematic Situation,"in Management of the Educational Enterprise Report of the1971 Institute for Chief State School officers

I I Laurence U. Hankew, op cit pp 12-13.

20 Educoion Ctimmiccion of the Stales

259

Educators/are likely to believe that legislators shouldbe held accountable for the manner in which theyprovide (or do not provide) financial support for theschools.

Lay citizens are likely to say that schools should heaccountable to the taxpayers.

Others might suggest that schools should be account-able to students.' 2

-4,

Most people agree that educators and education shouldbe accountable. The agreement tends to become frag-mented, however, when issues such as "Who should heaccountable for what?" and "To whom should the /Lohools be accountable?" are raised.

Closely related to the pitfall of definition is the issue ofresponsibility. As long as people are free to select adefi ition which best fits their own needs and percep-

ns, it will also he possible for them to reject thoseaspects with which they might disagree. They have theoption to say, "Accountability is fine for those studentsand school systems over there, but not in our Situation."

Definition and responsibility are by no means the onlypitfalls that school systems have encountered in theirefforts to achieve accountability in education. Themachinations of bureaucratic structures found in mostbig city school systems through their numerous andcomplex communications arrangements have made,-accountability in any aspect of education difficult,establish. IAnother problem related to education accountabilityhas developed concurrently with teacher unions, teachermilitancy and a shifting focus of professional educa-tional organizations. As in situations described earlier,there is an apparent tendency for teacher organizations

agree readily with the concept of accountability solong as it is directed at "the others."

I 2 Russell Vlaanderen and Arthur Ludka, "Education in a

Changing Society," in Emerging State Reapomobilitien for Educolion, Edgar L. Morphet and David L Jenser, eds. Denver, Colo.Improving State Leadership in Education, 1970.. pp. 140-141

Education in the Big Cruet Prohlernt and Prosp;cit

Concern: Burgeoning Necessities Among DwindlingResourcesIt should be eminently clear that additional resourcesare needed by school Systems of the big cities if theirmany complex problems are to be resolved. Many.xisting programs must be revised, and new types of

programs must be developed and utilized. New programsmint address the relationship between the educationreceived by the students and the work they will performfor a living. To provide the needed programs will requirethe expenditure of a substantial amount of funds. Thepay-off, however, could be tremendous.

Other areas in which additional resources are needed, ifthe task at hand is to be accomplished, relate toconstruction and maintenance of adequate facilities,protection services, communications and equipment. Tobring just one of theseschool facilitiesto a par withthe facilities of suburbia will-require, in many large-cityschool systems, outlays of hundreds of millions ofdollars. Similar major outlays will be required to keepevery aspect of education in the big cities on the rightroad.

Unfortunately, as the need for resources in the big citieshas skyrocketed, the actual or existing supply ofavailable 'resources has tended to wither away. Consider

. the dilemma posed by Dr. Foster:

I would have to state, however, that an even greaterchallenge to urban education exists today. I have referencehere. of course, to the crucial matter of the adequate

tP" financing of our schools.

For example. in our district we have had serious financialprohlems for the past several years since our revenues havenot kept pace with steadily increasing costs and demandsfor needed additional programs. Our local tax ceiling hasnot changed since 1958. In the past we have been ahle tobalance our budgets by reducing or eliminating centraloffice services and by drastically curtailing our maintenanceand custodial staffs.] 3

The situation in Oakland, as described by Dr. Foster,may or may not be typical. It does, however, point to acritical need for a better balance between resources and

3Marcus Foster, op. cit.

Education Commission of the States ^

27

ands. The urgent need was emphasized in even moreramatic fashion when Dr. Mark Shedd, then superin-

tendent of schools for Philadelphia, suggested before aCongressional hearing that perhaps the big city systemsshould be nationalized and that the federal governmentshould assume responsibility for keeping available re-sources and the necessities in better balance.' 4

Concern: Effective Governance and ObsoleteStructuresThe tasks confronting education in big cities are indeedgreat, and herculean efforts will be required if they areto be accomplished satisfactorily. But the tasks them-selves will have to be accomplished with the cooperationof other governmental agencies. Education endeavors inmany big cities face probable failure if they are notbetter structured and orchestrated. Organizational struc-tures that once seemed adequate will no longer suffice;new or reorganized structures must be developed. Thispoint, suggested earlier in this monograph, has been

Aemphasized by Haskew.

In big cities, governance for schooling has to be intertwinedwith governance for everything else to be even modestlyeffective in. surmounting the big problems, and action inconcert is always much more difficult than action in

solo land! as,has been brought out repeatedly, governancefor big city school systems must cope with a plethora oforganiied pressures and forces that add tremendous newdimensions to being effective at all.1 5

Effective governance of education in the big cities willrequire different, kinds of leadership than many citieshave had in the past. The education leader in the bigcities must "know the territory." Unless the territory isknown, and unless the education leader is cognizant ofcertain "givens," any attempt to orchestrate the neededendeavors will be disharmonious at best. To illustratesome of the "givens" that must be recognized:

School district boundaries aie often more destructivethan constructive in their locations and/or theirimpenetrability.

I 4Testimony before the Senate Select Committee on EqualEducational Opportunity, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1971.

Laurence D. Haskew, op. cit., pp. 18-19.

4%


28

Comprehensive planning for such vital program fea-tures as employability education is often blocked byjurisdictional complexity.

Organizational structures for school system manage-ment can be tall and rigid structures that seem tothwart the most sincere efforts to diffuse decision-making.

toThose who profit from centralized control of schoolsare often strongly entrenched and can wield powerfulsanctions against community control, calling statestatutes or union contracts to their aid.

Local political and economic power structures all toooften use their muscle to exploit the school systemfor jobs and contracts, and all too seld support,efforts to make pupil achievement the Measure ofeffectiveness in governance.' 6

Though there are other aspects of "the territory" withwhich the educational leader in the big city should befamiliar, the ones cited above for illustration purposesshould suffice and should engender a greater apprecia-tion of all aspects of "the territory."

Concern: Concentration and Coordination AmidSeparated EndeavorsIn recent years gulch has been written about thepluralistic nature of the American society, and manyhave attributed the perceived ills of societyespeciallyin the big citiesto the various manifestations ofpluralism in society. That pluralism exists is unarguable.It does exist, has existed and will continue to exist. Butto attribute all the problems of society to it does theconcept of pluralism an injustice. Pluralism, by defini-tion, refers to

a state of society in which members of diVerse ethnic.racial, religious or social groups maintain an autonomousparticipation in and development of their traditionalculture or special interest within confines of a commoncivilization) 7

I 6Adapted from Laurence D. Haakew, op. cit., p. 19.

I? Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, Masa.: G & CMerriam Company, 1973, p. 885.

24 Education Commission of. the States

29

Within the confines of a common civilization, pluralismcan be both a source of strength and a solid foundationfor any society. It should provide the nourishment adynamic and growing society needs.

But if the inanifestations of pluralism are not to beblamed for ale ills of the big cities, to what might thoseills be attributed?

'Perhaps one answer tb the above question may be foundin a possible confusion regarding the difference betweena pluralistic society rand a fragmented society. In apluralistic society there is a central or unifying entity,while in a fragmented-society the concept of separated-ness becomes central. There are indications that oursocial systems, especially in big cities, may be character-ized more by separatedness than by pluralism.

Such characterization seems to be the case in the variousagencies concerned with education and govern r.ce inthe urban centers. Under the aegis of federal a I stateagencies, many categorical programs have bee devel-oped. The Model Cities Program, the Con iunityAction Program, Manpower Development Progra.as andTitle I of ESEA are but a few examples of suchprograms' in big cities. Each program requires its ownguidelines, delivery system, required machinery, per-formance requirements and so on, and tends to createterritory that must be protected from any incursion orencroachment. The desire to protect:one's perceivedturf or territory has posed a major dilemma for manybig city educational systems. The separatedness orfragmentation that permits components of educationand big city governance to engage in noncoordinatedand counterproductive efforts must be reduced oreliminated before the educational systems of the bigcities can do the job expected of them.

The challenges confronting big city school systems are Somenumerous, diverse and complex. They may be described Recent De-in a variety of wayi and counted in diffe4'ent manners. ,velopmentsAnd they may be approached, alleviated or solved andthrough the utilization of differing techniques. But with Insightsall the differences that might be observed, there is one


*41

1,

all important thread of commonality in the problems ofthe big city schools: each problem quite directly affectsthe ultimate well-being' of every learner in everyclassroom.

Fortunately, many- educators and other concernedcitizens have begun to develop ways of meeting thechallenges and resolving the problems. Many largercitieshave begun to plan seriously for the improvement notonly of education but also of other aspects of govern-ment and life in the cities by:

Determining goals and objectives;

Identifying the unmet needs;

Identifying feasible alternatives and selecting themost appropriate and defensible ways of attainingthe goals;

Agreeing on priorities for implementation;

Preparing for implementation and implementing theplans;

Assessing progress and revising plans as needed.

Similarly, there has been a growing recognition of theneed to decentralize the huge bureaucracies of the bigcities, and serious efforts have been made in some citiesto accomplish this. Such efforts emphasize the need forbona fide cooperative endeavors, and as a result therehave been promising developments along these lines,including:

Planning and providing for more appropriate facili-ties, and for multiple use of those facilities;

Identification and employment of personnel preparedto facilitate relevant learning under difficult condi-tions and to actively seek the cooperation of parentsand others;

Efforis to modernize the curriculum and adaptprograms to the needs of those who will be involved;and


'31

Serious attempts to enlist the cooperation of stateand federal agencies, universities and city governmentin revitalizing educators.

As someone once observed,, when a problem has been Nextproperly identified and defined, 75 per cent of the Stepssolution has been provided. Whether or not this is truein the case of big city schools may be a moot point. Butthroughout the big city school system, there i9 anincreasing awareness that the problems exist. Stateeducation agencies and leaders are bolstering theirefforts to help the large city school systems, and thelarge city school systems themselves are engaging in avariety of activities designed to correct the dilemmaswhich have been described.

If the system of public education that has developedand grown. during the first two centuries of this nation'sexistence is to continue to flourish; it is essential thatsolutions to these vexing problems be found, and foundsoon. Big city school systems constitute the majorportion of the American education system. They canand must survive, but they can do this only if theydemonstrate, through their actions:a will to survive anda sound basis for survival.


Chapter 3

PREPARING TO MEET THE CHALLENGESAND NEEDS

In the ehrlier sections of this monograph considerableemphasis, has been placed on the problems of theeducation systems of the large cities. The emphasis hasbeen deliberate and intentional; it should help everyoneto recognize that major problems exist in the cities andto understand the seriousness and complexity of thebasic issues. More important, the emphasis upon theseproblems should serve to underscore the urgent need forpositive action to alleviate the problems.

During the past several years, various organizations andgovernment agencies have become seriously concernedover 'the issues and problems of big city governance.,Many such groups have attempted to devel9p practicalsolutions for the problems of the big cities and for theurban school systems. But while some of the proposedsolutions have worked fairly well in specific situations,others have been somewhat less than successful to date.It is important to note the kinds of approaches thathave been taken and to consider the "how and why" ofeach.

Cooperative In Section 2 the need for a new or different kind ofArrange- education leadership was ,discussed. An important facetments of this new leadership is a willingness and an ability to

work with a variety of groups, agencies and organiza-tions. Education leaders must have the ability and bewilling to facilitate cooperative endeavor among theseveral segments of government with direct interest inpublic education in the big cities.

The education leadership must demonstrate a willing-ness and ability to cooperate with those segments ofsociety that are involved in the education systems, butwhich traditionally have been denied participation in


33

the operation and governance of those systems. Suchsegments include parents, students, teachers, otheremployees of the school systems and other concernedcitizens whose only involvement may have been tofurnish tax revenues for education.

Education leaders, especially in the larger cities.of thenation, will be called upon to demonstrate a clearrecognition of the idea that education is too importantto be left only to' the educators. At the same time, theseleaders must see clearly the interrelatednesS of urbanproblems and demonstrate a desire and willingness towork with other groups and agencies.

Some Possible PitfallsAlthough the concept of cooperative arrangements isconsidered good theory by most people, many hesitateto utilize it, and some have seen fit to either abuse ormisuse it. it is relatively easy to discuss the concept pfcooperative endeavor in a context that will be pleasingto most people; but because'of the dangers inherent inpresenting only the bright side, some potential problemareas or possible pitfalls should be noted:

Education leaders urgently need to understand thatthe problems of education are not the only problemsof the big cities and that cooperative endeavors willbe needed to solve all the problemsnot just thosefound in the education systems.

Since education represents- only a part of the totalproblem, consideration will have to he given to thecompetition that confronj.s the several social agenciesas they seek additional tax dollars. As implied in anearlier section, there may have been an era in whichnothing in society seemed to grow smaller; instead,everything apparently grew larger. If 'this perceptionappeared valid at some point in time, it obviously isinoperable at the present time, as is perhaps mostevident in terms of the total available resources,including tax dollars. There will not be sufficientfunds to meet the -needs of every agency. As thisbecomes evident, the competition will tend to be-come keep, and may even becoine counter-productiveto the achievement of the overall needs of society.


31

I.As education leaders initiate cooperative relation-ships, they will be working' with other professionalswho have heavily invested their time and money asthey have pursued their own careers in fields otherthan education. And just as the professional educatormay be prone to justify, defend and even expand "histerritory," the administrators responsible for othersocial programs are likely to do the same for theirprograms.

Education leaders must recognize the problems arisingfrom competition among social agencies for attention,for dollars and for "territorial rights." It is even moreimportant, however, for these leaders to help otherleaders to become aware of the problems. Wheneveryone concerned can readily understand the need formore cooperation and less competition, cooperativesarrangements will be possible and progress will be madetoward solving at least some of the problems of big cityeducation.

Planning Major changes in the education systems of the largeand Change cities have occurred in recent years. However, some such

changes have taken place almost as a result of chance orhappenstance. Changes in educationespecially in themetropolitan centers of the nation, where the problemsare acutemust not be haphazard in nature or left onlyto chance. Effective changes must be carefully andsystematically planned.

As education leaders prepare to deal with the problemsof education, they will need to understand and utilizethe closely related processes of planning and change iftheir efforts are to be productive. The cooperativearrangements mentioned previously are essential. Butunless the people involved clearly understand why theyare being asked to cooperate, what can be accomplishedthrough cooperative endeavors and how the spirit ofcooperation will benefit them, their efforts are likely tobe futile. Adequate planningplanning that will result indeiired and needed change i8 essential. And it is equallyessential that the plans include provisions for thosestrategies most likely to bring about the expectedchange.

vs"


35

It is somewhat ironic to note that during recent yearseducators as well as other concerned citizens have notbeen able to effectively bring about the changesrequired by an eve{-changing society. The irony be-comes even more evident when it is recognized that: (1)more is known about change and the change processthan ever before and (2) more knowledge and expertiserelating to planning are available than at any time in ourhistory, In an era in which there is an abundance ofknowledge relating to planning and change, it becomesdifficult to understand why so few meaningful andlasting changes have resulted.

Education leaders in the big cities, as they proceed withtheir efforts, will have to ad.4ress themselves to thedilemma posed above. They will have to take steps toinsure that planning focuses on the means for achievingspecified ends. The leadership must prevent the develop-ment of a plan from becoming an end in itself.

As leaders in every segment of governance worktogether to solve common problems, they obviously willhave to plan. Hopefully, they will be able to plantogether. They should all keep in., mind, however, thatthe basic purpose of planning relates directly to bringingabout needed and agreed upon changes designed tocorrect and improve in some fashion the existingsituation. They must recognize the advantages thatappropriate planning process offers, including:

Procedures by which pertinent information can begathered and analyzed;

An orderly and systematic procedure for achievingneeded changes;

Procedures for identification of goals, objectives andpriorities;

Procedures for identifying feasible courses of action,based upon established priorities; and

a

flducation In the Big Ones: Problems and Prospects 31

CI'

Provisions and procedures for implementation, evalu-ation and needed modification.'

AS education leaders' plan solutions for the educationproblems of big cities, the advantages of "appropriateplanning" will provide obvious clues, The advantages,however, must not cause those leaders to lose,sight oftwo important and overriding concepts. First, educationleaders in the big cities must always recognize that everyeducation agency or institution has certain unique rolesthat must be assumed 12 efforts to improve or strengthenthe education systems are to be successful. When thenecessary roles of education agencies or institutions areignored by those in positions of leadership, manyeducation needs are likely to remain unmet. Second,education leaders must also be aware that no agency canbe perceived as an island unto itself and that no suchagency can long exist in "splendid isolation." In everylarge city, the educational system must exist in relationto every other segment of society that is to be foundthere.

The desired result of planning is implementation ofneeded changes. This can be brought about in largecities in a variety of ways, but virtually every plannedchange is effected by the employment of one or morebasic strategies:

The involvement and education of people who wouldby affected. Change occurs as a a result of a betterunderstanding of needs, along with the modificationof personal attitudes.

Change is often brought about through a unilateralimposition of power and authority.

Change can be brought by rationally describing anddemonstrating potential benefits.

Each of the three basic strategies for effecting changehas obvious advantages and disadvantages. Education

I For a more detailed analysOof this topic the reader is directedto the volume, Planning and Providing for Excellence inEducation, by Edgar L. Morphet, David L. Jesser and Arthur P.Ludka, New York: Citation Press, 1972.


37

leaders .planning for needed improvements in the bigcities will have ,to examine carefully each strategy in thecontext of goals 1.4t- have been agreed upon, anddetermine which strategy or combination of strategiesshould be utilized.

Planning and change do not, and should not, exist asseparate entities. Needed changes usually will hebrought about as the result of well-conceived andcarefully considered plans.

Appropriate planning procedures and cooperative en- Bringingdeavors are essential if needed improvements in the large Schoolscity school systems are to he made. By themselves, Closerhowever, they are not likely to suffice. Neither kind of to theeffort will result in meaningful and lasting changes Peopleunless there are procedures through which the peopleserved and affected by the school systems can beinvolved in the decision-making process.

Such procedures for involvement and participation maynot he easy to define, develop and implement, for thelong-term trend in public education has been to movegovernance and participation away from the people.This trend has been especially apparent in the educationsystems of big cities. Reversing it, or easing it, will callfor a highly creative kind of education leadership andrepresents one of the significant challenges in theeducation settings of the big cities. But if the efforts toeffect improvements are to be productive, such involve-ment will have to occur; schools must be brbught closetto the people.

The problem of providing schools that are "closer to thepeople" is not new Nor is it limited to the big cities. Itis, however, most senous there and has been responsiblefor much of the unrest and dissatisfaction associated'with education in the big cities in recent years. In somecities, recognition of this problem has led to thedevelopment of neighborhood schools, local advisorycouncils and other "involvement" procedures. Theseefforts represent only a beginning. Education leadersmust implement other, more omprehensiue procedures.

1lticalum 'he Iltg l't,,blems and Prospqp 33

38

34

The PACTS ProgramOne such procedure was developed recently. in Washing -ton, D.C.; under the leadership of SuperintendentBarbara Sizemore. The school system of the District ofColumbia has been plagued with many of the problemsof "bigness," and seemed especially troubled by abureaucratic and highly 'centralized administrative struc-ture. In an effort to correct the situation, the centraladministration of the D.C. schools was decentralized; sixarea or regionAl administrative units were created. Thedecentralization represented an attempt to brie t schoolscloser to the eople. The D.C. school system wentbeyond mere entralization and established what isknown as the PA S program. In this program there areactive groups of Arents, Administrators, Counsellors,Teachers and Students in neighborhoods served by theschools. 'these groups meet to discuss school problemsand make recommendation's. The PACTS program is anexcellent example of how schools can be brought closerto the people.

The New York EffortOther attempts have been made to decentralize\adminis-trative structures in the large cities. Yet none approachthe magnitude of New York City's efforts, whiCh weremandated by the legislature. This has been brieflydescribed in a report prepared for the EducationCommission of the States by the New York StateDepartment of Education

The 1967 session of the New York Legislature passed abill that directed the mayor of New York City toprepare a plan for reorganizing the New York Cityschool system and to submit that plan by December 1,1967, to the governor, the legislature and the Board ofRegents.

Mayor Lindsay appointed a committee to prepare adecentralization plan. McGeorge Bundy of the FordFoundation served as chairman of the committee andMario Fantini served as staff director. The mayor hadhis own education liaison who kept in close touch withthe developing decentralization proposals. The hoard ofeducation named a committee on decentralization head-

Education Cotntrussoot of the States .

33

ed by John Niemeyer, president of the Bank StreetCollege of Education.

The Bundy Committee issued its report in December1967 and recommended community control of theeducation system in New York City, as well as a divisionof the school district into a large number of communityschool districts. The report immediately generatedheated discussion; almost from the start it was assumedthat the specific proposals of the Bundy Committeewere never likely to be adopted.2

Though the "Bundy Report" contained recommenda-tions almost certain to be opposed by various groups, itwas nonetheless the first step' in a long and difficultprocess which led ultimately to the creation of 31 localschool districts with their own community schoolboards within- the framework of the New York Cityeducation system and under the aegis of the New YorkCity Central Board of Education.

As the New York report indicates, it is still too early tosay whether the decentralized system will provideeffective governance and solve the education problem.Many of the community boards are operating effective-ly, some are not; and there are still many conflictsbetween the central board and the community boards,between the teachers union and the boards and betweenthe school system and the community. These conflictsleave the future of decentralization uncertain.3

It is too soOn to judge the effectiveness of either theNew York City decentralization plan or the PACTSprogram in Washington. Both, however, represent sin-cere attempts to locate the schools closer to the people.Both should be Of interest to education leaders in otherlarge cities.

As attempts are made to bring about meaningful andConstructive involvement, educaticoh leaders will have. toensure that roles and relationships are clear to all

2 From an unpublished report prepared for ECS by 'Norman D.Kurland especially for this monograph.

3Ibid. 8

Education in the Big Cities. Problems and Prospects 35

40 "1.

participants. Advisory councils, fyr example, are notintended as policy-making bodies. )Yet care should alsobe taken to guard against the "benevolent despot"attitude that can develop.

In this regard, Crenshaw and Smith have offered salientguidelines:

Role of Citizens in Education. Deeper involvement isadvocated and many alternatives are available. Theobjective is to involve people in a constructivemanner in matters of concern to both the educatorand the lay citizen.

The Idea of Neighborhood Schools. If the communi-ty views the school as a neighborhood school, muchinvolvement can follow naturally. Decentralizationcould bring citizens more actively into the decision-making pro cessc-

Public and Private School Relationships. Interactionis needed between public schools on the one hand,and the private schools and colleges on the other.Hundreds of thousands of students are educated' in

0 parochial and private schools. Not only do thestudents of public and private schools need to cometogether, but also their parents and teachers need tosee some common goals of a pluralistic society.

Intercultural and Interracial Interaction. The differ-ent ethnic, cultural and racial groups of the communi-ty need td share one another's view of life throughsuch intensified experiences as television, radio, cul-tural fairs; group discussion and the like. Althoughintegrated schools may represent theestart of humanunderstanding, the greater community. is the trueschoolroom of human concern and utliderafadding.

Planning Among Civic and Intergovernmentalgroups. It would be interesting to note just howmuch cooperative t planning goes on within andwithout urban school systems. From school toschool, how much planning is there? How muchlong-range planning is there between education sys-tems and departments of transportation? Comprehen-


4 1

1

sive and coordinated planning would involve schpolsand communications systems, housing and urbandevelopment and commercial interests such as heavyand light industry,and shopping centers.

Voices of Students. Not only has the citizen's role ineducation in the United States become minimal, butthe potential role Of student has been "largelyoverlooked. There are a few programs where thestudent voice is beginning to be heard. One -suchinstance is the Philadelphia Parkway Program wherehigh school students choose their own subjects tostudy and where the facilities of public institutionsand businesses serve as classrooms. There are similarprograms in Chicago (Metro High School) and inWhite Plains, New York, (Edu-Cage) that providealternative student-responsive schools. Such sclvolsindicate trends away from the often oppressive sclioolstyles of the past and base their approach on studentmotivation studies that indicate students learn bestwhat they want to learn and resist imposed programs.Relevance pertains to closing the gap between aca-demic learning and the real worldusing such mater-ials as current newspapers, magazines, television andmovies.4

While it is impossible to state definitively that thepreceding ideas or concepts will provide solutions forthe problems of big city education, it seems likely thatthey will prove to be helpful. Individuals workingtogether, planning, bringing the schools closer to thepeople and stimulating involvement at every level areessential to the task of finding plausible and practicalanswers. But in any attempt to find answers, constraintsor other inhibiting factors may go unnoticed untilserious delays cause them to be apparent.

A necessary first step in dealing with constraints is thedevelopment and utilization of a process whereby theycan be readily identified. One such process has beendeveloped by Beard and Foster: (see Figure I)

4Joseph Crenshaw and Rodney Smith, "Urban Learning Envi-ronments, Opportunities, and Procedures," in Revitalizing Edu-cation in the Big Cities, op. cit. pp. 31-32.

RecognizingandRemovingConstraints


42

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1).

The matrix illustrates a strategy that can be used andcorporates the following five steps:

1. Identify the area of the action being constrained andclassify it under one of the eight categories listed inthe columns across the top of the table.

2..Identify the source (reason for) of the constraint andclassify it within one of the four categories along thehorizontal dimension of the table.

3. Identify the location of the constraint and categorizeit under one of the six headings listed A through F inthe table.

4. Find the cell at the intersection of the "area" columnand the "source" row. The numbers in the cell maythen be matched with the strategy numbers corres-ponding to the "location" of the constraint. Thematching numbers reflect appropriate alternative re-moval strategies for the type of constraint identified.

5. The last step requires (a) listing alternative strategiesas revealed in the matrix, (b) considering all conse-quences that may follow the employment of eachstrategy,. (c) assessing the feasibility of each set ofstrategies, (d) deciding whether to act or not and (e)implementing the selected strategy.

As education leaders prepare to deal with forcesconstraining their efforts to bring about needed im-provements, they will have to develop their ownstrategies for every unique situation. The matrix con-cept already used, together with suggestions by Cren-shaw and Smith, provides additiona.J guidelines:

Situation, tradition or personality constraints poge adifferent problem for a system of constraint removal.At this level, one runs into greater difficulty sortingfact from opinion and policy from personality. Asystem for removing peculiar local constraints musttherefore be based on strategies relevant to a varietyof different types of local issues and must beapproached at a lower level of specificity. Theconstraint removal system presented above has been

Education in the Big Cittes: Problems and Prospects 39

o4

developed on the basis of research in the areas ofplanned change and education decision processes.

In the context of constraint removal, a person mustdeal with resource availability and resource use. Aconstraint is present either as a result of the dearth ofneeded resources or because of the manner in whichthey are being used. Attitudes may become constraintsources when they are the decisive factors in prohibit-ing necessary or desired changes that in turn effectthe availability and use of resources.

The removal strategy at the local level involves theidentification of (1) the source of the constraint. (thecause or reason a constraint is present), (2) thelocation of a constraint (the place, person, body orstructure which gives the constraint power) and (3)the area affected by the constraint (the structure,organization or person affected by the consti-aint).6

6Joseph Crenshaw and Rodney Smith, op. cit., pp. 41-43.


4 5

Chapter 4

EMERGING ROLES AND RELATIONSHIPS

Th monograph has been concerned with schooling andeducation for those millions of Americans who reside inor around the big cities of the nation. The problems, aswell as the opportunities, that confront this majorsegment of the population are indeed unprecedented.The manner in which the problems are faced and theopportunities grasped will dictate in no small measurethe progress of the United States during the last quarterof this century.

It is a serious and urgent situation, demanding promptand direct action. But assuming that everyone agrees onthe need for positive action, will that be sufficient tocope with the problems of education in the big cities?Obviously it will not suffice. Much more than recogni-tion of need must occur before the many problem areaswill be alleviated. Recognition, however, is a mostimportant first step. It must take place and be shared byall affected by the problem.

But after recognition, what? To whom can tbe munici-pal leaders turn for help as the problem areati are facedand strategies initiated? There are several possibilities,each with its own unique set of advantages. Each shouldbe carefully considered; the suitable strategies should beutilized in appropriate ways.

iv,

The examples of action taken by state education Stateagencies would certainly suggest that this agency is a Educationlogical resource to be utilized by those responsible for Agencieseducation change in the large cities. The leadership andconcern of the chief state school officer has been'demonstrated in numerous states that have alreadymade substantial efforts to assist large cities in solvingtheir problems.

Education in the Big Cities: Problems and Prospects 4I

4 6

42

In Ohio for example, an Office of Urban Education wasestablished within the Ohio State Department of Educa-tion in the late 1960s.

As clearinghouse for planning and operational experiencesin meeting the challenges of urban schools in the 1970s and1980s, the Office of Urban Education, within the limita-tions of staff time and funds, assisted in identifying needsand, through conferences and consultations, helped topropose and implement appropriate services. It encouragedproject proposals by units inside and outside the depart-ment of education. Such innovations required coordinationwith state, federal and private agencies concerning thegranting and allocation of funds. In this effort of coordinat-ing, the office aided each group to make more effective useof thefunds at its disposal.

In addition, the Office of Equal Educational Opportunitywithin the department of education assisted in the develop-ment of programs of education in keeping with thepotential and needs of the individual, as well as the needs ofsociety. Coordination among the Office of Urban Educa-tion, its auxiliary resources and the Office of EqualOpportunity provides the impetus for action in implement-ing needed change.

Supporting the Office of Urban Education are several otherauxiliary resource instruments, all geared toward the goal ofequality and quality. One is the Committee on UrbanSchool Development. It consists of individuals from outsidethe department of education who are conversant in variousfields of endeavor, have a knowledge of and serious interestin the problems of urban education, and are thus in aposition to effectively assist and support the urban educa-tion program and be involved in legislative action.

A second group is a Departmental Task Force on UrbanEducation, composed of personnel within the departmentof education and with the assistant superintendent aschairman. The function of the task force is to help designand evaluate programs and policies,* with appropriatealternatives for recommendation to the superintendent ofpublic instruction.

A third group related to the Office of Urban Education ismade up of 30 area coordinators, assigned within theDivision.- of School Finance. Their primary duties areinvolved with the distributionika funds within the SchoolFoundation Program as passed by the Ohio GeneralAssembly. Offices are situated in 15 regions across the statein order to expedite delivery of the services to our'619districts. These coordinators assist in making recommenda-tions through the Office of Urban Education that will

ti

Education Commission of the States

47

insure more efficient and effective urban education pro-grams. Their assistance in establishing guidelines and evalua-tion techniques has paved the way toward successfulapproval and implementation of special learning activitiesfor the disadvantaged.

Through utilization of these resources the Office of UrbanEducation issues periodic reports on needs, programs,operational experiences and projections as they relate tothe educational problems in urban schools, both within andout of state. The office has been helpful in accelerating,advancing and achieving quality integrated education inurban school distncts of Ohio which represent "the modernfrontier in education."'

The efforts of the Ohio State education agency, underthe leadership of Superintendent Martin Essex andAssistant Superintendent for Urban Education RobertGreer, have resulted in a high degree of awaieness andcohesiveness on the part of personnel within thedepartment and among persons external to the depart-ment.

In Texas, under the leadership of Commissioner J. W.Edgar and James B. Morgan, Assistant Commissioner forUrban Education, and in cooperation with the Improv-ing State Leadership in Education (ISLE) project, aneffort was initiated in 1970 to:

Identify the concerns and problems of Texas' urbanschool districts;

Describe the roles the Texas Education Agencyshould perform in assisting the urban school districtsin resolving their concerns and problems; and

Determine specific strategies, processes and proce-dures for implementing the roles and actions requiredby both the agency and urban school districts inresolving major concerns and problems.

Three distinct groups worked together in implementingand completing the study: (1) the project staff, (2) the

" "Improving the Learning Environment, Opportunities and Pro-cedures Through Ohio Education Agency / Urban School DistrictRelationships.' Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Department of Education,1973. (Mimeo paper), pp. 8-9.


48

SI

Urban, Advisory Committee and (3) the Texas Educa-tion Agency's Continuing Committee on Urban Educa-tion. TKOse have been described as follows:

Project Staff. Responsibility for the project was assigned tothe director of the Division of Program Planning, TexasEducation Agency. In addition to his staff, an independenteducation consultant (Dr. Maurice Dutton) from theconsulting firm, ARBEC, Inc., was employed as the projectcoordinator, and a professor from the College of Educationat the University of Texas at Austin (Dr. L. D. Haskew) wasemployed as a special consultant. This group developed thegeneral design for the study, organized the advisorycommittee, provided general administrative support, gath-ered pertinent information, made reports and recommenda-tions to the advisory committee and implemented recom-mendations of the advisory committee.

Urban Advisory Committee. The Urban Advisory commit-tee was appointed by the commissioner of education andwas composed of the superintendents of Texas' sevenlargest school districts, the dean of the college of educationat the University of Houston, the executive director of theRegion XIX Education Service Center in El Paso, the statecoordinator of the Model Cities Program (a member of theGovernor's Planning Committee) and the chairman of theTexas Education Agency's Continuing Committee on UrbanEducatioRi

The superintendents on the advisory committee representthe largest urban distncts in Texas. The other members ofthe advisory committee were selected because they hadconsiderable knowledge of and vital interests in publiceducation in the state and could make contributions fromdifferent perspectives.

The purpose of the advisory committee was to provideoverall guidance and direction to the study, to discuss andreact to the reports and recommendations given to it and tomake recommendations for specific actions to the projectstaff, to the Texas Education Agency and to the urbanschool distncts.

This committee worked with the project director andcoordinator in identifying and codumenting urban educa-tion problems. The focus was on current problems andthose likely tc) he encountered during the next decade.Relationships etween the state education agency andurban school systems which retard the solution of theurgent problems and some of the causes and possiblesolutions for 'these problems were considered.


49

Continuing Committee on Urban Education. When theproject began in September ol 1970, the Texas EducationAgency had a Task Force on Ur'xin Education.'(The agencyestablishes task forces on a temporary basis to deal withspecific problems.) In November, the task force wasreplaced by the Continuing Committee on Urban Educa-tion. This gave greater status to the group -and greaterrecognition to ,the tasks k faced in dealing with theproblems associated with urban ijAtkation. The membershipwas also "upgraded" by assigning d.tvi4ion directors to thecontinuing committee.

The Continuing Committee on Urban Education wasestablished by the commissioner of education's Coordinat-ing Council to support the agency's capability to deal withthe special concerns of urban education in Texas. It wasdetermined that the early activities of the continuingcommittee would be correlated with the findings andactivities of the study.2

Differing approaches have been taken by state educationagencies in other states, but all have aimed at solving theeducation problems of the large cities. Arizona identi-fied the need for coordination among urban andsuburban school districts as a prime concern, and withthe help of state education. agency personnel, positivesteps were taken to develop such coordination. Colo-rado, taking a different direction, identified problemsconfronting the Mexican-American student in an urban'setting as being of major importance. An effort wasmade to resolve, or to develop guidelines for theresolution of, the problems. Michigan, with its largeindustrial urban cities, focused on problems relating tothe developnwt of curricular materials relevant tct5

ethnic minorities found in cities.

In the states mentioned, and in every syde notmentioned, the state education agency is a valuableresource and should be utilized by education leaders ofthe big cities to assist in finding plausible solutions totheir problems.

2J. B. Morgan and Maurice Dutton, "A Case Study of Improving'Relationships Between Urban School Districts and the TexasEducation Agency." Austin, Tex.: Texas Education Agency,1974. (Unpublished paper prepared especially for the EducationCommission of the States, Denver, Colo.)

Education in the Big Curer Problems and Prospects 45

5p

Consortia In several states, including Texas and Colorado, theof Local administrators of education systems within metropoli-Adminis- tan areas have organized into consortium arrangementstrators to develop programs to ease the problems of big city

education. Such arrangements exist in other areas, aswell as in the framework of organizations such as theAmerican Association of School Administrators.

Existing consortia arrangements, formal or informshould certainly be utilized. Where such arrangementdo not exist or are not feasible, new arrangements,limited only by the creativity of those affected, can andshould be structured.

Institutions While it may not be a valid observation univeof Higher nevertheless probable that a given metropolitan or-urban:Y.!'Education area is served by some institution of higher education. It

is also probable that such an institution or set ofinstitutions will have a direct interest in, the problems ofthe education systems of the areas served by theinstitutions. Many postsecondary institutions have agen-cies or departments geared to education planning, and itwould seem entirely appropriate for such agencies to beactively involved in solving education p5oblems in thebig city metropolitan situation.

Intra- At every level of governancefederal, state and localgovernmental there exist opportunities for productive collaborativeEfforts arrangements. Federal agencies, such as the Department

of Housing and Urban Development, the Department ofLabor, the Department of Commerce and the Depart-

.ment of Health, Education and Welfare, have commonconcerns and some common approaches to the solutionof problems. But there must be initiative on the part ofthose affected if there are to be effective commonapproaches. Inasmuch, as cooperative endeavors amongfederal agencies are becoming a reality, they should beutilized by those concerned; and to the extent that it isnot true, correctional efforts will be needed.


r1

AFTERWORD

Americans invented many Ways to shape the schoolingthey need and want. Much of their influence is exertedthrough voluntary, do-it-yourself channels and directpeople-to-people" interchanges. We cannot do withoutthis method in the future, for it ultimately determineswhat takes place wh n school and students cometogether. In their wis om, however, Americans areincreasingly trying all l eels of government as primechannels for working out chooling to suit the needs ofthe nation.

It is in this sense of cooperationnot only between thefederal, state and local levels of government, buttbroughout the entire governance systemthat thequality of the education program will continue todevelop and improve.


52