Unit 1 Geology Notes
Name_______________
Overview of Earth Science
1.1 What Is Earth Science?
Encompasses all sciences that seek to understand
• __________________
• Earth's neighbors in ____________________
Overview of Earth Science
Earth science includes
4. astronomy, the study of the ___________________
3. _________________________, the study of the atmosphere and the processes that produce weather
1. geology, the study of _____________
2. oceanography, the study of the _______________
1.1 What Is Earth Science?
Earth's Major Spheres
1.2 A View of Earth
1. __________________• _________ is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere.
- Is nearly ____ __of Earth's surface
- Holds about 97% of Earth's water
• Also includes _______ ___________found in streams, lakes, and glaciers, as well as that found underground
Earth's Major Spheres
1.2 A View of Earth
2. Atmosphere • Thin, tenuous blanket of _____________
• One half lies below 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles)
3. Biosphere • Includes all ____________
• Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from the ocean floor upward for several kilometers into the atmosphere
Earth's Major Spheres
1.2 A View of Earth
4. __________________ • Consists of the crust, mantle, and core.
- Crust—the thin, rocky ___________ layer of Earth.
- Mantle—the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of Earth located __________ _______ _______________.
- Core—the ____________________ layer of Earth, located beneath the mantle.
Earth’s Layered Structure
Determining Location
1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface
Latitude and longitude are lines on the globe that are used to determine location.• Latitude is distance ____________ or ________________of
the equator, measured in degrees.
• Longitude is distance ____________ or ______________of the _____________ ________________, measured in degrees.
Satellites and Information Technology
• Key idea: Today’s technology gives us the ability to more precisely analyze Earth’s physical properties
• Remote sensing: collecting data about the Earth from a _________. – Weather—watch temp of air and sea, clouds, storms– Navigation—assist ships and subs exact location– Landsat—photos of land and seacoasts– VLBI—used to measure the earth
• GPS: find precise _________________ on earth used by:– Military– Geologists– Farmers– Drivers– Sports enthusiasts
What Is a System?
1.4 Earth System Science
Closed systems are self contained (e.g., an automobile cooling system).
_________________ systems allow both energy and matter to flow in and out of the system (e.g., a river system).
A _______________ is any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole.
Earth as a System
1.4 Earth System Science
Earth is a dynamic body with many separate but highly ____________ parts or spheres.
Earth system science studies Earth as a system that is composed of numerous parts, or ________________.
Earth as a System
1.4 Earth System Science
Sources of Energy• ________—drives external processes such as weather,
ocean circulation and erosional processes
• Earth’s _____________—drives internal processes including volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain building
Earth as a System
1.4 Earth System Science
_______________ are part of the Earth system.
Consists of a nearly endless array of subsystems (e.g., hydrologic cycle)
The carbon cycle
Rocks
3.1 The Rock Cycle
Rocks are any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter occurring naturally as part of our planet.
Types of Rocks 1. ________________ rock is formed by the crystallization of
molten magma.
Rocks
3.1 The Rock Cycle
Types of Rocks2. _____________________ rock is formed from the weathered
products of preexisting rocks that have been transported, deposited, compacted, and cemented.
3. _____________________ rock is formed by the alteration of pre-existing rock deep within Earth (but still in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids.
The Rock Cycle
3.1 The Rock Cycle
Shows the _____________________ among
the three rock types (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic)
____________ is molten material that forms deep beneath the Earth’s surface.
________ is magma that reaches the surface. ___________ is a process in which rocks are broken down by water, air, and living things.
____________ is weathered pieces of Earth elements.
The Rock Cycle
Energy That Drives the Rock Cycle
3.1 The Rock Cycle
Processes driven by heat from the Earth’s ___________ are responsible for forming both ___________ and _____________ rock.
External processes produce sedimentary rocks.
________________ and the movement of weathered materials are external processes powered by energy from the ___________.
Formation of Igneous Rocks
3.2 Igneous Rocks
1. ____________ igneous rocks are formed when magma hardens beneath Earth’s surface.
2. _____________ igneous rocks are formed when lava hardens.
Classification of Igneous Rocks
3.2 Igneous Rocks
1. Texture
Igneous rocks can be classified based on their composition and texture.
• ________________-grained texture is caused by ________ cooling resulting in ____________ crystals.
• Fine-grained texture is caused by rapid cooling resulting in smaller, interconnected mineral grains.
Course-Grained Igneous Texture
Fine-Grained Igneous Texture
Classification of Igneous Rocks
3.2 Igneous Rocks
1. Texture (continued)• ______________ texture is caused by very rapid cooling.
• Porphyritic texture is caused by different rates of cooling resulting in varied sized minerals.
2. Composition• Granitic composition rocks are made mostly
of light-colored quartz and feldspar.
Obsidian Exhibits a Glassy Texture.
Porphyritic Igneous Texture
Classification of Igneous Rocks
3.2 Igneous Rocks
2. Composition (continued)• Basaltic composition rocks are made mostly of dark-colored
silicate minerals and plagioclase feldspar.
• Andesitic composition rocks are between granitic light-color minerals and basaltic composition dark-colored minerals.
• Ultramafic composition rocks are made mostly from iron and magnesium-rich minerals.
Basalt
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
3.3 Sedimentary Rocks
• _______________ involves the weathering and the removal of rock.
• ___________________ occurs when an agent of erosion—water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses energy and drops sediments.
Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
3.3 Sedimentary Rocks
• ______________________ is a process that squeezes, or compacts, sediments.
• _____________________ takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces among the sediments.
Compaction and Cementation
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
3.3 Sedimentary Rocks
1. Clastic_____________________of weathered bits of __________ and minerals.
• Classified by particle size
Two Main Groups
- Shale (most abundant)
• Common rocks include
- Conglomerate
- Sandstone
Shale with Plant Fossils
Conglomerate
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
3.3 Sedimentary Rocks
Two Main Groups2. ________________ sedimentary rocks form when dissolved
substances precipitate, or separate, from water.
• Common rocks include
-______________—most abundant chemical rock
- microcrystalline quartz known as chert, flint, jasper, or agate
- evaporites such as rock salt or gypsum - coal
Fossiliferous Limestone
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Features of Some Sedimentary Rocks
3.3 Sedimentary Rocks
Features of sedimentary rocks are clues to how and where the rocks are formed
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
3.4 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism means “___ _________ _______________
Conditions for formation are found a few _____________ below the Earth’s surface and extend into the _________ ___________
Most metamorphic changes occur at elevated ____________ and _________
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
3.4 Metamorphic Rocks
________________ metamorphism occurs when magma moves into rock.
• Changes are driven by a rise in temperature.
• Occurs near a body of _______________
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
3.4 Metamorphic Rocks
Regional metamorphism results in large-scale deformation and high-grade metamorphism. • Directed pressures and high temperatures occur during
______________________ _____________________.
• Produces the __________________metamorphic rock
Agents of Metamorphism
3.4 Metamorphic Rocks
____________
_____________
• Provides the energy needed to drive chemical reactions
• Causes a more compact rock with greater density
Origin of Pressure in Metamorphism
Agents of Metamorphism
3.4 Metamorphic Rocks
• Hot water-based solutions escaping from the mass of magma
• Promote recrystallization by dissolving original minerals and then depositing new ones
Hydrothermal Solutions
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
3.4 Metamorphic Rocks
1. ___________________ Metamorphic Rock
2. ______________ Metamorphic Rock
Two main categories
• Has a banded or layered appearance
• Does not have a banded texture
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Gneiss Typically Displays a Banded Appearance
Marble—A Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rock
An Idea Before Its Time
9.1 Continental Drift
Wegener’s ____________ ___________hypothesis stated that the continents had once been joined to form a single supercontinent.• Wegener proposed that the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to
break apart _______ __ __ __and form the present landmasses.
Breakup of Pangaea
An Idea Before Its Time
9.1 Continental Drift
Evidence• The Continental ____________
• Matching Fossils
- Fossil evidence for continental drift includes several __________
organisms found on ______________ ____________________
Matching Mountain Ranges
Glacier Evidence
Rejecting the Hypothesis
9.1 Continental Drift
A New Theory Emerges• Wegener could not provide an explanation of exactly ________
____________the continents move. News technology lead to findings which then lead to a new theory called plate tectonics.
Earth’s Major Roles
9.2 Plate Tectonics
According to the plate tectonics theory, the uppermost mantle, along with the overlying crust, behaves as a strong, ________ layer. This layer is known as the ________________________.
• A plate is one of numerous rigid ____________ of the lithosphere that move as a unit over the material of the asthenosphere.
Types of Plate Boundaries
9.2 Plate Tectonics
Divergent boundaries (also called ____________ ______________) are the place where two plates move apart.
Convergent boundaries form where two plates move ________________.
Transform fault boundaries are margins where two plates _________ _________ each other without the production or destruction of the lithosphere.
Three Types of Plate Boundaries
Divergent Boundaries
9.3 Actions at Plate Boundaries
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading• Oceanic ridges are continuous elevated zones on the floor of all
major ocean basins. The __________ at the crest of ridges
represent divergent plate boundaries.
• ____________ _______________are deep faulted structures found along the axes of divergent plate boundaries. They can develop on the seafloor or on land.
• Seafloor spreading produces ________ oceanic _______________.
Spreading Center
Divergent Boundaries
9.3 Actions at Plate Boundaries
Continental Rifts• When spreading centers develop within a continent, the landmass
may split into two or more smaller segments, forming a ________________.
East African Rift Valley
Convergent Boundaries
9.3 Actions at Plate Boundaries
A _____________________ zone occurs when one oceanic plate is forced _______ into the mantle _________ a second plate.
• __________ oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere. Oceanic-Continental
• Pockets of magma develop and rise.
• Continental volcanic arcs form in part by volcanic activity caused by the ________________ of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent.
• Examples include the Andes, ______________, and the Sierra Nevadas.
Oceanic-Continental Convergent Boundary
Convergent Boundaries
9.3 Actions at Plate Boundaries
• Two oceanic slabs converge and one descends beneath the other.
Oceanic-Oceanic
• This kind of boundary often forms volcanoes on the ocean floor.
• _______________ ______________ _________form as volcanoes emerge from the sea.
• Examples include the Aleutian, Mariana, and Tonga islands.
Volcanic island arc—Aleutian islands
Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent Boundary
Convergent Boundaries
9.3 Actions at Plate Boundaries
• When subducting plates contain continental material, two continents collide.
Continental-Continental
• This kind of boundary can produce new _____________ _______________, such as the ___________________.
Continental-Continental Convergent Boundary
Collision of India and Asia
Transform Fault Boundaries
9.3 Actions at Plate Boundaries
At a _________________ fault boundary, plates grind past each other without destroying the lithosphere.
Transform faults • Most join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge.
• At the time of formation, they roughly parallel the direction of plate movement.
• They aid the movement of oceanic crustal material.
Transform Fault Boundary
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
9.4 Testing Plate Tectonics
Paleomagnetism is the ________ remnant __________ in rock bodies; this permanent magnetization acquired by rock can be used to determine the location of the magnetic poles at the time the rock became magnetized.• __________________ polarity—when rocks show the same
magnetism as the present magnetism field
• __________________ polarity—when rocks show the opposite magnetism as the present magnetism field
Paleomagnetism Preserved in Lava Flows
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
9.4 Testing Plate Tectonics
The discovery of strips of __________ ______________, which lie as mirror images across the ocean ridges, is among the strongest evidence of seafloor spreading.
Polarity of the Ocean Crust
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
9.4 Testing Plate Tectonics
Earthquake Patterns• Scientists found a close link between deep-focus
• ___________________ and ocean trenches.
• The _______________ of deep-focus earthquakes along the oceanic ridge system was shown to be consistent with the new theory.
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
9.4 Testing Plate Tectonics
Ocean Drilling• The data on the _____________ of seafloor sediment confirmed
• what the seafloor spreading hypothesis predicted.
• The youngest oceanic crust is at the ridge ___________, and the oldest oceanic crust is at the continental __________________.
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
9.4 Testing Plate Tectonics
Hot Spots• A hot spot is a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of
producing magma, which rises to Earth’s surface; The Pacific plate moves over a hot spot, producing the Hawaiian Islands.
• Hot spot __________ _______________that the plates move over the Earth’s surface.
Hot Spot
Causes of Plate Motion
9.5 Mechanisms of Plate Motion
Scientists generally agree that __________ occurring in the mantle is the basic driving force for plate movement.• Convective flow is the motion of matter resulting from changes
in temperature.
Causes of Plate Motion
9.5 Mechanisms of Plate Motion
Slab-Pull and Ridge-Push
• Ridge-push causes oceanic lithosphere to slide down the sides of the oceanic ridge under the pull of gravity. It may contribute to plate motion.
• Slab-pull is a mechanism that contributes to plate motion in which cool, dense oceanic crust sinks into the mantle and “pulls” the trailing lithosphere along. It is thought to be the primary downward arm of convective flow in the mantle.
Causes of Plate Motion
9.5 Mechanisms of Plate Motion
Mantle Convection
• The ______________________l distribution of heat within Earth causes the thermal ____________________ in the mantle that ultimately drives plate motion.
• Mantle plumes are masses of hotter-than-normal mantle material that ascend toward the surface, where they may lead to igneous activity.
Mantle Convection Models
Rocks Record Earth History
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
Rocks record __________ __________and changing l______ _______of the past.
We have learned that Earth is much older than anyone had previously imagined and that its surface and interior have been changed by the same geological processes that continue today.
A Brief History of Geology
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
______________________ means that the forces and processes that we observe today have been at work for a ________ _______ ___________.
Relative Dating—Key Principles
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
Relative dating tells us the _____________ in which events occurred, ______ how long ago they occurred.
Law of Superposition• The law of superposition states that in an undeformed sequence
of sedimentary rocks, each bed is _____________ than the one
above it and ________________ than the one below it.
Ordering the Grand Canyon’s History
Relative Dating—Key Principles
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
Principle of Original Horizontality• The principle of original horizontality means that
_______________ of sediment are generally deposited in a ______________________ position.
Disturbed Rock Layers
Relative Dating—Key Principles
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships• The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that when a
fault cuts through rock layers, or when magma intrudes other rocks and crystallizes, we can assume that the fault or intrusion is __________________ than the rocks affected.
Inclusions• Inclusions are __________ __________________within other
rocks.
• Rocks containing inclusions are ______________________ than the inclusions they contain.
Applying Cross-Cutting Relationships
Formation of Inclusions
Relative Dating—Key Principles
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
Unconformities• An unconformity represents a long period during which
______________ ________________, erosion _____________ previously formed rocks, and then deposition _______________.
• An angular unconformity indicates that during the pause in
deposition, a period of deformation (_____________ or
______________) and erosion occurred.
Formation of an Angular Conformity
Relative Dating—Key Principles
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
types of unconformities• A ___________________________ is when the erosional surface
separates older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks from younger sedimentary rocks.
• A ___________________ is when two sedimentary rock layers are separated by an erosional surface.
A Record of Uplift, Erosion, and Deposition
Correlation of Rock Layers
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History
Correlation is establishing the ___________________ of rocks of similar age in ______________ _____________.
Correlation of Strata at Three Locations
Fossil Formation
12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric life. They are important components of sediment and sedimentary rocks.
• Some remains of organisms—such as teeth, bones, and shells—may not have been altered, or may have changed hardly at all over time.
The type of fossil that is formed is _____________ _________the conditions under which an organism died and how it was buried.
_____________ Remains
Fossil Formation
12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Altered Remains• The remains of an organism are likely to be changed over time.
• Fossils often become _____________ or turned to __________.
• _____________ and __________are another common type of fossil.
• ________________ is particularly effective in preserving leaves and delicate animals. It occurs when an organism is buried under fine sediment.
Fossil Formation
12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Indirect Evidence• _____________ fossils are indirect evidence of prehistoric life.
Tracksburrowscoprolites—fossilized fecesgastroliths—stomach stones for help digesting
Conditions Favoring Preservation
• Two conditions are important for preservation: __________
__________and the possession of ____________ parts.
Types of Fossilization
Fossils and Correlation
12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Principle of _______ _____________states that fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order. Therefore, any time period can be recognized by its fossil content.
Index fossils are _________ geographically, are limited to a _______ span of geologic time, and occur in _______ numbers.
Fossil Formation
12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Interpreting Environments• Fossils can also be used to interpret and ____________ ancient
___________________.For example, if you find ______________ fossils on top of a
mountain, that is a clue that the before it was a mountain the rock was once under an ____________.
Overlapping Ranges of Fossils
Basic Atomic Structures
12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
Orbiting the nucleus are _____________, which are negative electrical charges.
_________ ______________is the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus.
_________ ______________is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.
Radioactivity
12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
____________________ is the spontaneous decay of certain unstable atomic nuclei.
Common Types of Radioactive Decay
Half-Life
12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
A __________-___________is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the nuclei in a sample to _____________ to a stable isotope.
The Half-Life Decay Curve
Radiometric Dating
12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
Each radioactive isotope has been _______________ at a constant rate since the formation of the rocks in which it occurs.
Radiometric dating is the procedure of ______________ ______ _____________ _______ of rocks and minerals that contain radioactive isotopes.
Radiometric Dating _____ a radioactive isotope ___________,
atoms of the ___________ ______________are formed and accumulate.
12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
An _______________ radiometric date can be obtained only if the mineral remained in a ________________ system during the entire period since its formation.
Radioactive Isotopes Frequently Used in Radiometric Dating
Dating with Carbon-14 Radiocarbon dating is the method for
determining age by comparing the amount of carbon-14 to the amount of carbon-12 in a sample.
12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 it contains gradually decreases as it decays. By comparing the ___________ of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a sample, radiocarbon dates can be determined. The half-life of C-14 is ______________ years.
Importance of Radiometric Dating Radiometric dating has supported the ideas
of James Hutton, Charles Darwin, and others who inferred that geologic time must be _________________.
12.3 Dating with Radioactivity
Structure of the Time Scale
12.4 The Geologic Time Scale
Based on their interpretations of the rock record, geologists have divided Earth’s 4.56-billion-year history into ________ that represent specific amounts of time. Taken together, these ________ _____________make up the geologic time scale.
Structure of the Time Scale
12.4 The Geologic Time Scale
______________ represent the greatest expanses of time. Eons are divided into ____________. Each era is subdivided into periods. Finally, periods are divided into smaller units called epochs.
There are three eras within the _______________ eon: the Paleozoic, which means “ancient life,” the Mesozoic, which means “middle life,” and the Cenozoic, which means “recent life.”
Structure of the Time Scale
12.4 The Geologic Time Scale
Each ___________ within an era is characterized by somewhat less profound changes in _______ forms as compared with the changes that occur during an era.
The periods of the ___________ era are divided into still smaller units called __________, during which even less profound changes in life forms occur.
Precambrian Time
12.4 The Geologic Time Scale
During _________________ time, there were fewer life forms. These life forms are more difficult to identify and the rocks have been disturbed often.
The Geologic Time Scale
____________ With the Geologic Time Scale
12.4 The Geologic Time Scale
A sedimentary rock may contain particles that contain radioactive isotopes, but these particles are ______ the _____ ______ as the rock in which they occur.
The _______ of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock does ______ necessarily represent the ______ when the rock was first formed. Instead, the date may indicate when the rock was metamorphosed.
Using Radiometric Methods to Help Date Sedimentary Rocks
Precambrian History
13.1 Precambrian Time: Vast and Puzzling
The Precambrian encompasses immense geological time, from Earth’s distant beginnings ____ _______ ________ago until the start of the Cambrian period, over 4 billion years later.
Precambrian Rocks• ______________ are large, relatively flat expanses of ancient
metamorphic rock within the stable continental interior.
• Much of what we know about Precambrian rocks comes from _____________ mined from shields.
Geologic Time Scale
Remnants of Precambrian Rocks
Precambrian History
13.1 Precambrian Time: Vast and Puzzling
Earth’s Atmosphere Evolves• Earth’s original atmosphere was made up of gases similar to those
released in ______________ ________________today—water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and several trace gases, but no oxygen.
• Later, primary plants evolved that used photosynthesis and
_______________________ ____________________.
• Oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere about _____ billion years ago.
Precambrian History
13.1 Precambrian Time: Vast and Puzzling
Precambrian Fossils• The most common Precambrian fossils are _______________
• Stromatolites are distinctively ____________ ______________ or columns of calcium carbonate. They are not the remains of actual organisms but are the ______________ ____________ ________ _______________.
• Many of these ancient fossils are preserved in chert—a hard dense chemical sedimentary rock.
Stromatolites then and now
• Then
Now
Early Paleozoic
13.2 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
Following the long Precambrian, the most recent _______ ____________ _______ of Earth’s history are divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
Early ______________
13.2 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
Early Paleozoic History• During the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian periods, the vast
southern continent of _____________________ encompassed five continents (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and part of Asia).
Gondwana and the Continental Landmasses
Early Paleozoic
13.2 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
Early Paleozoic Life• Life in early Paleozoic time was restricted to the _________.
There was no life on land yet.
Life in the Ordovician Period
Late Paleozoic
13.2 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
Late Paleozoic History• ____________________ is the continental mass that formed the
_________________ portion of Pangaea, consisting of present-day North America and Eurasia.
• By the ________ of the Paleozoic, all the continents had fused into the supercontinent of ________________________.
Late Paleozoic Plate Movements
Late Paleozoic
13.2 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
Late Paleozoic _____________• Some _________ __ __ __, plants that had adapted to survive
at the water’s edge began to move inland, becoming ___________ plants.
• The ____________________ rapidly diversified because they had minimal competition from other land dwellers.(Amphibians include frogs, toads, and salamanders)
Armor-Plated Fish
Model of a Pennsylvanian Coal Swamp
The Great Paleozoic Extinction
13.2 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
The world’s __________ became very ______________, probably causing the dramatic _____________ of many species.
The late Paleozoic extinction was the greatest of at least _____ ______ _____________ to occur over the past 500 million years.
Mesozoic Era
13.3 Mesozoic Era: Age of Reptiles
____________________ were land-dwelling reptiles that thrived during the Mesozoic era. Mesozoic History • A major event of the Mesozoic era was the ______________ ____
_______________.
Mesozoic Era Mesozoic Life
13.3 Mesozoic Era: Age of Reptiles
• ______________________ are seed-bearing plants that do not depend on free-standing water for fertilization. Gymnosperms are plants that have cones.
• The gymnosperms quickly became the dominant plants of the Mesozoic era.
Gymnosperms
Canadian Rockies Were Formed Throughout the Cretaceous Period
Mesozoic Era The Shelled Egg
13.3 Mesozoic Era: Age of Reptiles
• Unlike amphibians, reptiles have __________-covered eggs that can be laid on the ____________.
• The elimination of a water-dwelling stage (like the _____________ stage in frogs) was an important evolutionary step.
Mesozoic Era Reptiles Dominate
13.3 Mesozoic Era: Age of Reptiles
• With the perfection of the shelled egg, reptiles quickly became the
__________________ ______________ ________________.
• At the end of the Mesozoic era, many reptile groups became
___________________.
The Flying Reptile Pteranodon
Cenozoic North America The Cenozoic era is divided into ________
periods of very unequal duration, the Tertiary period and the Quaternary period.
13.4 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
Plate interactions during the Cenozoic era caused many events of _______________ building, volcanism, and earthquakes in the West.
Cenozoic Life Mammals—animals that ______ _______
___________ and maintain a steady body temperature— _____________ reptiles as the dominant land animals in the Cenozoic era.
13.4 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
Angiosperms—______________ plants with covered seeds—___________ gymnosperms as the dominant land plants.
Cenozoic Life Mammals Replace Reptiles
13.4 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
• Adaptations like being warm blooded, developing insulating body hair, and having more efficient heart and lungs allow mammals to lead more active lives than reptiles.
Fossils from La Brea Tar Pits
Cenozoic Life Large Mammals and Extinction
13.4 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
• In North America, the ___________ and ____________, both huge relatives of the elephant, became extinct. In addition, saber-toothed cats, giant beavers, large ground sloths, horses, camels, giant bison, and others died out on the North American continent.
• The reason for this recent wave of extinctions puzzles scientists. 3 probable causes are: ____________ killed them off, ______________ change (end of ice age) and
______________________—humans and domesticated animals contained germs that jumped to the wild species.
Wooly mammoths
Mastodons