electric vehicle

december 2013 ■ IEEE IndustrIal ElEctronIcs magazInE 151932-4529/13/$31.00©2013IEEE

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIE.2013.2273947

Date of publication: 12 December 2013

TAHA SeLIm USTUN, cAGIL OZANSOY, and ALAdIN ZAYeGH

Electric Vehicle Potential in AustraliaIts Impact on Smart Grids

The availability of the technology and the promising acceptance of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) has encouraged car manufacturing companies to take solid steps toward the electric vehicle (EV) market. As it is spread over a vast surface area, Australia has high car usage and ownership rates, and the inefficiency of the public transportation system contributes to this. Therefore, Australia has a very large potential market for EVs. In addition to the well-known advantages, such as zero direct emissions, reduced dependency on oil, cheaper fuel, and more

silent operation through smart grids, EVs also offer a unique benefit called vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology. Through V2G technology, EVs can support better operation of the smart grids in terms of reliability and storage. Based on reliable statistics and social studies, this article studies the EV potential of Australia and envisages the impact of large EV utilization therein. The statistics indicate that the growing population will demand more cars, and acceptance of EVs could also benefit other areas, such as environmental conservation, finance, and energy production. Accordingly, a microgrid system with V2G technology has been modeled and simulated in three different conditions: islanded, IEEE-T14-bus system, and IEEE-34-bus system. The results are presented to

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16 IEEE IndustrIal ElEctronIcs magazInE ■ december 2013

forecast the necessary changes in the power networks for the large deploy-ment of EVs.

The concern of global warming is a major issue that has been widely discussed for many years. Faced with serious consequences, governments worldwide are enforcing plans for re-ducing carbon emissions [1]. By 2020, some network operators in the United Kingdom are planning to reduce car-bon emissions by 45% [2], while Euro-pean Union (EU) countries are obliged to cut their emissions by 20% [3]. Aus-tralia, the country with the highest carbon emissions per capita in the world, has just introduced a carbon tax. Other initiatives such as Beyond Zero Emissions have been introduced to help Australia transition to a car-bon-free economy [4].

Internal combustion engines (ICEs), which have provided the traction for ve-hicles for the past century, can only give a maximum efficiency of 30% [5]. Con-sidering increasing oil prices, an alterna-tive to fuel is necessary for sustainable transportation. This is also desirable for the security policy of many countries since it decreases dependency on for-eign oil [6], [7].

The above-mentioned factors have dramatically increased interest in EVs [8]. For instance, the U.S. gov-ernment has committed to a goal of 1 million plug-in EVs in the next five years and will provide US$2 billion in stimulus for battery development in HEVs. A private organization, Google,

invested $US10 million in EV research [9]. Different car manufacturing com-panies have already manufactured plug-in HEVs (PHEVs), EVs, and HEVs [10]–[13]. Various EV technologies make it possible to meet demands under different circumstances. HEVs and PHEVs can assist in the gradual introduction of EVs as they will pro-vide a fuel-efficient option until the necessary infrastructure required for the large-scale introduction of EVs is built. All the technology required for EVs is readily available, and current research focuses only on improving performance or efficiency [5].

The statistical research on vehicle use indicates that most vehicles are used for short distances. Furthermore, the majority of the vehicle fleet is idle for the most of the time [2]. This gives suf-ficient time to charge the batteries, even at average charging speeds. The ongo-ing research on battery technology and smart grids is aimed at achieving super-charge capabilities [14].

When coupled with smart grid tech-nology, an EV can act as a load as well as a distributed storage device [15]. Being connected to the grid when not in use, the battery of the EV can supply power at peak load times and thus increase the power reliability of the grid. This technology is called V2G [16]. Consid-ering the total number of vehicles in a locality, distributed storage capacity provided by V2G can have a very large impact on the economical operation of smart grids [17].

Australia is a very large continent country with high motor-vehicle use [18]. Wide-spread communities with insufficient public transport service re-quire Australians to drive more. The car ownership ratio is very high, and the growing population indicates that the number of vehicles will also increase. It is evident from the above data that Aus-tralia has a promising market for EVs.

Various EV TechnologiesThere are various EV technologies available in the market. Some manu-facturers have begun to adopt HEVs for their improved efficiency, while PHEVs are bringing the industry ever closer to pure EV implementation. Other manufacturers, such as Tesla Motors, have dedicated their efforts to developing pure EVs, which do not even have a tail pipe [10].

HEVs are classified as series, paral-lel, and series–parallel hybrid power trains [19]. Figure 1 shows a diagram of a typical series hybrid power train. Fed by a fuel tank, the ICE charges the batteries through the generator. The traction is provided to the wheels through a battery-propulsion motor couple. In a series power train, the ICE is mechanically decoupled from the wheels. This gives the freedom to relocate the ICE as desired. Despite expensive manufacturing costs, series power trains are easy to design, con-trol, and implement [19], and they are popular for larger vehicles [5].

Figure 2 shows the topology of a parallel hybrid power train where both the ICE and the electric motor are mechanically coupled to the wheels. The electric motor helps increase the efficiency of the ICE and decrease its carbon emissions. One drawback of parallel power trains is the inability to operate in all-electric mode at high speeds [5].

Figure 3 shows a PHEV with series– parallel hybrid power train. It possesses the advantages of both the series and parallel hybrid trains. Since it has more components, an additional generator is compared with a parallel power train and an additional mechanical link is compared with a series power train. Hence, it is more expensive. Thanks to

Batteries

ICE

GeneratorPower Electronics

Interface

PropulsionMotor

Fuel Tank

FIGUre 1 – An HeV with a series hybrid power train.

december 2013 ■ IEEE IndustrIal ElEctronIcs magazInE 17

advancements in control and manufactur-ing technologies, these costs are reduced and series–parallel power trains are adopted more frequently [19]. Figure 3 also depicts the fundamental difference between HEVs and PHEVs. The battery system in a PHEV has an external con-nection and can be recharged indepen-dently from the operation of the ICE.

The motivation behind hybridiza-tion is to increase the overall efficien-cy of engines and decrease emissions per unit distance. The benefits of hybridization can be summarized as follows [5]:1) Higher efficiency is obtained since

electric propulsion machines are more efficient and faster than other systems.

2) The flexibility provided by the elec-tric propulsion systems makes it possible to operate the engine at a higher efficiency.

3) Regenerative braking can be used to charge the batteries during braking.The hybridization factor of the

vehicles may vary depending on the classification of HEV. Microhybrids have a hybridization factor of 5–10%, whereas mild hybrids have a 10–25% hybridization factor. Higher values are found in energy hybrids [5]. When the need for an ICE and liquid fuel is completely eliminated, a pure EV is obtained. Furthermore, because of their external electrical connection, PHEVs as well as pure EVs allow for V2G operating modes.

Battery charging seems to be a challenge for manufacturers, custom-ers, and other parties. EV charging requires special charging stations, supply devices, and connectors. In ad-dition to several issues such as charg-ing through third parties, the most important concern is the time required to charge the batteries. Depending on the electric network parameters and the availability of the special charging equipment, charging time varies between 18 h and 20–50 min. Table 1 shows the different charging options available for EVs [5].

Only level 1 may not require an upgrade of the existing electri-cal networks, while the remaining

three charging sets definitely would require a thorough electrical net-work improvement. Level 1 is called opportunity charging since it uses

low-peak periods and costs less, but it takes a lot of time. Level 2 can be used for home use. Public usage means charging EVs when parked in a

ICE

MechanicalCoupling

Power ElectronicsInterface

PropulsionMotor

Fuel Tank

Batteries

ICE

wer ElectronicsInterface

PropulsionMotor

Batteries

FIGUre 2 – An HeV with a parallel hybrid power train.

Batteries

MechanicalCoupling

Power ElectronicsInterface

PropulsionMotor

Fuel Tank

Generator

ICE

FIGUre 3 – A PHeV with a series–parallel hybrid power train.

TABLE 1 – TYPICAL SET OF EV CHARGING OPTIONS [5].

cHargIng sEt utIlItY sErVIcE usagE cHargE PoWEr (kW)

Level 1 110 V, 15 A Opportunity 1.4

Level 2a 220 V, 15 A Home 3.3

Level 2b 220 V, 30 A Home/public 6.6

Level 3 480 V, 167 A Public/private 50–70


public place such as railway stations or public car parks. Level 3, known as fast charging, can be used by private charging stations. EV owners can use these stations for charging in a similar fashion to petrol stations. Yet, in ad-dition to electric network upgrades, level 3 charging requires special charg-ing equipment [16].

The battery characteristics of differ-ent EVs are given in Table 2 [10]–[13]. The corresponding charging curves for different EVs using different charging op-tions are plotted in Figure 4. As shown, level 1 is not feasible for some pure EVs with large battery sizes. Level 3 seems

to be practical for all types, although it is expected to be the most expensive option of all. It is shown that levels 2a and 2b are quite sufficient for almost all EVs and can be implemented in park-ing places for short to medium parking times (such as car parks near schools, universities, business hubs, etc.).

EV Potential of AustraliaAustralian cities have traditionally been spread over a wide surface area. Additionally, Australians have a strong taste for stand-alone buildings. It seems that even the growing popula-tion in the cities has not changed this

view. Consequently, the population with lower income is pushed to the outer fringes of the cities [19]. Figure 5 shows the scale maps of Melbourne and Paris. Although they are spread over a similar area, the population of Paris is two and one-half times more than that of Melbourne [20].

However, the public transportation network is much poorer in Australian cities. This inevitably increases the number of people who drive to work/school each day. Figure 6 shows the to-tal number of metropolitan passengers each year in Australia. As shown, de-spite the rapidly increasing population, the passenger load met by rail and bus services has not changed signifi-cantly. The bulk of the load is still met by privately owned passenger cars. This pattern is almost identical for all Australian cities [21].

The research conducted by the Aus-tralian Bureau of Statistics reflects that the structure of large cities makes it very difficult to extend public transport to every suburb; the frequency of the ser-vices is inadequate, and there is a gen-eral resentment toward public transport services for various reasons such as high ticket cost and safety concerns [18]. Therefore, as shown in Figure 7, the use of public transport has been very low in Australia. Nine out of every ten pas-senger–kilometers are covered by cars while only one passenger–kilometer is covered by rail or bus services.

When compared with other coun-tries, Australia has one of the lowest rates of public transport use in the world. Figure 8 presents the results of an International Union of Public Trans-port study conducted on selected cit-ies in different countries [23].

As shown, the rate of public transport use in selected cities in Australia and New Zealand (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Wellington) was relatively low by world standards, with an average of 5% of all trips made using public trans-port. Cities in the United States, includ-ing Los Angeles and New York, recorded similarly low rates (3% of all trips).

In contrast, rates of public trans-port use were relatively high in both western European (WEU) cities such as London and Paris (19% of all trips) and

0Toyota Buick Chevrolet Fisker Nissan

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Tesla

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rgin

g T

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Charging Time (L1)Charging Time (L2a)Charging Time (L2b)Charging Time (L3)

FIGUre 4 – charging time of several vehicles for different charging options.

TABLE 2 – BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT EVS.

manuFacturEr modEl EV tYPEElEctrIc rangE (km)

BattErY sIzE (kWH)

Toyota Prius PHeV 8 4

buick PHeV 16 8

chevrolet Volt ereV 64 16

Fisker Karma PHeV 80 22

Nissan LeAF eV 160 24

Toyota rAV4 eV eV 190 27

cooper (bmW) mini e eV 251 28

Tesla roadster eV 354 53


high-income Asian cities such as Tokyo and Hong Kong (30% of all trips) [23].

Because of the previously men-tioned reasons, driving is not a luxury but a necessity for Australians [24]. Passenger vehicle ownership is very high in Australia, where 85% of the pop-ulation owns at least one car [25] and 60% of households have two or more cars [26].

As shown in Figure 9, in 2011, the majority of 16,368,383 registered ve-hicles (a 2% increase from 2010) in Australia, 76% (12,474,044) were pas-senger vehicles. Figure 10 shows that the major part (72%) of the total kilo-meters (2,666 billion km) traveled in 2010 was, again, covered by passenger vehicles [27].

The information presented clearly shows that Australia has an enormous passenger vehicle fleet, and because of the insufficiency of public transport, the base-case projections tend to in-dicate that the fleet will grow in num-bers. This provides an opportunity for introducing EVs in the future. However, some of the contemporary EVs suffer from low ranges. It is vital to investi-gate the daily vehicle use patterns in Australia. Table 3 shows the average ki-lometers traveled by different vehicle types annually and their correspond-ing daily usage [28]. On the other hand, Table 4 reveals the distribution of pas-senger car use in terms of different regions such as capital cities, urban areas, interstate use, etc. The figures for capital cities and urban areas are accommodating even for the EVs using existing battery technology [28].

According to a national survey, the average travel time to work or school is 39 min for Australian drivers. The aver-age travel time home is 40 min, while the total daily average time of passen-ger vehicles is only 69 min [25]. This implies that, on average, a vehicle is used for 4.79% of the day and is idle for 95.01% of the time. In conclusion, there is a big opportunity for V2G implemen-tation in Australian smart grids.

Based on the battery characteristics given in the “Various EV Technologies” section, the maximum distributed stor-age that can be achieved with different vehicle types is shown in Figure 11.

Even if it is assumed that only 5% of the vehicles will be EVs (the battery capacity of a Toyota RAV4 EV is taken as basis), this result yields 16.8 GWh. Considering the isolated communities

of Australia, which run on standard-alone grids [29], [30], these additional storage devices (i.e., EV batteries) will contribute toward the reliability and protection of the grid.

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Paris, France Melbourne, Australia

Population: Population:

FIGUre 5 – Scale maps of melbourne and Paris [20] and their respective populations.

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FIGUre 6 – Total metropolitan passenger transportation for Australia (billion passenger–kilometer) [21].

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FIGUre 7 – Proportion of passenger–kilometers: capital cities−1945 to 2020 [22].


Impact on Grids in AustraliaEVs can be used to decrease vehicle-bound carbon emissions in a very effective manner. For instance, an analysis shows that EVs will be a major factor for re-ducing carbon emissions in the transport sector beyond 2020 [31]. Based on this analysis, the United Kingdom has introduced measures for the uptake of EVs, including support for vehicle purchase and public recharging points [18]. While a similar study is yet to be performed in Austra-lia, governments such as the Vic-torian government support EVs by running trials [32] to better understand the opportunities and barriers for EV transition [18].

One major concern about widespread EV acceptance is the immediate impact on elec-tricity networks. Considering the cumulative generation ca-pacity of the power systems and the estimated EV burden, it is concluded that at power generation and transmission levels, no major issue is an-ticipated in power systems [33]. Following the assumption made in the “EV Potential of Australia” section, if only 5% of the vehicles are EVs with a bat-tery capacity similar to that of a Toyota RAV4 EV, the calculated power demand is 16.8 GWh.

Figure 12 shows the power demand curves of Australia,

which are calculated for three different scenarios [34]. In the reference case, it is assumed that no action is taken by the governments to stabilize the carbon dioxide stabilization, whereas in the 550 and 450 scenarios, it is as-sumed that a global agreement is made around stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations at 550 and 450 ppm CO2-e, respectively.

Comparing the estimated EV de-mand (i.e., 16.8 GWh) with the curves given in Figure 12, it is apparent that the impact on the national grid is neg-ligible. If a complete EV migration is assumed to occur in Australia, based

on Toyota RAV4 EV battery char-acteristics, the power demand of EVs will be around 337 GWh. This value does not exceed 0.1% of the power demand in 2011 and 2012, shown in Figure 12.

The impact of EVs is an issue at the distribution level since it becomes comparable with the parameters therein. Figure 13 shows the power demand per capita in Australia. When it is compared with the poten-tial power demand of EVs, it is concluded that EVs will have a considerable impact. As men-tioned earlier, 85% of the Austra-lian population owns a car and 60% of households have two or more cars. This implies that 85% of the population will have EV power demand added on their power demand curve. It is also discussed in the literature that introducing two EVs to a dis-tribution system is equivalent to introducing one new house to the neighborhood [35]. Fol-lowing the previous data, if it is assumed that 60% of the house-holds have only two cars, a full EV migration will be equivalent to a 30% rise in the number of the houses in the neighborhood. This will have a significant im-pact on distribution systems, and it must be taken into account by distribution companies.

The chart in Figure 14 shows the distribution of electricity con-sumption percentages according

Heavy RigidTrucks

2% Other2%

Motorcycles4%

LightCommercial

Vehicles16%

PassengerVehicles

76%

FIGUre 9 – ratio of motor vehicle types in Australia (2011).

Heavy RigidTrucks

4%Motorcycles

1%

Other3%

PassengerVehicles

73%

LightCommercial

Vehicles19%

FIGUre 10 – Percentage of total kilometers traveled in Australia (2010).

100Motorized Public ModesMotorized Private ModesNonmotorized Modes80

%

60

40

20

0USA Aust/NZ Canada WEU HIA

FIGUre 8 – International comparison for levels of public transport [23].


to the data provided by the Austra-lian Energy Market Operator [36]. The consumption regime also varies with the widespread use of EVs. Depend-ing on the charging method and the location of the charging station, it is expected that the residential and com-mercial electricity consumption share will increase.

The impact of EVs as a load is one as-pect, and the potential distributed stor-age provided is another. The estimated amount of storage was presented in the “EV Potential of Australia” section. However, it is important to analyze and compare the daily load profiles with the daily vehicle usage regime. Figure 15 shows the summer load pro-file of Australia. The curve is plotted based on the data provided by [37] for Ergon Energy, a distribution company operating in Queensland, for the date 20 February 2011.

Figure 16 shows the winter load profile of Australia. The curve is plotted based on the data provid-ed by [37] for Energy Australia, a

distribution company operating in New South Wales, for the date 24 August 2011. The reason for select-ing two different regions and two

TABLE 4 – USE OF PASSENGER VEHICLES IN 2010 (km).

caPItal cItY

otHEr urBan arEas

otHEr arEas

total IntErstatE IntErstatE australIa

Total (million km) 95,619 30,787 31,400 157,806 5,555 163,360

Average 10,800 7,700 9,000 13,500 6,100 13,900

daily use 29.6 21.1 24.7 37.0 16.7 38.1

TABLE 3 – AVERAGE KILOMETERS TRAVELED BY DIFFERENT MOTOR VEHICLES IN 2010.

motor VEHIclE tYPE annual usE (km) daIlY usE (km)

Passenger vehicles 13,200 36.2

Light commercial vehicles 17,500 47.9

motorcycles 3,700 10.1

Heavy rigid trucks 20,800 57.0

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ta (R

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r (M

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(Roa

dste

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FIGUre 11 – Potential distributed storage with eVs in Australia (GWh).

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FIGUre 12 – Power demand curves for Australia [34].

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FIGUre 13 – Power demand per capita in Australia [34].

Transport and Storage1%

Agriculture1%

Mining9%

Residential28%

Commercial23%

Metals18%

AluminumSmelting

11%

Manufacturing9%

FIGUre 14 – electricity consumption in Australia by sector.


different distribution companies is to depict the validity of EV potential throughout Australia.

On comparing the load profiles given in Figures 15 and 16 with the daily vehicle traffic regime in Austra-lia, given in Figure 17, it is concluded that vehicle use behavior offers solid opportunities for using EV batteries

as distributed storage as well as power sources at peak hours.

In the summer, for instance, follow-ing rush hour in the morning, most of the vehicles are parked at parking lots (such as business hubs or school/university parking lots). When they are coupled to the grid, they can sup-port the grid until rush hour in the

afternoon. Figure 17 shows that vehicle traffic drastically drops after 6 p.m., while load profile peaks around that time. EVs, which will mostly be parked in the garages of their owners, can provide energy to the grid throughout the evening and get recharged during the night.

Likewise, during winter, EVs can support the grid in the evening when electricity is required for heating, illumination, etc. It is apparent from Figure 16 that winter peak hours are lon-ger and more dominant than summer peak hours. The support of EVs during these hours would be very beneficial. Similarly, EVs can be programmed to recharge during the night.

V2G OpportunitiesVarious simulations have been per-formed to analyze the impact of the expected EV migration on Australian electrical networks. The Paladin De-sign Base 4.0 software package was used to model the components as well as the networks. Considering a typi-cal neighborhood, 30 Chevrolet Volt EVs using the level 2a charging option were taken as the basis for the simula-tions. Figure 18 shows the microgrids topology used for the simulations.

V2G and grid-to-vehicle (G2V) cas-es are examined by modeling EVs as power sources in the prior case and as loads in the latter. For the sake of simplicity, the charging and discharg-ing characteristics of the EV batter-ies are assumed to be regular. The microgrid system is connected to the IEEE T14-bus system and the IEEE 48 bus system, shown in Figures 19 and 20, respectively, to investigate the be-havior of the microgrid during V2G implementation.

The simulation results are summa-rized in Table 5. Various parameters are tabulated under operation without any EV connection and operations under V2G (EV supplying power) and G2V (EV charging) conditions.

As mentioned in the literature [33], [35], [40], EV connection does not have any major impact on either of the bus systems used. This shows that V2G technology does not con-stitute a significant problem at the

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FIGUre 15 – A sample summer load profile for Australia.

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FIGUre 16 – A sample winter load profile for Australia.

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FIGUre 17 – daily regime of vehicle traffic in Australia—vehicle kilometer traveled (VKT) [21].


transmission level. However, this does not hold for distribu-tion networks. When the im-pact of the EVs on the sample microgrid is analyzed, it is clear that large-scale mitigation to EV technology will require some changes to distribution networks as well as their man-agement and protection. Once this challenge is managed, Aus-tralian electrical networks can enjoy the benefits of next-gen-eration EVs.

Similar Impact Studies Around the WorldThe amount of research that is being performed on EV

migration and its impact on the grids shows that EVs are very popular and the migration of vehicle fleets toward EV is very probable. Almost all developed countries have undertaken re-search to investigate their EV potential and the expected im-pact. In this section, some of these research studies will be highlighted. For this purpose, three types of countries are se-lected. The first group consists of EU-member states, which have small surface areas and can be classified as “developed countries.” There are various research works focusing on EU countries. The impact of the

Bus 1

Bus 3

Bus 4 Bus 5

GEN

Bus 2

DG1(Wind)1

DG2(Solar) DG3

(Diesel)DG4

(Fuel Cell)

V2G_Connect

Load 3Load 2

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CB11,836.9 A

CB32,483 A

CB44,231.5 A

CB71,346.2 A

CB81,713.2 A

CB92,427.1 A

CB103,731.7 A

CB111,345.4 A

CB12120.4 A

CB5674.3 A

CB62,489.7 A

CB21,837.2 A

FIGUre 18 – A sample microgrid with eV deployments.

taBlE 5 – sImulatIon rEsults For tEst casEs.

IslandEd oPEratIon IEEE t14 Bus IEEE 34 Bus

control ParamEtEr V2g g2V V2g g2V V2g g2V

Vbus1 479.52 V 479.328 V 479.6 V 496.3 V 479.6 V 479.7 V

Vbus4 479.76 V 479.424 V 479.8 V 496.4 V 479.8 V 479.5 V

Vbus5 479.81 V 479.664 V 479.8 V 496.5 V 479.8 V 479.8 V

Ibus1-bus2 1,836 A 1,836.9 A 1,835.4 A 1,777.3 A 1,835.4 A 1,835.2 A

Ibus1-bus3 −1,836.3 A −1,837.2 A −1,216.8 A −1296 A −1,209.8 A −769.1

IGrid-bus1 N/A N/A 4.3 A 13.23 A 14.7 A 27.8 A

IeV −481.3 A 120.4 A −481.2 A 113.67 A −481.2 A 120.3 A

IdG3 −2,579.5 A −2,483 A −1,821.4 A −1,833.1 A −1,805.6 A −1,808.1 A

IdG1 −2,481.8 A −3,731.7 A −2,481 A −2392 A −2,481 A −2,480.8 A

FIGUre 19 – The Ieee T14 bus system with a microgrid point of connection [38].

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Electric Vehicles Consortium led by CE Delft, The Netherlands, with ICF, United States, and Ecologic, Germany, as part-ners, conducted research on EU states including Germany, Austria, and France [41]. Other research groups focused on the EV impact on the grid in Italy [42], Switzerland [43], and the United King-dom [44]. The United States, a large country similar to Australia, is the leading player in EV research. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory is conduct-ing research on the potential impact of EV deployment on electrical regions in the United States [45]. The third case focuses on a small developing country, Macau, which has a specific type of vehicle as the dominant type [46].

Regardless of the differences in research parameters and the coun-tries they are performed in, the es-timated impact of EVs in the short term is almost identical. The rate of acceptance of EVs is limited by tech-nical aspects and market parameters. Therefore, the number of EVs in the near future and the electrical load constituted by them do not pose any difficulties for generation and trans-mission. The only difficulty arises at the distribution level, and all re-search work states that this can be solved by means of smart charging and/or dual-tariff utilization.

Conclusions and RecommendationsCarbon emission reductions, renewable energy use, and the desire to eliminate the dependency on imported oil are some of the reasons why EVs are very popular. The availability of the technol-ogies required and the higher efficiency of electric cars has created a genuine interest for EVs in the car market, and many manufacturers have already as-sembled their own EV models.

Australia is a vast country, and its cit-ies are traditionally designed to spread over a large surface area. Given the poor status of the public transportation system and the general resentment of Australians toward it, using a privately owned car to travel to work and school is the norm. Therefore, the car owner-ship ratio is very high in Australia, and the market is promising for EVs. Network grid operators and power engineers in Australia need to consider the impact of EVs on networks for future plans.

Furthermore, the popularity of EVs is apparent from the impact studies undertaken all around the world. Devel-oped countries are undertaking studies to estimate the level of EV migration in the future and its impact on the electri-cal networks. The research shows that the additional power demand intro-duced by EVs causes problems only at

the distribution level. This can be easily evaded by avoiding fast-charging meth-ods or by implementing smart charging methods. In this fashion, there can be a smooth transition period where EVs can be used and additional infrastruc-ture can be built for full-fledged EV migration.

BiographiesTaha Selim Ustun ([email protected]) received his B.E. degree in electrical and electronics engineering from the Mid-dle East Technical University, Turkey, in 2007 and his master of engineering science degree from the University of Malaya, Malaysia, in 2009. He received his Ph.D degree in electrical engineer-ing from Victoria University, Mel-bourne, Australia, in 2013. Currently, he is an assistant professor in electrical engineering, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mel-lon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylva-nia. His research interests are power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed genera-tion, microgrids, and smart grids.

Cagil Ozansoy received his B.Eng. degree in electrical and electronic engineering (hons.) from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia, in 2002. In 2006, he completed his Ph.D. degree in the area of power system

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communications. He is currently a lecturer and researcher in the School of Engineering and Science, Victoria University. His major teaching and re-search focus is on electrical engineer-ing, renewable energy technologies, energy storage, and distributed gener-ation. He has successfully carried out and supervised many sustainability-related studies in collaboration with local governments in the past. He has more than 25 publications detailing his work and contributions to knowl-edge. He is a Member of the IEEE.

Aladin Zayegh received his B.E. de-gree in electrical engineering from Aleppo University in 1970 and his Ph.D. degree from Claude Bernard University, Lyon, France, in 1979. He has held lecturing po-sitions at several universities and, since 1991, he has been at Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He has been the head of the school and a research di-rector, and he has conducted research, supervised several Ph.D. students, and published more than 250 papers in peer-reviewed international conferences and journals. He is currently an associate pro-fessor at the School of Engineering and Science, Faculty of Health, Engineering, and Science at Victoria University, Mel-bourne, Australia. His research interests include renewable energy, embedded systems, instrumentation, data acquisi-tion and interfacing, and sensors and microelectronics for biomedical applica-tions. He is a Member of the IEEE.

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