electric vehicle

Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicle

Industrial Ecology

MS Sustainability | Fall 2010 | BishoyTakla

Dr. Wernick, PhD

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Table of Contents

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................3

History .............................................................................................................................................3

Economic and social concerns ........................................................................................................5

Environmental impact ......................................................................................................................7

Health impact of lead emission .....................................................................................................7

Leaded gasoline ............................................................................................................................8

Lead in batteries VS. Lead in gasoline ............................................................................................9

Lead in battery ..............................................................................................................................9

New technology in batteries ..........................................................................................................10

Lead-acidbattery ............................................................................................................................10

How we got our electricity? .........................................................................................................12

Recycling .......................................................................................................................................13

LCA of lead-acid battery ..............................................................................................................14

Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................15

Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicle

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Introduction

Electrical vehicles can be seen as the ultimate solution for the transportation and

pollution problems. But are EVs really cleaner? Or they are simply shifting emissions from the

tailpipe to the power generating plants? In order to find out the answer, the tools of industrial

ecology are helpful inidentifying the criteria that an ideal EV must meet.

History

Electric cars are not something new;they were

invented in the late 1800’s2at the same time as the ICE

cars.It was more comfortable and efficient, thus

peoplepreferred it over the old steam car and the ICE

cars because it didn’t need to be cranked and it was

easier to control. Itwas cast as productfor genteel society

women; Henry Ford’s wife drove an electric car. The

number of EVs in 1900 was double in the number than

the Gasoline cars (Table1).

While EVs looked promising in

different aspects it was largely an issue of

perception. They were very efficient in terms

of mileage. For exampleB.G.S ,France in

1899first electric car in the early 20th century

was able to deliver 180 miles per charge in.

Also, common production units were capable

of delivering 40 miles between charges and

up to 100 miles a day under some

circumstances. This was a lot more than the

industry average for steam cars, which had to stop between 10 and 15 miles for water and four

times the distance between having to stop for fuel.

1 SAE Historical committee, a century of progress, Warrendale, PA 1997, 292pp 2 http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm

Table 1 Automobile census in 1900 – New York ,

Boston and Chicago 1

type number Limiting factor

Steam 1,170 Feedwater for boiler

Electric 800 Energy storage in battery

Gasoline 400 Size of gas tank

Carriage 294,689 Endurance of horse

Figure 1

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The early gasoline cars also had to stop frequently for water for engine cooling and

whileit wasn’t considered a disadvantage back then, gasoline cars had to stop within the range of

20 miles for minor repairs and adjustments3. This shows how well electric vehicles compared to

industry averages in the early 20th century. They were also as fast as the gasoline cars were at

that period of time and held the world land speed records between 1898 to 1902, beating out

steam and gasoline-powered vehicles.

While the year 1912 witnessed the greatest number of electric on-road vehicles

registered, , the number of sold electric cars was only a fraction of the number of ICE cars sold

that same year. Cheap and readily available gasoline made ICE cars very competitive to electric

vehicles, which operated on expensive electricity and a fragmented electrical generating industry

and distribution network. The poor reliability on electricity compared to gasoline which was

considered waste product of the petroleum industry at the turn of the 20th century, hugely caused

the sales of electric vehicles to decline until General Motors

stopped the manufacture of the EV1 in 2003 because of its huge

manufacturing cost4,the cost of battery alone was $30,000. It was

not feasible for GM to keep manufacturing EV1; therefore they

brought them back in and destroyed them.5 (Figure 2)

There was a problem that even Thomas Edison couldn’t

solve6, and it has continually held back EV’s popularity and

growth, battery range couldn’t compete with the driving range of a full tank of gasoline.

Improving in the battery is the key to improving the EVs marketing and to make it more

acceptable by regular users. Lead acid batteries were used in 1900 and are still used in some of

the modern car; hence lead battery has the longest history of improvement among EVs batteries.

3 http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:RQiLmkBp9NQJ:www.econogics.com 4 http://www.autos.com/car-buying/why-gm-stopped-manufacture-of-their-ev-electric-car 5 http://www.autos.com/car-buying/why-gm-stopped-manufacture-of-their-ev-electric-car 6 http://www.wired.com/autopia/2010/06/henry-ford-thomas-edison-ev/

Figure 2

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Economic and Social concerns

The initial investment in EVs is often higher than for a comparable gasoline car. The

Nissan Leaf costs $30,0007, and the Chevrolet Volt costs $40,2808. On the other hand the price

for similar size car is under $20,0009. But EVs’ price immediately drops by $7,500 with a federal

subsidy10 for new buyers. Moreover EVs will save maintenance money because they never need

oil changes, air filters, timing belts or emission

tests, in addition to all the savings in usage phase

since there no more money will be spentat the

pump.

GM stated that customers who drive 40

miles per day will need about $1.19 worth of

electricity every day11.Iif we were to use GM

estimation for 10,000 miles, the EVs operating

cost will work out to $2.98, compared with $1,200

for ICE car getting 25 mpg and gas at $3 per

gallon. That’s 2.98 cents per mile for EV and

about 12 cents for ICE cars, the different is 9.02

cents per mile. For 100,000 EVs will save $9,020 in addition to the $7,500 federal subsidy, that’s

total saving of 16,520 every 100,000 miles. Table 2 shows more comparisonsbetween the Dodge

Caliber and Nissan Leaf. Studies expect the payback time to be only five years for EV.

Considering the external costs, such as air and water pollution, land and soil degradation,

non-renewable resources consumption and GHG generation, the full actual price should be

adjusted to cover all these added costs. The environmental costs of transport have non-linear

effects12, and the crucial issue becomes, nothow to measure but rather how to avoid reaching

critical levels before the environmental cost becomes very expensive. Even though no one

currently is paying for the emissions’ price, that doesn’t mean it is free of cost. According to the

7 http://www.nissanusa.com/leaf-electric-car/index?dcp=ppn.39666654.&dcc=0.216878497#/leaf-electric-car/feature/pricing_information 8 http://www.chevrolet.com/volt/?seo=goo_|_2008_Chevy_Retention_|_IMG_Chevy_Volt_|_Volt_HV_|_volt 9 http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/SavingandDebt/SaveonaCar/would-an-electric-car-save-money.aspx?page=2 10 IEA 2010 Technology Roadmaps: Electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (EV/PHEV) 11 http://www.gm.com 12 Transport policy and the environment by David Banister

Table 2

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“Ecology of Commerce” Paul Hawkins explains the difference between the cost and the price

“companies aren’t required to pay for the damage to the environment”13.

ICE vehicles affect the environment in various ways and the most obvious one is

in air quality. The U.S. emits nearly half the world’s automotive carbon dioxide14. In California;

over half of the state’s pollution comes from ICE vehicles15. The release of greenhouse gases in

the combustion of fossil fuels in the vehicles’ engines cause:

1- Acid rain (is occurring when water vapor reacts with sulfur and nitrogen dioxides,

producing sulfuric and nitric acid16) Acid precipitation and other toxics can corrode

building materials.

2- Photochemical smog (consisting of ozone and chemical compounds formed under the

influence of sunlight from NOx and volatile organic compounds released in fossil fuel

combustion17) The photochemical smog and pollutants emission such as CO2,CO, NO

and, NO2 are directly affecting the lungs-respiratory system and increase the chances of

cardio-vascular diseases. Statistic shows that U.S. air pollution deaths are equal to deaths

from breast cancer and prostate cancer combined. are related to air pollution.18

From environmental standpoint, EV is More Efficient; it canconvert over 90% of

electrical power supplied into motion, while ICE can only convert 25% into motion19 (figure 3).

On a full life cycle basis,electric vehicles manage about 34% efficiency versus only 14% for

gasoline vehicles including power plants and oil wells20. Hence, experts predict decrease inthe

production of ICE and increase of the production of EVs by 2020(figure 4). The mass production

of EVs will decrease the initial cost.

13 Ecology of Commerce, chapter 5 14 http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jun2006/2006-06-28-03.html 15 http://www.electroauto.com/info/pollmyth.shtml 16 http://www.ausetute.com.au/acidrain.html 17 http://www.lenntech.com/faq-air-pollution.htm 18 http://www.earth-policy.org/index.php?/plan_b_updates/2002/update17 19 http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/atv.shtml 20 http://truecostblog.com/2009/01/04/electric-vs-gasoline/

Figure 4 Figure 3

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The batteries’ range is another concern raised by potential electric

buyers. Currently US has only 500 public charging stations a condition that

raises the fear of running out of power far from charging station or far from

home. But the average American commute distance is 40 miles a day

(Figure 4), which can be managed by single charge.However Obama’s

administration has made major investments in clean-energy vehicles, including

$2.4 billion to establish EV battery plants, and to open20,500 charging

locations on the grid by 201221.The battery range depends onvaries factors like

weather condition, speed, road conditions, and air conditioning or heat use. Once the automobile

market movestowards EVs, we will witness more infrastructures for EVs as we have for ICE

cars, less gas station and morecharting stations.

Environmental Impact

Health impact of Lead emission

Most people are exposed to a small amount of lead through air, drinking water, soil, dust,

food or other consumer products.The usage of lead increased after the industrial revolution and

during the 1920’s with the usage of the leaded gasoline,but in the 1970’s some studies revealed

the harmful impacts of the high lead level in blood. The high exposure of lead for short term can

cause vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, coma or even death22, and the long exposure is very

harmful and can case damage to the brain and the nerve.

Figure 6

21 http://www.infrastructurist.com/page/3/ 22

http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/environ/lead-plomb-eng.php

Figure 5

US Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Omnibus

Household Survey

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Therefore the US Center for Disease Control reduced its definition of dangerous

leadconcentrations in the blood from 25 to 10 micrograms per deciliter23, and the US National

Research Council states this fact as “the central and the peripheral nervous system of both

children and adults are demonstrably affected by lead exposures formally thought to be well

within the safe range”24. Figure 6 compares the lead level in blood between 1983 and 1994

according to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. In 1983 only 12% of the

children had 10 or less mcg/dL lead in their blood, in another word only 12% of the children had

the acceptable lead blood level, whereas the time of NHANES III , the percentage has grown to

91%25.

Leaded gasoline

Lead was used in gasoline in the 1920’s, to raise its octane in order to improve the

gasoline combustion, and to provide lubrication that prevented friction in the engine.Leaded

gasoline was the main source of the lead air emission26consequently, leaded gasoline was banded

in the United States in 199527, when more advanced addictive were invented. Figure7shows the

first major stepwas taken in 1970’s to reduce the lead percentage; however other countries still

using leaded gasoline. According to the International Fuel Quality Center28 there are 39 countries

are still using leaded gasoline in the world. The International Fuel QualityCenter believes that

lead will be completely phased out in the next decade29.

23

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/hwtr/demodebris/pages2/lbloodtest.html 24

http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2232&page=31 25

http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4950a3.htm 26

http://yosemite.epa.gov/R10/airpage.nsf/webpage/Leaded+Gas+Phaseout 27

Previous source 28

Overview of leaded gasoline and sulfur levels in gasoline and diesel, November 14, 2002 29

http://www.un.org/esa/gite/cleanfuels/ifqc-globaloverview.pdf

Figure 7

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Lead in batteriesVS. Lead in gasoline

Industrial ecology studies industrialized activities as the flow of material from and into

the environmental system. From an industrial ecology point of view the lead in gasoline

addictive is considered dissipative use30,because it exhausts to the air from the car’s tailpipe after

the gasoline is burned, the lead dissolves in the air components and later deposited on soil and

crops. The harm is not only by breathing the polluted air but also by eating the ingesting and

polluted crops. However, the solution to phase-out the lead addictive in gasoline in the rest of the

world is easier to be achieved, especially by looking at to the current practices ofbanding lead

additives. On the other hand the lead in batteries is recyclable use31. Because all the lead remain

in the battery when the battery undergoes its normal cycle of charge and discharge.

Lead in battery

Lead batteries are dominating

the US lead industry more than 80%

of lead produced in the United States

is used for lead-acid batteries32;figure

8shows the average data for US lead

industry in 1993 in thousand metric

tons. Lead that enters the system from

mining and importing are more than what leaves the system via disposal and exporting. Raw lead

material (left bottom) from mining and imported battery enter the industry, some lead stayed in

the system and gets recycled (the middle top). In 1990 the global lead production was 5.9 million

metric tons and it has 2.6 million metric tons of recycled lead. At the end of the batteries’ life

cycle some of these batteries end up in land fill (bottom right), where there’s a chance that the

lead will move into the groundwater or the surface water.

30journal of Industrial ecology by Robert Socolow 31 Previous source 32 http://www.leadacidbatteryinfo.org/environment.htm

Figure 8

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Regarding the health impact from lead used in batteries, figure 8.1 shows the decreasing

in average lead level in bloodand at the same time increasing of lead used in the battery industry,

simply because the used lead in batteries remains in the

battery after its life cycle.

Treating the lead in EV’s batteries and lead additives

in gasoline on the same footing is misleading. The lead in

gasoline is dissipative and the emission can’t be bounded or

recycled, in contrast the lead in the batteries is recyclable and

can be used or at least can be disposed under environmental

control

New technology in batteries

Better batteries are crucial to the improvement and

eventual success of the electric vehicles (figure 9). To

understand the difference between batteries, industrial

ecology and life cycle analysis are needed to break the

battery into its simplest form of material and energy. Iwill

look at the life cycle analysisof the lead-acid battery and

studyits energy consumptionand its CO2 emission duringthe

production, manufacturing,usage and recycling stages.

Lead Acid Batteries

The basic chemical components of batteries are two

active materials and an electrolyte, during discharge these

components react to form new chemical compounds,

releasing energy which is available as electricity for external use.33 Most of the active materials

in battery are nonstandard automobile material, however a significant fraction of the battery mass

is standard material such as steel and polypropylene used for casings, connectors and separators.

The leadacid battery was invented in 1859; it is consisting of a Leaddioxide (cathode), a

sponge metallic Lead anode and a Sulfuric acid solution electrolyte (figure 10)34. This heavy

33 Prospects for electric cars by William Hamilton

Figure 9

Figure 10

Figure 8.1

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metal element makes them toxic and improper disposal can be hazardous to the environment35.

During discharge, the lead dioxide (positive plate) and lead (negative plate) react with the

sulfuric acid (electrolyte) to create energy, lead sulfate and water (as shown in the discharging

equation). During charging, the cycle is reversed: the lead sulfate and water are electro-

chemically converted to sulfuric acid, lead and lead oxide by an external electrical charging

source. 36

Discharge

Pb02 + Pb + 2H2SO4 ----------> 2PbSO4 + H2O + 2E

+plt -plt electrolyte <---------- +/-plt electrolyte

Charge

The Lead-acid battery has some advantages such

as; its low cost, its reliability (Over 140 years of

development), it also can deliver very high currents, it has

anindefinite shelf life if stored without electrolyte and it

has wide range of sizes and capacities available. On the

other hand, it has some disadvantages such as it is heavy

weight and it can be overheated during charging.

Production and Manufacture

About 76% of the production of energy goes to the

lead production and most of the rest to the polypropylene

case37 and the percentage can be lowered to 17% of the

vetches’ total production energy if recycled leadis

34 http://www.circuit-projects.com/battery/12v-lead-acid-battery-discharge-indicator.html 35 http://www.mpoweruk.com/leadacid.htm 36 http://www.mpoweruk.com/leadacid.htm 37 http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/B/239.pdf

Table 3

Table 4

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usedinstead. As shown in table 3 lead is the most used material followed by water and sulfuric

acid, which form the electrolyte,the secondary battery in the table assumed to be made from

some recycled material.

The process starts with the production of the grids, production of lead oxide, paste

production and pasting, then drying following by curing and formation.

During the manufacturing process toxinsare emitted from physical and chemical processes, in

addition the emission of the combustion fuel used to transport the material.

Usage phase - How we got our electricity?

The greatest environmental advantage of EVs is their low emissions; however during the

life time of the battery, it uses electricity which is generated from power plants that

emitpollutants. The question that should be asked is that how much are EVs net saving of

emissions? We can determine this after calculating its production and manufacturing energy’s

emission and by considering the lifetime usage electricity’s emissions.

Critics nickname the EVs “elsewhere emission vehicles” because they transfer emissions

from the tailpipe to the power planet’s smokestack, and they proclaim that more EVs will

significantly increase GHG.In contrast The World Resources Institute

states that EVs “recharging from coal-fired plants will reduce CO2

emissions in USA from 17 to 22 percent.”38 Even though US power

planets generate 45% of their electricity from coal, the emissions

associated with charging EVs are very low.39

Usage of electricity generated from a variety of fuels and

renewable resources is an advantages of EVs’, because all what we

need to achieve is increasing these mixes and increase the share of the

renewable energy. The overall mix of power plants in the U.S. in 2010

is 45% coal and 24% percent natural gas. The rest 31% include nuclear

power and renewable energy sources (Figure 11).

38 James J. MacKenzie, The Keys to the Car, (World Resources Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, May 1994) 39 http://www.evdl.org/docs/powerplant.pdf

Figure 11

Figure 12

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In the ICE cars, the production and disposal represent only 20 %t of a car’s

environmental impact and the other 80 % is caused by burning fuel during the usage phase.On

the other hands EVs has less than 30% of its impact in the usage phase because it get its

electricity from power plants that emit emissions in less crowded areas. By centralizing electric

power plants can achieve fewer emissions per vehicle mile than ICE. In fact, it is possible that all

EVs can be charged from solar energy, by using the new Korean Plug-N-Go (figure 12).40The

EV Plug-N-Go was showcased at the Clean Tech Open in Korea, this solar-powered platform is

ideal to charge EVs from natural energy and achieve a zero emission stage. According to studies

by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, EVs are much cleaner in the usage phase

than ICE cars41. The electricity generation process produces less than 100 pounds of pollutants

for EVs compared to 3000 pounds for ICE vehicles42(table 5).

Recycling

The battery represents a significant percentage of the

vehicle mass, (20% to 40%), the recycling impact is very

important because the batteries’ life time is shorter than the

vehicles’ life time, it will need to be replaced every 3-5

years44. The data are incomplete because the recycling of all

the materials is not developed yet; lead and the

polypropylene cases are mostly recyclable. Electricity

consumption in recycle is 0.875 MJ/kg (table 6).

40 http://inhabitat.com/plug-n-go-ev-charging-station-showcased-at-green-energy-expo/ 41 http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/laws/law/CA/6142 42 http://www.electroauto.com/info/pollmyth.shtml 43 Steve McCrea, Why Wait for Detroit, (South Florida Electric Vehicle Auto Association, 1992) 44 http://www.freewebs.com/worldwideevsource/evparts.htm

Table 5. Pounds of Emissions Produced per 100,000 Miles43

Engine CO ROG NOx Total

Gasoline 2574 262 172 3008 lbs

Diesel 216 73 246 835 lbs

Electric 9 5 61 75 lbs

Table 6

More than 95% of battery lead is recycled

President of BCI, said “The lead-

has been proven to be efficient and highly successful, and no

other battery chemistry comes near the recycling rate of lead

batteries … It proves that a workable infrastructure helps boost

consumers’ participation in recycling.”

Lead-acid LCA

Production and recycling of EV batteries may be having significant environmental

consequences. Therefore all process must receive careful attention

The total energy needed for manufacture and recycle is

shown in

Table 7, but as shown in Figure 14

has 85% ofits LCA energy. The solution to reduce the

energy consumption in the use time is not only to

improve the batteries’ efficiency. If the battery had an

energy efficiency of 95%, the usage consumption

energy will be reduced from 85% to 80%

reducing losses in the power plants and improve the

charging efficiency will have a significant impact. The

car manufacture, the power supply industry, charger

manufacture as well as the battery industry should join

forces in order to improve the EV’s environmental

impact and to make it operates efficiently and

45 http://www.leadacidbatteryinfo.org/environment.htm46 Life cycle assessment of five batteries by MichailR

of battery lead is recycled45, Randy Hart,

-acid battery recycling structure

has been proven to be efficient and highly successful, and no

other battery chemistry comes near the recycling rate of lead-acid

ves that a workable infrastructure helps boost

consumers’ participation in recycling.” (Figure 13).


process must receive careful attention to minimize possible impacts.

The total energy needed for manufacture and recycle is

14 the use of battery

LCA energy. The solution to reduce the

tion in the use time is not only to

improve the batteries’ efficiency. If the battery had an

energy efficiency of 95%, the usage consumption

energy will be reduced from 85% to 80%46. Therefore

reducing losses in the power plants and improve the

iciency will have a significant impact. The

car manufacture, the power supply industry, charger

manufacture as well as the battery industry should join

to improve the EV’s environmental

efficiently and reliably

http://www.leadacidbatteryinfo.org/environment.htm

Life cycle assessment of five batteries by MichailRantik

Figure 13

Figure 14

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possible impacts.

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Conclusion

The ultimate viability of EVs as the main personal vehicle modes is the next step that

needs to be taken. The lack of connivances, such as the shortage in the infrastructure, the

charging station, and the long range batteries, held back EVs from reaching mass production.

The gasoline industry also has a role in slowing down the improvement. The government can

support EVs by investing in advanced researches to improve the batteries range and weight,

while considering lead emission in the battery manufacturing and battery recycling,in order to

reduce the lead pollution from batteries. Thomas J. Watson once said “It is better to aim at

perfection and miss, than to aim at imperfection and hit it” and I think US government should

aim high to achieve a total change from ICE into Electric Vehicles. GM planned to generate 14

new model of hybrid car by 201248.The hybrid cars can be seen as the transaction stage from ICE

to total eclectic, according to the suggested commercial pathway (figure 15). We are half way

far to the EVs.

47 Impacts of EV Battery Production and Recycling by Linda Gaines and Margaret Singh 48 http://wot.motortrend.com/6525361/green/gm-promises-14-hybrids-by-2012-we-id-the-potential-line-up/index.html

Table 7 Manufacture Recycle

Electricity 4.793 .075

Oil 0.102 -

LPG 0.137 1.95

Heat 1.671 -1.568

Table 6. summary of lead-acid battery47

Electrode material Lead on fiberglass mesh

Electrolyte Sulfuric acid

E density 50 Wh/kg

Mass for 35 kWh 500 kg

E to make 11.7 (106 Btu)

E to recycle 2.5 (106 Btu)

Significant emissions Lead particulates

comments Short battery life, existing recycling infrastructure

Figure 15

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electric vehicle

Documents

history electric cars

lca of lead

ice cars

health impact of lead

gasoline cars table1

number of evs

leaded gasoline

tools of industrial