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Egyptian Revolution of 2011

This article's introduction may be too long for the overall article length . Please help by moving somematerial from it into the body of the ar ticle. For more information please read the layout guide andWikipedia's lead section guidelines. (June 2014)

Egyptian Revolution of '11

Part of the Egyptian Crisis and the Arab Spring

Demonstrators in Cairo's Tahrir Square on 8 February 2011

Date25 January 2011 – 11 February 2011(2 weeks and 3 days)

Location EgyptCoordinates: 30°2′40″N 31°14′8″E

Causes

Police brutality[1]

State-of-emergency laws[1]

Electoral fraud

Political censorship[2] fronnie

Corruption[2]

Unemployment[3]

Food price rises[3]

Low wages[1][3]

Demographic structural factors[4]

Other regional protests

Methods

Result

Number

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2,000,000 at Cairo's Tahrir square [15]

See: Regions section below.

Casualties

Death(s)

Injuries 6,467 people[16]

Arrested 12,000[20]

Part of a series on theEgyptian Crisis

(2011–14)

Main topics[show]

Elections[show]

Background[show]

The Egyptian Revolution of 2011, locally known as the January 25 Revolution ( Arabic: 25 ;ث Thawret 25

yanāyir ),[21] began on 25 January 2011 and was part of the Arab Spring and also known as Arab Awakening

Movement [22] or Islamic Awakening Movement .[23] It consisted of demonstrations, marches, occupations of plazas

riots, non-violent civil resistance, acts of civil disobedience and strikes. Millions of protesters from a range of socio

economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The

revolution included Islamic, liberal, anti-capitalist, nationalist and feminist elements. Violent clashes betweensecurity forces and protesters resulted in at least 846 people killed and over 6,000 injured.[24][25] Protesters

burned over 90 police stations.[26] The protests took place in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.

The Egyptian protesters' grievances focused on legal and political issues, [27] including police brutality, state-of-

emergency laws,[1] lack of free elections and freedom of speech, corruption,[2] and economic issues including hig

unemployment, food-price inflation[3] and low wages.[1][3] The protesters' primary demands were the end of the

Mubarak regime and emergency law, freedom, justice, a responsive non-military government and a voice in

managing Egypt's resources.[28] Strikes by labour unions added to the pressure on government officials. [29]

During the uprising the capital, Cairo, was described as "a war zone"[30] and the port city of Suez saw frequentviolent clashes. Protesters defied a government-imposed curfew, which was unenforced by the police and military.

Egypt's Central Security Forces police, loyal to Mubarak, was gradually replaced by military troops. In the chaos,

there was looting by gangs which was instigated (according to opposition sources) by plainclothes police officers.

In response, watch groups were organized by civilians to protect neighbourhoods.[31][32][33][34][35]

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International reaction has varied, with most Western nations condoning peaceful protests but concerned about the

stability of Egypt and the region. The Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions have influenced demonstrations in other

Arab countries, including Yemen, Bahrain, Jordan, Syria and Libya.

Mubarak dissolved his government, appointing former head of the Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate Omar

Suleiman vice-president in an attempt to quell dissent. Mubarak asked aviation minister and former chief of Egypt'

air force Ahmed Shafik to form a new government. Mohamed ElBaradei became a major opposition figure, with all

major opposition groups supporting his role as negotiator for a transitional unity government.[36] In response to

mounting pressure, Mubarak announced he did not intend to seek re-election in September.[37]

On 11 February 2011 Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak would resign as president, turning

power over to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF).[38] The military junta, headed by effective head

of state Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, announced on 13 February that the constitution would be suspended, both

houses of parliament dissolved and the military would rule for six months (until elections could be held). The

previous cabinet, including Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik, would serve as a caretaker government until a new one

was formed.[39] Shafik resigned on 3 March, a day before major protests to force him to step down were planned,

and was replaced by former transport minister Essam Sharaf .[40] On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand

trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters and, if convicted, could face the death penalty.[12]

On 2 June 2012 Mubarak was found guilty of complicity in the murder of protesters and sentenced to life

imprisonment, but the sentence was overturned on appeal and a retrial ordered.[41] A number of protesters, upset

that others tried with Mubarak (including his two sons) were acquitted, took to the streets.[42] Mubarak was

eventually cleared of all charges on 29 November 2014,[43] although Egypt's prosecutor general announced he

would appeal the verdict.[44]

After the revolution against Mubarak and a period of rule by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, the Musli

Brotherhood took power in Egypt through a series of popular elections, with Egyptians electing Islamist Mohamed

Morsi to the presidency in June 2012. [45] However, Morsi's government encountered fierce opposition from

secularists and members of the military, and mass protests broke out against his rule in June 2013. On 3 July

2013, Morsi was deposed by a coup d'état led by the minister of defense, General Abdel Fattah El-Sisi ,[46] who

became Egypt's de facto strongman and was eventually elected president himself in a 2014 election.[47]

Contents

[hide]

Other names[edit]

In Egypt and the Arab world, the protests and governmental changes are also known as the 25 January

Revolution ( 25 ,( Thawrat 25 Yanāyirث Freedom Revolution ( ح Thawrat Horeya)[48] orث Rage Revolutio

( ا

ث

Thawrat al-Ġaḍ ab), and (less frequently) [49] the Youth Revolution ( ا

ث

Thawrat al-Shabāb), Lotus

Revolution[50] ( ا

ث

) or White Revolution ( ا

ا

al-Thawrah al-bay ḍ āʾ).[51]

Background[edit]

Hosni Mubarak became President of Egypt after the assassination of Anwar El Sadat in 1981. Mubarak's National

Democratic Party (NDS) maintained one-party rule under a continual state of emergency.[52] His government

received support from the West and aid from the United States by its suppression of Islamic militants and peace

with Israel.[52]

Mubarak was often compared to an Egyptian pharaoh by the media and some critics, due to hisauthoritarian rule.[53] He was in the 30th year of his reign when the Revolution of 2011 began.[54]

Inheritance of power[edit]

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Main article: Gamal Mubarak

Gamal Mubarak, Mubarak's younger son, was expected to succeed his father as the next president of Egypt in

2000.[55] Gamal began receiving attention from the Egyptian media, since there were apparently no other heirs to

the presidency.[56] Bashar al-Assad's rise to power in Syria in June 2000, hours after Hafez al-Assad's death,

sparked debate in the Egyptian press about the prospects for a similar scenario in Cairo.[57]

During the years after Mubarak's 2005 re-election, several left- and right-wing (primarily unofficial) political groups

expressed opposition to the inheritance of power, demanded reforms and asked for a multi-candidate election. In2006, with opposition increasing, Daily News Egypt reported an online campaign initiative (the National Initiative

against Power Inheritance) demanding that Gamal reduce his power. The campaign said, "President Mubarak and

his son constantly denied even the possibility of [succession]. However, in reality they did the opposite, including

amending the constitution to make sure that Gamal will be the only unchallenged candidate."[58]

During the decade, public perception grew that Gamal would succeed his father. He wielded increasing power as

NDP deputy secretary general and chair of the party's policy committee. Analysts described Mubarak's last decad

in power as "the age of Gamal Mubarak". With his father ’s health declining and no appointed vice-president,

Gamal was considered Egypt's de facto president by some.[59] Although Gamal and Hosni Mubarak denied an

inheritance of power, Gamal could be elected; with Hosni Mubarak's presidential term set to expire in 2010,speculation existed that Gamal would run as the NDP candidate in 2011.[60] However, after the January–February

2011 protest Gamal Mubarak said that he would not run for president in the 2011 elections.[61]

Emergency law[edit]

Main article: Emergency law in Egypt

Emergency law (Law No. 162 of 1958) was enacted in the country after the 1967 Six-Day War . Although it was

suspended for 18 months during the early 1980s,[62] it has otherwise continuously been in effect since Anwar

Sadat's 1981 assassination.[63]

Emergency law extended police powers, suspended constitutional rights,legalised censorship[64] and abolished habeas corpus. It limits non-governmental political activity, including

demonstrations, unapproved political organizations and unregistered financial donations.[62] The Mubarak

government has cited the threat of terrorism in extending emergency law,[63] claiming that opposition groups such

as the Muslim Brotherhood could gain power in Egypt if the government did not forgo parliamentary elections and

suppress the group through emergency law.[65] This has led to the imprisonment of activists without trial, [66] illegal

undocumented and hidden detention facilities[67] and the rejection of university, mosque and newspaper staff

based on their political affiliation.[68] A December 2010 parliamentary election was preceded by a media

crackdown, arrests, candidate bans (particularly Muslim Brotherhood candidates) and allegations of fraud due to

the near-unanimous victory by the NDP in parliament.

[62]

Human-rights organizations estimate that in 2010,between 5,000 and 10,000 people were in long-term detention without charge or trial.[69][70]

Police brutality[edit]

Further information: Law enforcement in Egypt

According to a U.S. Embassy report, police brutality has been widespread in Egypt. [71] In the five years before the

revolution, the Mubarak regime denied the existence of torture or abuse by police. However, claims by domestic

and international groups provided cellphone videos or first-hand accounts of hundreds of cases of police

brutality.[72] According to the 2009 Human Rights Report from the U.S. State Department, "Domestic and

international human rights groups reported that the Ministry of Interior (MOI) State Security Investigative Service

(SSIS), police, and other government entities continued to employ torture to extract information or force

confessions. The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights documented 30 cases of torture during the year 2009.

In numerous trials defendants alleged that police tortured them during questioning. During the year activists and

observers circulated some amateur cellphone videos documenting the alleged abuse of citizens by security

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Egyptian population pyramid in 2005; many

people age 30 and younger, despite education,

have difficulty finding work.

officials. For example, on 8 February, a blogger posted a video of two police officers, identified by their first names

and last initials, sodomizing a bound naked man named Ahmed Abdel Fattah Ali with a bottle. On 12 August, the

same blogger posted two videos of alleged police torture of a man in a Port Said police station by the head of

investigations, Mohammed Abu Ghazala. There was no indication that the government investigated either

case."[73]

The deployment of Baltageya[74] ( Arabic: )—plainclothes police—by the NDP has been a hallmark of theب

Mubarak government.[74] The Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights has documented 567 cases of torture,

including 167 deaths, by police from 1993 to 2007.[75] Excessive force was often used by law-enforcement

agencies against popular uprisings.[76] On 6 June 2010 Khaled Mohamed Saeed died under disputed

circumstances in the Sidi Gaber area of Alexandria, with witnesses testifying that he was beaten to death by police

- an event which galvanized Egyptians around the issue of police brutality.[77][78][79] A Facebook page, "We are all

Khaled Said", helped attract nationwide attention to the case.[80] Mohamed ElBaradei, former head of the

International Atomic Energy Agency , led a 2010 rally in Alexandria against police abuse, and visited Saeed's famil

to offer condolences.[81]

During the January–February 2011 protests, police brutality was common. Jack Shenker, a reporter for The

Guardian, was arrested during the Cairo protests on 26 January. He witnessed fellow Egyptian protesters beingtortured, assaulted, and taken to undisclosed locations by police officers. Shenker and other detainees were

released after covert intervention by Ayman Nour , the father of a fellow detainee. [82][83][84]

Election corruption[edit]

Corruption, coercion not to vote and manipulation of election results occurred during many elections over

Mubarak's 30-year rule.[85] Until 2005, Mubarak was the only presidential candidate (with a yes-or-no vote). [86]

Mubarak won five consecutive presidential elections with a sweeping majority. Although opposition groups and

international election-monitoring agencies charged that the elections were rigged, those agencies were not

allowed to monitor elections. The only opposition presidential candidate in recent Egyptian history, Ayman Nour,

was imprisoned before the 2005 elections.[87] According to a 2007 UN survey, voter turnout was extremely low

(about 25 percent) because of a lack of trust in the political system.[86]

Demographic and economic challenges[edit]

Unemployment and reliance on subsidized goods[edit]

The population of Egypt grew from 30,083,419 in 1966 [88] to roughly

79,000,000 by 2008.[89] The vast majority of Egyptians live near the

banks of the Nile, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers(15,000 sq mi) where the only arable land is found. In late 2010, about

40 percent of Egypt's population lived on the equivalent of roughly

USD$2 per day, with a large portion relying on subsidized goods.[1]

According to the Peterson Institute for International Economics and

other proponents of demographic structural approach (cliodynamics), a

basic problem in Egypt is unemployment driven by a demographic

youth bulge; with the number of new people entering the workforce at

about four percent a year, unemployment in Egypt is almost 10 times as high for college graduates as for those

who finished elementary school (particularly educated urban youth—the people who were in the streets during therevolution).[90][91]

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A poor neighbourhood in Cairo

Economy and poor living conditions[edit]

Further information: Economy of Egypt

Egypt's economy was highly centralised during the presidency of

Gamal Abdel Nasser , becoming more market-driven under Anwar

Sadat and Mubarak. From 2004 to 2008 the Mubarak government

pursued economic reform to attract foreign investment and increase

GDP, later postponing further reforms because of the Great Recession.The international economic downturn slowed Egypt's GDP growth to

4.5 percent in 2009. In 2010, analysts said that the government of

Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif would need to resume economic reform to

attract foreign investment, increase growth and improve economic conditions. Despite recent high national

economic growth, living conditions for the average Egyptian remained relatively poor [92] (albeit better than other

African nations[90] with no significant social upheavals).

Corruption[edit]

Further information: Crime in Egypt

Political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Interior Ministry rose dramatically, due to increased control of

the system necessary to sustain his presidency.[93] The rise to power of powerful businessmen in the NDP, the

government and the House of Representatives led to public anger during the Ahmed Nazif government. Ahmed

Ezz monopolised the steel industry, with more than 60 percent of market share. [94] Aladdin Elaasar, an Egyptian

biographer and American professor, estimated that the Mubarak family was worth from $50 to $70 billion.[95][96]

The wealth of former NDP secretary Ezz was estimated at 18 billion Egyptian pounds;[97] the wealth of former

housing minister Ahmed al-Maghraby was estimated at more than 11 billion Egyptian pounds;[97] that of former

tourism minister Zuhair Garrana is estimated at 13 billion Egyptian pounds; [97] former minister of trade and

industry Rashid Mohamed Rashid is estimated to be worth 12 billion Egyptian pounds,[97] and former interior

minister Habib al-Adly was estimated to be worth eight billion Egyptian pounds.[97] The perception among

Egyptians was that the only people benefiting from the nation's wealth were businessmen with ties to the National

Democratic Party: "Wealth fuels political power and political power buys wealth."[98]

During the 2010 elections, opposition groups complained about government harassment and fraud. Opposition

and citizen activists called for changes to a number of legal and constitutional provisions affecting elections.[citation

needed ] In 2010, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) gave Egypt a score of 3.1 based

on perceptions by business people and analysts of the degree of corruption (with 10 being clean, and 0 totally

corrupt).[99]

Prelude[edit]

To prepare for the possible overthrow of Mubarak, opposition groups studied Gene Sharp's work on nonviolent

action and worked with leaders of Otpor!, the student-led Serbian organisation. Copies of Sharp's list of 198 non-

violent "weapons", translated into Arabic and not always attributed to him, were circulated in Tahrir Square during

its occupation.[100][101]

Tunisian revolution[edit]

Main article: Tunisian revolution

Following the ouster of Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali after mass protests, many analysts (including

former European Commission President Romano Prodi) saw Egypt as the next country where such a revolution

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Protester holds Egyptian flag during protests

which began on 25 January 2011.

might occur.[102] According to The Washington Post , "The Jasmine Revolution [...] should serve as a stark warning

to Arab leaders – beginning with Egypt's 83-year-old Hosni Mubarak – that their refusal to allow more economic

and political opportunity is dangerous and untenable."[103] Others believed that Egypt was not ready for revolution,

citing little aspiration by the Egyptian people, low educational levels and a strong government with military

support.[104] The BBC said, "The simple fact is that most Egyptians do not see any way that they can change their

country or their lives through political action, be it voting, activism, or going out on the streets to demonstrate."[105]

Self-immolation[edit]

After the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Tunisia on 17

December, a man set himself afire on 18 January in front of the

Egyptian parliament[106] and five more attempts followed.[104]

National Police Day protests[edit]

Opposition groups planned a day of revolt for 25 January, coinciding

with National Police Day, to protest police brutality in front of the

Ministry of Interior .[107] Protesters also demanded the resignation of the

Minister of Interior, an end to State corruption, the end of emergency

law and presidential term limits for the president.

Many political movements, opposition parties and public figures

supported the day of revolt, including Youth for Justice and Freedom,

the Coalition of the Youth of the Revolution, the Popular Democratic

Movement for Change, the Revolutionary Socialists and the National

Association for Change. The April 6 Youth Movement was a major

supporter of the protest, distributing 20,000 leaflets saying "I will protest

on 25 January for my rights". The Ghad El-Thawra Party, Karama,

Wafd and Democratic Front supported the protests. The MuslimBrotherhood, Egypt's largest opposition group,[108] confirmed on 23 January that it would participate. [109] Public

figures, including novelist Alaa Al Aswany, writer Belal Fadl and actors Amr Waked and Khaled Aboul Naga,

announced that they would participate. The leftist National Progressive Unionist Party (the Tagammu) said that it

would not participate, and the Coptic Church urged Christians not to participate in the protests.[108]

Twenty-six-year-old Asmaa Mahfouz was instrumental[110] in sparking the protests.[111][112] In a video blog posted

a week before National Police Day,[113] she urged the Egyptian people to join her on 25 January in Tahrir Square

to bring down the Mubarak regime.[114] Mahfouz's use of video blogging and social media went viral[115] and

urged people not to be afraid.[116] The Facebook group for the event attracted 80,000 people.

Pre-revolution timeline[edit]

Main article: Timeline of the 2011–present Egyptian civil unrest

Farouk to Mubarak[edit]

Most causes of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against Mubarak also existed in 1952, when the Free Officers

ousted King Farouk:[117] inherited power, corruption, under-development, unemployment, unfair distribution of

wealth and the presence of Israel. A new cause of the Arab Spring is the increase in population, which increased

unemployment. The first sign along the road to Mubarak was the 1967 war between Egypt and Israel. Gamal Abdel Nasser 's defeat brought Anwar Sadat to power after Nasser's death in 1970. Sadat undid Nasser's social

reforms and dependence on the Soviet Union, predicting its collapse nearly two decades before it occurred.

Sadat neglected the modernization of Egypt, and his cronyism cost the country infrastructure industries which

could generate new jobs. He was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak after Sadat's 1981 death. With no academic or

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The "Day of Revolt", 25 January

Celebrating the announcement of Hosni

Mubarak's resignation in Tahrir Square, 11

February

governmental experience, Mubarak implemented emergency rule throughout his 30 years in office, not appointing

a vice president until he was pressured to resign. Communications media such as the internet, cell phones and

satellite TV channels augmented mosques and Friday prayers, traditional means of mass communications. The

mosques brought the Muslim Brotherhood to power, and the Brotherhood has pressured all governments from

1928 through 2011 (as it also does in neighboring countries).[118]

Under Mubarak[edit]

Main article: Timeline of the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 Al Jazeera footage of Egyptian protests

25 January 2011 ("Day of Revolt") : Protests erupted throughout Egypt,

with tens of thousands gathering in Cairo and thousands more in other

Egyptian cities. The protests targeted the Mubarak government; while

mostly non-violent, there were some reports of civilian and police

casualties.

26 January 2011: Civil unrest in Suez and other areas throughout the

country. Police arrested many activists.

28 January 2011: The "Friday of Anger" protests began, with hundredsof thousands demonstrating in Cairo and other Egyptian cities after

Friday prayers. Opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei arrived in Cairo

amid reports of looting. Prisons were opened and burned down,

allegedly on orders from Interior Minister Habib El Adly. Prison inmates

escaped en masse, in what was believed to be an attempt to terrorise

protesters. Police were withdrawn from the streets, and the military

was deployed. International fears of violence grew, but no major

casualties were reported. Mubarak made his first address to the nation,

pledging to form a new government. Later that night clashes broke outin Tahrir Square between revolutionaries and pro-Mubarak

demonstrators, leading to casualties.

29 January 2011: The military presence in Cairo increased. A curfew

was imposed, which was widely ignored as the flow of protesters into

Tahrir Square continued through the night. The military reportedly

refused to follow orders to fire live ammunition, exercising overall restraint; there were no reports of major

casualties. On 31 January, Israeli media reported that the 9th, 2nd, and 7th Divisions of the Egyptian Army had

been ordered into Cairo to help restore order.[119]

1 February 2011: Mubarak made another televised address, offering several concessions. He pledged politicalreforms and said he would not run in the elections planned for September, but would remain in office to oversee a

peaceful transition. Small-but-violent clashes began that night between pro- and anti-Mubarak groups.

2 February 2011 (Camel Incident): Violence escalated as waves of Mubarak supporters met anti-government

protesters; some Mubarak supporters rode camels and horses into Tahrir Square, reportedly wielding sticks.

Mubarak repeated his refusal to resign in interviews with several news agencies. Violence toward journalists and

reporters escalated, amid speculation that it was encouraged by Mubarak to bring the protests to an end.

6 February 2011: An interfaith service was held with Egyptian Christians and Muslims in Tahrir Square.Negotiations by Egyptian Vice President Omar Suleiman and opposition representatives began during continuing

protests throughout the country. The Egyptian army assumed greater security responsibilities, maintaining order

and guarding The Egyptian Museum of Antiquity . Suleiman offered reforms, while others in Mubarak's regime

accused foreign nations (including the U.S.) of interfering in Egypt's affairs.

10 February 2011: Mubarak addressed the Egyptian people amid speculation of a military coup. Instead of

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resigning (which was widely expected), he said he would delegate some powers to Vice President Suleiman while

remaining Egypt's head of state. Mubarak's statement was met with anger, frustration and disappointment, and in

a number of cities there was an escalation in the number and intensity of demonstrations.

11 February 2011 ("Friday of Departure") : Large protests continued in many cities, as Egyptians refused to acceptMubarak's concessions. At 6:00 pm Suleiman announced Mubarak's resignation, entrusting the Supreme Council

of Egyptian Armed Forces with the leadership of the country. Nationwide celebrations immediately followed.

Post-revolution timeline[edit]

Main article: Aftermath of the 2011 Egyptian revolution

Under the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces[edit]

See also: Timeline of the 2011 Egyptian revolution under Supreme Council of the Armed Forces

13 February 2011: The Supreme Council dissolved Egypt’s parliament and suspended the constitution in

response to demands by demonstrators. The council declared that it would wield power for six months, or until

elections could be held. Calls were made for the council to provide details and more-specific timetables and

deadlines. Major protests subsided, but did not end. In a gesture to a new beginning, protesters cleaned up andrenovated Tahrir Square (the epicenter of the demonstrations); however, many pledged to continue protesting until

all demands had been met.

17 February : The army said that it would not field a candidate in the upcoming presidential elections. [120] Four

important figures in the former regime were arrested that day: former interior minister Habib el-Adly, former

minister of housing Ahmed Maghrabi, former tourism minister H.E. Zuheir Garana and steel tycoon Ahmed

Ezz.[121]

2 March: The constitutional referendum was tentatively scheduled for 19 March 2011. [122]

3 March: A day before large protests against him were planned, Ahmed Shafik stepped down as prime minister

and was replaced by Essam Sharaf .[123]

5 March: Several State Security Intelligence (SSI) buildings across Egypt were raided by protesters, including the

headquarters for the Alexandria Governorate and the national headquarters in Nasr City, Cairo. Protesters said

that they raided the buildings to secure documents they believed to proved crimes by the SSI against the people o

Egypt during Mubarak's rule.[124][125]

6 March: From the Nasr City headquarters, protesters acquired evidence of mass surveillance and vote-rigging,

noting rooms full of videotapes, piles of shredded and burned documents and cells in which activists recounted

their experiences of detention and torture.[126]

19 March: The constitutional referendum passed with 77.27 percent of the vote. [127]

22 March: Portions of the Interior Ministry building caught fire during police demonstrations outside. [128]

23 March: The Egyptian Cabinet ordered a law criminalising protests and strikes which hamper work at private or public establishments. Under the new law, anyone organising such protests will be subject to imprisonment or a

fine of EGP500,000 (about USD$100,000).[129]

1 April ("Save the Revolution Day") : About 4,000 demonstrators filled Tahrir Square for the largest protest in

weeks, demanding that the ruling military council more quickly dismantle lingering aspects of the old regime;[130]

protestors also demanded trials for Hosni Mubarak, Gamal Mubarak, Ahmad Fathi Sorour , Safwat El-Sherif and

Zakaria Azmi.

8 April ("Cleansing Friday") : Tens of thousands of demonstrators again filled Tahrir Square, criticizing the Supreme

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Council of the Armed Forces for not following through on their demands: the resignation of remaining regime

figures and the removal of Egypt’s public prosecutor, due to the slow pace of investigations of corrupt former

officials.[131]

7 May : The Imbaba church attacks, in which Salafi Muslims attacked Coptic Christian churches in the working-

class neighborhood of Imbaba in Cairo.[132]

27 May ("Second Friday of Anger", "Second Revolution of Anger" or "The Second Revolution") : Tens of thousands

of demonstrators filled Tahrir Square,[133] in addition to demonstrations in Alexandria, Suez, Ismailia andGharbeya, in the largest demonstrations since the ouster of the Mubarak regime. Protestors demanded no military

trials for civilians, restoration of the Egyptian Constitution before parliament elections and for all members of the

old regime (and those who killed protestors in January and February) to stand trial.

1 July ("Friday of Retribution") : Thousands of protesters gathered in Suez, Alexandria and Tahrir Square to voice

frustration with the ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces for what they called the slow pace of change, five

months after the revolution, some also feared that the military is to rule Egypt indefinitely.[134]

8 July ("Friday of Determination") : Hundreds of thousands of protesters gathered in Suez, Alexandria and Tahrir

Square, demanding immediate reform and swifter prosecution of former officials from the ousted government.[135]

15 July : Tahrir Square protests continued.

23 July : Thousands of protesters attempted to march to the defense ministry after a speech by Mohammed

Tantawi commemorating the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, but are met with counter-insurgents with sticks, stones

and Molotov cocktails.

1 August : Egyptian soldiers clashed with protesters, tearing down tents. Sixty-six people were arrested, and most

Egyptians supported the military's action.[citation needed ]

6 August : Hundreds of protesters gathered and prayed in Tahrir Square before they were attacked by soldiers. [136

9 September ( 2011 Israeli embassy attack ; the "Friday of Correcting the Path"): Tens of thousands of people

protested in Suez, Alexandria and Cairo; however, Islamist protesters were absent.

9 October ( Maspero demonstrations ):[137][138] Late in the evening of 9 October, during a protest in the Maspiro

television building,[139] peaceful Egyptian protesters calling for the dissolution the Supreme Council of the Armed

Forces, the resignation of Chairman Field Marshal Mohamed Tantawi and the dismissal of the governor of Aswan

province were attacked by military police. At least 25 people[140] were killed, and more than 200 wounded.

19 November : Clashes erupted as demonstrators reoccupied Tahrir Square. Central Security Forces used tear ga

to control the situation.[141]

20 November : Police attempted to forcibly clear the square, but protesters returned in more than double their

original numbers. Fighting continued through the night, with police using tear gas, beating and shooting

demonstrators.[141]

21 November : Demonstrators returned to the square, with Coptic Christians standing guard as Muslims protesting

the regime pause for prayers. The Health Ministry said that at least 23 died and over 1,500 were injured since 19

November.[141] Solidarity protests were held in Alexandria and Suez.[142] Dissident journalist Hossam el-

Hamalawy told Al Jazeera that Egyptians would begin a general strike because they "had enough" of the

SCAF.[143]

28 November 2011 – 11 January 2012 : Parliamentary elections

17 December 2011: The Institute d'Egypte caught fire during clashes between protesters and Egyptian military;

thousands of rare documents burned.[144]

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23 January 2012 : Democratically-elected representatives of the People’s Assembly met for the first time since

Egypt’s revolution, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces gave them legislative authority.[145][146][147]

24 January : Field Marshal Hussein Tantawi said that the decades-old state of emergency would be partially lifted

the following day.[148][149][150][151]

12 April : An administrative court suspended the 100-member constitutional assembly tasked with drafting a new

Egyptian constitution.[152][153][154]

23–24 May : First round of voting in the first presidential election since Hosni Mubarak was deposed.

31 May : The decades-long state of emergency expired. [155][156]

2 June: Mubarak and his former interior minister Habib al-Adli were sentenced to life in prison because of their failure to stop the killing during the first six days of the revolution. The former president, his two sons and a

business tycoon were acquitted of corruption charges because the statute of limitations had expired. Six senior

police officials were also acquitted for their role in the killing of demonstrators, due to lack of

evidence.[157][158][159][160]

8 June: Political factions tentatively agreed to a deal to form a new constitutional assembly, consisting of 100

members who will draft the new constitution.[161]

12 June: When the Egyptian parliament met to vote for members of a constitutional assembly dozens of secular

MPs walked out, accusing Islamist parties of trying to dominate the panel.[162]

13 June: After Egypt's military government imposed de facto martial law (extending the arrest powers of security

forces), the Justice Ministry issued a decree giving military officers authority to arrest civilians and try them in

military courts.[163][164][165][166] The provision remains in effect until a new constitution is introduced, and could

mean those detained could remain in jail for that long according to state-run Egy News.[167]

14 June: The Egyptian Supreme Constitutional Court ruled that a law passed by Parliament in May, banning

former regime figures from running for office, was unconstitutional; this ended a threat to Ahmed Shafik's

candidacy for president during Egypt's 2012 presidential election. The court ruled that all articles making up the

law regulating the 2011 parliamentary elections were invalid, upholding a lower-court ruling which found that

candidates running on party slates were allowed to contest the one-third of parliamentary seats reserved for

independents. The Egyptian parliament was dissolved, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces resumed

legislative authority. The SCAF said that it would announce a 100-person assembly to write the country's new

constitution.[167][168][169][170][171]

15 June: Security forces were stationed around Parliament to bar anyone, including lawmakers, from entering thechambers without official authorisation.[172][173]

16–17 June: Second round of voting in the Egyptian presidential election. The SCAF issued an interim

constitution,[174][175][176][177][178][179][180][181] giving itself the power to control the prime minister, legislation, the

national budget and declarations of war without oversight, and chose a 100-member panel to draft a permanent

constitution.[173][182] Presidential powers include the power to choose his vice president and cabinet, to propose

the state budget and laws and to issue pardons.[177] The interim constitution removed the military and the defense

minister from presidential authority and oversight.[165][177] According to the interim constitution, a permanent

constitution must be written within three months and be subject to a referendum 15 days later. When a permanent

constitution is approved, a parliamentary election will be held within a month to replace the dissolved

parliament.[175][176][177][178]

18 June: The SCAF said that it picked a 100-member panel to draft a permanent constitution [173] if a court strikesdown the parliament-picked assembly, planning a celebration at the end of June to mark the transfer of power to

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the new president.[165][183] Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi declared himself the winner of the

presidential election.[175][176]

19–24 June: Crowds gathered in Tahrir Square to protest the SCAF's dissolution of an elected, Islamist parliament

and await the outcome of the presidential election.[184][185][186][187][188][189][190]

24 June: Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi, the first Islamist elected head of an Arab state, is

declared the winner of the presidential election by the Egyptian electoral commission.[191][192][193][194][195][196]

26 June: The Supreme Administrative Court revoked Decree No. 4991/2012 from the Minister of Justice, which

granted military intelligence and police the power to arrest civilians (a right previously reserved for civilian police

officers).[182][197][198][199]

27–28 June: After the first Constituent Assembly of Egypt was declared unconstitutional and dissolved in April by

Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, the second constituent assembly met to establish a framework for drafting

a post-Mubarak constitution.[200][201]

29 June: Mohamed Morsi took a symbolic oath of office in Tahrir Square, affirming that the people are the source

of power.[202][203][204]

30 June: Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's first democratically-elected president before the Supreme ConstitutionalCourt at the podium used by U.S. President Barack Obama to reach out to the Islamic world in 2009 in his A New

Beginning speech.[205][206][207][208][209]

Under President Mohamed Morsi[edit]

For a chronological summary of the major events which took place after the 2011–2012 Egyptian revolution under

President Mohamed Morsi, see Timeline of the 2011–2012 Egyptian revolution (Post-revolution timeline).

November 2012 declaration[edit]

Main article: 2012–13 Egyptian protests

On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and attempting to

protect the work of the constituent assembly drafting the new constitution.[210] The declaration required a retrial of

those acquitted of killing protesters, and extended the constituent assembly's mandate by two months. The

declaration also authorized Morsi to take any measures necessary to protect the revolution. Liberal and secular

groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamism, while

the Muslim Brotherhood supported Morsi.[211][212]

Morsi's declaration was criticized by Constitution Party leader Mohamed ElBaradei (who said that he had "usurpe

all state powers and appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh"),[213][214] and led to violent protests throughout the

country.[215] Protesters again erected tents in Tahrir Square, demanding a reversal of the declaration and the

dissolving of the constituent assembly. A "huge protest" was planned for Tuesday, 27 November,[216] with clashes

reported between protesters and police.[217] The declaration was also condemned by Amnesty International

UK.[218]

In April 2013 a youth group was created opposing Morsi and attempting to collect 22 million signatures by 30 June

2013 (the first anniversary of his presidency) on a petition demanding early presidential elections. This triggered

the June 2013 protests. Although protests were scheduled for 30 June, opponents began gathering on the

28th.[219] Morsi supporters (primarily from Islamic parties) also protested that day. [220] On 30 June the group

organized large protests in Tahrir Square and the presidential palace demanding early presidential elections,

which later spread to other governorates.[221]

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Protesters in Alexandria

Protesters remove posters of ex-president

Mubarak in Sohag (upper Egypt)

30 June 2013 second revolution[edit]

Main articles: June 2013 Egyptian protests and 2013 Egyptian coup d'état

On 30 June 2013, Morsi was removed from office when millions of Egyptians marched in the streets demanding

his ouster. Unlike the imposition of martial law which followed the 2011 resignation of Hosni Mubarak, a civilian

(senior jurist Adly Mansour ) was appointed interim president. Mansour had the right to issue constitutional

declarations and vested executive power in the Supreme Constitutional Court, giving him executive, judicial and

constitutional power.[222] Despite Mansour's installation as president, the military continued violently crackingdown on pro-Morsi demonstrations. Morsi refused to accept his removal from office, and many supporters vowed

to reinstate him.[223]

On 4 July 2013, 68-year old Egyptian judge Adly Mansour was sworn in as acting president over the new

government following the Morsi's removal.

On 18 January 2014, the interim government institutionalised a new constitution following a referendum in which

98.1% of voters were supportive. Participation was low with only 38.6% of registered voters participating[224]

although this was higher than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.[225] On 26 March 2014

Abdel Fattah el-Sisi the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, who at this time was in control of the country,resigned from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election.[226] The

poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a resounding victory for el-Sisi.[227] Sisi sworn into office as

President of Egypt on 8 June 2014.

Protests by city[edit]

Cairo[edit]

Cairo has been at the epicentre of the revolution; the largest protests

were held in downtown Tahrir Square, considered the "protestmovement’s beating heart and most effective symbol."[228] During the

first three days of the protests there were clashes between the central

security police and demonstrators, but on 28 January the police

withdrew from all of Cairo. Citizens formed neighbourhood-watch

groups to maintain order, and widespread looting was reported. Traffic

police were reintroduced to Cairo the morning of 31 January.[229] An

estimated two million people protested at Tahrir Square.[citation needed ]

During the protests, reporters Natasha Smith, Lara Logan and Mona

Eltahawy were sexually assaulted while covering the

events.[230][231][232][233]

Alexandria[edit]

Alexandria, home of Khaled Saeed, experienced major protests and

clashes with police. There were few confrontations between

demonstrators, since there were few Mubarak supporters (except for a

few police-escorted convoys). The breakdown of law and order, including the general absence of police from the

streets, continued until the evening of 3 February. Alexandria's protests were notable for the joint presence of

Christians and Muslims in the events following the church bombing on 1 January, which sparked protests against

the Mubarak regime.

Mansoura[edit]

In the northern city of Mansoura, there were daily protests against the Mubarak regime beginning on 25 January;

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Tahrir Square memorial made by demonstrators

in honour of those who died during the protests,

regarded as shuhada' Arabic: (martyrs). Theشphoto captions attribute most of the deaths to

police violence.

Graffiti at Tahrir square, commemorating martyrs

of the revolution

two days later, the city was called a "war zone".[citation needed ] On 28 January, 13 were reported dead in violent

clashes; on 9 February, 18 more protesters died. One protest, on 1 February, had an estimated attendance of one

million. The remote city of Siwa had been relatively calm,[234] but local sheikhs reportedly in control put the

community under lockdown after a nearby town was burned.[235]

Suez[edit]

Suez also saw violent protests. Eyewitness reports suggested that the death toll was high, although confirmation

was difficult due to a ban on media coverage in the area.[236] Some online activists called Suez Egypt's Sidi

Bouzid (the Tunisian city where protests began).[237] On 3 February, 4,000 protesters took to the streets to

demand Mubarak's resignation.[238] A labour strike took place on 8 February, [239] and large protests were held on

11 February.[240]

Other cities[edit]

There were protests in Luxor .[241] On 11 February police opened fire on protesters in Dairut, tens of thousands of

protesters took to the streets of Shebin el-Kom, thousands protested in El-Arish on the Sinai Peninsula,[240] large

protests took place in the southern cities of Sohag and Minya and nearly 100,000 people protested in and aroundlocal-government headquarters in Ismaïlia.[240] Over 100,000 protesters gathered on 27 January in front of the city

council in Zagazig.[242] Bedouins in the Sinai Peninsula fought security forces for several weeks. [243] As a result of

the decreased military border presence, Bedouin groups protected the borders and pledged their support of the

revolution.[244] However, despite mounting tension among tourists no protests or civil unrest occurred in Sharm-

El-Sheikh.[245]

Deaths[edit]

Before the protests six cases of self-immolation were reported,

including a man arrested while trying to set himself afire in downtown

Cairo.[246] The cases were inspired by (and began one month after)

the acts of self-immolation in Tunisia which triggered the Tunisian

revolution. The self-immolators included Abdou Abdel-Moneim

Jaafar,[247] Mohammed Farouk Hassan,[248] Mohammed Ashour

Sorour [249] and Ahmed Hashim al-Sayyed, who later died from his

injuries.[250]

As of 30 January, Al Jazeera reported as many as 150 deaths in the

protests.[251] The Sun reported that the dead included at least ten

policemen, three of whom were killed in Rafah by "an enraged

mob".[252]

By 29 January, 2,000 people were confirmed injured. [253] That day, an

employee of the Azerbaijani embassy in Cairo was killed on their way

home from work;[254] the following day, Azerbaijan sent a plane to

evacuate citizens[255] and opened a criminal investigation into the

killing.[256]

Funerals for those killed during the "Friday of Anger" were held on 30

January. Hundreds of mourners gathered, calling for Mubarak's

removal.[257] By 1 February the protests left at least 125 people

dead,[258] although Human Rights Watch said that UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay claimed

that as many as 300 might have died in the unrest. The unconfirmed tally included 80 Human-Rights-Watch-

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verified deaths at two Cairo hospitals, 36 in Alexandria and 13 in Suez;[259][260][261] over 3,000 people were

reported injured.[259][261]

An Egyptian governmental fact-finding commission about the revolution announced on 19 April that at least 846

Egyptians died in the nearly three-week-long uprising.[262][263][264] One prominent Egyptian who was killed was

Emad Effat, a senior cleric at the Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah school of Al-Azhar University. He died 16 December 201

after he was shot in front of the cabinet building.[265] At Effat's funeral the following day, hundreds of mourners

chanted "Down with military rule."

[265][266]

International reaction[edit]

Main article: International reactions to the 2011 Egyptian revolution

International response to the protests was initially mixed, [267] although most governments called for peaceful

action on both sides and a move towards reform. Most Western nations expressed concern about the situation,

and many governments issued travel advisories and attempted to evacuate their citizens from Egypt.[268]

The European Union Foreign Affairs Chief said, "I also reiterate my call upon the Egyptian authorities to urgently

establish a constructive and peaceful way to respond to the legitimate aspirations of Egyptian citizens for democratic and socioeconomic reforms."[269] The United States, the United Kingdom, France and Germany issue

similar statements calling for reform and an end to violence against peaceful protesters. Many states in the region

expressed concern and supported Mubarak; Saudi Arabia issued a statement "strongly condemn[ing]" the

protests,[270] while Tunisia and Iran supported them. Israel was cautious, with Prime Minister Benjamin

Netanyahu asking his government ministers to maintain silence and urging Israel's allies to curb their criticism of

President Mubarak;[271][272] however, an Arab-Israeli parliamentarian supported the protests. Solidarity

demonstrations for the protesters were held worldwide.

Non-governmental organizations expressed concern about the protests and the heavy-handed state response,

with Amnesty International describing attempts to discourage the protests as "unacceptable".[273] Many countries(including the U.S., Israel, the UK and Japan) issued travel warnings or began evacuating their citizens, and

multinational corporations began evacuating expatriate employees.[274] Many university students were also

evacuated.

Post-ouster[edit]

Many nations, leaders and organizations hailed the end of the Mubarak regime, and celebrations were held in

Tunisia and Lebanon. World leaders, including German Chancellor Angela Merkel and UK Prime Minister David

Cameron, joined in praising the revolution.[275] U.S. President Barack Obama praised the achievement of the

Egyptian people and encouraged other activists, saying "Let's look at Egypt's example".[276] Amid growingconcern for the country, David Cameron was the first world leader to visit Egypt (10 days after Mubarak's

resignation). A news blackout was lifted as the prime minister landed in Cairo for a brief five-hour stopover, hastily

added to the beginning of a planned tour of the Middle East.[277] On 15 March, United States Secretary of State

Hillary Clinton visited Egypt; she was the highest-ranking U.S. official to visit the country since the handover of

power from Mubarak to the military. Clinton urged military leaders to begin the process of a democratic transition,

offering support to protesters and reaffirming ties between the two nations.[278]

Results[edit]

Main article: Domestic responses to the Egyptian Revolution of 2011

On 29 January Mubarak indicated that he would change the government because, despite the crossing of a "point

of no return", national stability and law and order must prevail. He asked the government, formed only months

ago, to step down and promised that a new government would be formed.[279] Mubarak appointed Omar

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Suleiman, head of Egyptian Intelligence, vice president and Ahmed Shafik prime minister.[280] On 1 February, he

said he would stay in office until the next election in September, and then leave. Mubarak promised political reform

but made no offer to resign.

The Muslim Brotherhood joined the revolution on 30 January, calling on the military to intervene and all opposition

groups to unite against Mubarak. It joined other opposition groups in electing Mohamed el Baradei to lead an

interim government.[281]

Many of the Al-Azhar imams joined protesters throughout the country on 30 January.[282] Christian leaders askedtheir congregations not to participate in the demonstarations, although a number of young Christian activists joined

protests led by New Wafd Party member Raymond Lakah.[283]

On 31 January, Mubarak swore in his new cabinet in the hope that the unrest would fade. Protesters in Tahrir

Square continued demanding his ouster, since a vice-president and prime minister were already appointed. [284]

He told the new government to preserve subsidies, control inflation and provide more jobs.[285]

On 1 February Mubarak said that although his candidacy had been announced by high-ranking members of his

National Democratic Party,[286] he never intended to run for reelection in September.[287] He asked parliament for

reforms:

According to my constitutional powers, I call on parliament in both its houses to discuss amending

article 76 and 77 of the constitution concerning the conditions on running for presidency of the

republic and it sets specific a period for the presidential term. In order for the current parliament inboth houses to be able to discuss these constitutional amendments and the legislative amendments

linked to it for laws that complement the constitution and to ensure the participation of all the

political forces in these discussions, I demand parliament to adhere to the word of the judiciary and its verdicts concerning the latest cases which have been legally challenged.

—Hosni Mubarak, 1 February 2011[288]

Opposition groups, including the Muslim Brotherhood (MB), repeated their demand that Mubarak resign; after the

protests turned violent, the MB said that it was time for military intervention.[289] Mohamed ElBaradei, who said he

was ready to lead a transitional government,[290] was a consensus candidate from a unified opposition, which

included the 6 April Youth Movement , the We Are All Khaled Said Movement, the National Association for Change

the 25 January Movement, Kefaya and the Muslim Brotherhood.[291] ElBaradei formed a "steering committee".[292

On 5 February, talks began between the government and opposition groups for a transitional period before

elections.

The government cracked down on the media, halting internet access [293] (a primary means of opposition

communication) with the help of London-based Vodafone.[294][295][296] Journalists were harassed by supporters of

the regime, eliciting condemnation from the Committee to Protect Journalists, European countries and the United

States. Narus, a subsidiary of Boeing, sold the Mubarak government surveillance equipment to help identify

dissidents.[297]

Reforms[edit]

See also: Egyptian constitutional review committee of 2011 and List of political parties in Egypt

The revolution's primary demands, chanted at every protest, were bread (jobs), freedom, social justice and human

dignity. The fulfillment of these demands has been uneven and debatable. Demands stemming from the main four

include the following:

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Sign with protester demands

Shredded documents at the State

Security Investigations Service

Protesters' demands[298]

Demand Status Date

1. Resignation of PresidentMubarak

Met 11 February 2011

2. New minimum andmaximum wages

Met The basic minimumwage rose from EGP246 to EGP 870

March 22, 2015[299]

3. Canceling emergency law Met[300] 31 May 2012

4. Dismantling the StateSecurity InvestigationsService

Met[301] 31 May 2012

5. Announcement by vice-president Omar Suleimanthat he would not run for president

Claimed met;[302]

reneged in April 2012

3 February 2011

6. Dissolving Parliament Met 13 February 2011

7. Release of thoseimprisoned since 25 January

Ongoing (more havebeen arrested andfaced military trialsunder the SCAF)

8. Ending the curfew Met[303] 15 June 2011

9. Removing the SSI-controlled university police

Claimed met 3 March 2011

10. Investigation of officialsresponsible for violenceagainst protesters

Ongoing

11. Firing Minister of Information Anas el-Fiqqiand halting mediapropaganda

Not met; minister fired, ministry stillexists andpropaganda

ongoing[304]

12. Reimbursing shop

owners for losses during thecurfew

Announced; not met 7 February 2011

13. Announcing demands ongovernment television andradio

Claimed met 11–18 February 2011

14. Dissolving the NDP Met 16 April 2011

15. Arrest, interrogation andtrial of Hosni Mubarak andhis sons, Gamal and Alaa

Met[305] 24 May 2011

16. Transfer of power fromSCAF to civilian council

Met[306] 30 June 2012

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Voter line in Mokattam, Cairo, during the 19 March 2011

constitutional referendum extending from the built-up area of

Mokattam into the desert. The referendum had an

unprecedented voter turnout (over 18 million).

17. Removal of MohamedMorsi in a military coup, after protests in Tahrir Square andthroughout Egypt

Met 3 July 2013

On 17 February, an Egyptian prosecutor ordered the detention

of three former ministers (interior minister Habib el-Adli,

tourism minister Zuhair Garana and housing minister Ahmed

el-Maghrabi) and steel magnate Ahmed Ezz pending trial for wasting public funds. The public prosecutor froze the bank

accounts of Adli and his family following accusations that over

4 million Egyptian pounds ($680,000) were transferred to his

personal account by a businessman. The foreign minister was

requested to contact European countries to freeze the other

defendants' accounts.[307]

That day, the United States announced that it would give

Egypt $150 million in aid to help it transition towards

democracy. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said thatWilliam Burns (undersecretary of state for political affairs) and David Lipton (a senior White House adviser on

international economics) would travel to Egypt the following week.[307]

On 19 February a moderate Islamic party which had been banned for 15 years, Al-Wasat Al-Jadid ( Arabic: ح

ا , New Center Party), was finally recognised by an Egyptian court. The party was founded in 1996 byا

activists who split from the Muslim Brotherhood and sought to create a tolerant, liberal Islamic movement, but its

four attempts to register as an official party were rejected. That day, Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq also said that

222 political prisoners would be released. Shafiq said that only a few were detained during the uprising; he put the

number of remaining political prisoners at 487, but did not say when they would be released.[308] On 20 February

Yehia El Gamal, an activist and law professor, accepted on television the position of deputy prime minister. The

next day, the Muslim Brotherhood announced that it would form a political party, the Freedom and Justice Party le

by Saad Ketatni, for the upcoming parliamentary election.[309][310][311] A spokesperson said, "When we talk about

the slogans of the revolution – freedom, social justice, equality – all of these are in the Sharia (Islamic law)."[312]

On 3 March, Prime Minister Shafiq submitted his resignation to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The

SCAF appointed Essam Sharaf , a former transportation minister and a vocal critic of the regime following his

resignation after the 2006 Qalyoub rail accident, to replace Shafik and form a new government. Sharaf's

appointment was seen as a concession to protesters, since he was actively involved in the events in Tahrir

Square.[313][314][315] Sharaf appointed former International Court of Justice judge Nabil Elaraby foreign minister

and Mansour El Essawi as interior minister.

[316][317]

On 16 April the Higher Administrative Court dissolved the former ruling National Democratic Party (NDP), ordering

its funds and property to be transferred to the government.[318] On 24 May it was announced that Hosni Mubarak

and his sons, Gamal and Alaa, would be for over the deaths of anti-government protesters during the

revolution.[319]

Trials[edit]

Main article: Trials and judicial hearings following the 2011 Egyptian revolution

Mubarak's resignation was followed by a series of arrests of, and travel bans on, high-profile figures on charges of causing the deaths of 300–500 demonstrators, injuring 5,000 more, embezzlement, profiteering, money

laundering and human rights abuses. Among those charged were Mubarak, his wife Suzanne, his sons Gamal an

Alaa, former interior minister Habib el-Adly, former housing minister Ahmed El-Maghrabi, former tourism minister

Zoheir Garana and former secretary for organizational affairs of the National Democratic Party Ahmed Ezz. [320]

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Mubarak's ouster was followed by allegations of corruption against other government officials and senior

politicians.[321][322] On 28 February 2011, Egypt's top prosecutor ordered an assets freeze on Mubarak and his

family.[323] This was followed by arrest warrants, travel bans and asset freezes for other public figures, including

former parliament speaker Fathi Sorour and former Shura Council speaker Safwat El Sherif .[324][325] Arrest

warrants were issued for financial misappropriations by public figures who left the country at the outbreak of the

revolution, including former trade and industry minister Rachid Mohamed Rachid and businessman Hussein

Salem; Salem was believed to have fled to Dubai. [326] Trials of the accused officials began on 5 March 2011, whe

former interior minister Habib el-Adli appeared at the Giza Criminal Court in Cairo.[327]

In March 2011 Abbud al-Zumar , one of Egypt's best-known political prisoners, was freed after 30 years. Founder

and first emir of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, he was implicated in the 6 October 1981 assassination of Anwar

Sadat.[328]

On 24 May, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors during

the revolution; if convicted, he could face the death penalty. The list of charges, released by the public prosecutor,

was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators ... misuse of influence and deliberately wasting

public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits."[12]

Analysis[edit]

Regional instability[edit]

Main article: Arab Spring

The Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions sparked a wave of uprisings, with demonstrations spreading across the

Middle East and North Africa. Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Yemen and Syria witnessed major

protests, and minor demonstrations occurred in Iraq, Kuwait, Mauritania, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia[citation

needed ] and Sudan.

The Egyptian protests in Egypt were not centred around religion-based politics, but nationalism and social

consciousness.[329] Before the uprising, the best-organised and most-prominent opposition movements in the

Arab world usually came from Islamist organisations with members who were motivated and ready to sacrifice.

However, secular forces emerged from the revolution espousing principles shared with religious groups: freedom,

social justice and dignity. Islamist organisations emerged with a greater freedom to operate. Although the

cooperati

en.wikipedia.org-egyptian revolution of 2011

Documents