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Alkaloid 1

Alkaloid

The first individual alkaloid, morphine, was isolated in 1804 from

poppy (Papaver somniferum).[1]

Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical

compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms.

This group also includes some related compounds with

neutral[2] and even weakly acidic properties.[3] Also

some synthetic compounds of similar structure are

attributed to alkaloids.[4] In addition to carbon,

hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain

oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as

chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.[5]

Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms,

including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are

part of the group of natural products (also called

secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purifiedfrom crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many

alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as

recreational drugs, or in entheogenic rituals. Examples are the local anesthetic and stimulant cocaine; the psychedelic

psilocin; the stimulant caffeine; nicotine;[6] the analgesic morphine; the antibacterial berberine; the anticancer

compound vincristine; the antihypertension agent reserpine; the cholinomimeric galatamine; the spasmolysis agent

atropine; the vasodilator vincamine; the anti-arhythmia compound quinidine; the anti-asthma therapeutic ephedrine;

and the antimalarial drug quinine. Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other

animals, they almost uniformly invoke a bitter taste.[7]

The boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut. [8] Compounds

like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines, and antibiotics are usually not called

alkaloids.[2] Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic position (mescaline, serotonin, dopamine, etc.)

are usually attributed to amines rather than alkaloids.[9] Some authors, however, consider alkaloids a special case of

amines.[10][11][12]


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Alkaloid 2

Naming

The article that introduced the concept of

"alkaloid".

The name "alkaloids" (German: Alkaloide) was introduced in 1819 by the

German chemist Carl F.W. Meissner,[13] and is derived from late Latin root

Latin: alkali (which, in turn, comes from the Arabic al-qalw"ashes of

plants") and the suffix Greek: -"like".[14] However, the term came

into wide use only after the publication of a review article by O. Jacobsen

in the chemical dictionary of Albert Ladenburg in the 1880s.[15]

There is no unique method of naming alkaloids.[16] Many individual names

are formed by adding the suffix "ine" to the species or genus name.[17] For

example, atropine is isolated from the plant Atropa belladonna, strychnine

is obtained from the seed of Strychnine tree (Strychnos nux-vomica L.).[5] If

several alkaloids are extracted from one plant then their names often

contain suffixes "idine", "anine", "aline", "inine", etc. There are also at least

86 alkaloids containing the root "vin" (extracted from the Vinca plant).[18]

History

Friedrich Sertrner, the German chemist who first

isolated morphine from opium.

Alkaloid-containing plants have been used by humans since ancient

times for therapeutic and recreational purposes. For example,

medicinal plants have been known in the Mesopotamia at least around

2000 BC.[19] The Odyssey of Homer referred to a gift given to Helen

by the Egyptian queen, a drug bringing oblivion. It is believed that the

gift was an opium-containing drug.[20] A Chinese book on houseplants

written in 1st3rd centuries BC mentioned a medical use of Ephedra

and opium poppies.[21] Also, coca leaves have been used by South

American Indians since ancient times.[22]

Extracts from plants containing toxic alkaloids, such as aconitine and

tubocurarine, were used since antiquity for poisoning arrows.[19]

Studies of alkaloids began in the 19th century. In 1804, the German

chemist Friedrich Sertrner isolated from opium a "soporific principle" (Latin: principium somniferum), which he

called "morphium" in honor of Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams; in German and some other Central-European

languages, this is still the name of the drug. The term "morphine", used in English and French, was given by the

French physicist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac).

A significant contribution to the chemistry of alkaloids in the early years of its development was made by the French

researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaim Caventou, who discovered quinine (1820) and strychnine

(1818). Several other alkaloids were discovered around that time, including xanthine (1817), atropine (1819),

caffeine (1820), coniine (1827), nicotine (1828), colchicine (1833), sparteine (1851), and cocaine (1860).

[23]


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Alkaloid 3

The first complete synthesis of an alkaloid was achieved in 1886 by the German chemist Albert Ladenburg. He

produced coniine by reacting 2-methylpyridine with acetaldehyde and reducing the resulting 2-propenyl pyridine

with sodium.[24][25] The development of the chemistry of alkaloids was accelerated by the emergence of

spectroscopic and chromatographic methods in the 20th century, so that by 2008 more than 12,000 alkaloids had

been identified.[26]

Bufotenin, an alkaloid from some toads,

contains an indole core and is produced in

living organisms from the amino acid

tryptophan.

Classification

The nicotine molecule contains both

pyridine (left) and pyrrolidine rings (right).

Compared with most other classes of natural compounds, alkaloids are

characterized by a great structural diversity and there is no uniform

classification of alkaloids.[27] First classification methods have historically

combined alkaloids by the common natural source, e.g., a certain type of

plants. This classification was justified by the lack of knowledge about the

chemical structure of alkaloids and is now considered obsolete.[5][28]

More recent classifications are based on similarity of the carbon skeleton

(e.g., indole-, isoquinoline-, and pyridine-like) or biogenetic precursor

(ornithine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc.).[5] However, they require

compromises in borderline cases;[27] for example, nicotine contains a

pyridine fragment from nicotinamide and pyrrolidine part from ornithine[29]

and therefore can be assigned to both classes.[30]

Alkaloids are often divided into the following major groups:[31]

1. "True alkaloids", which contain nitrogen in the heterocycle and originate from amino acids.[32] Their

characteristic examples are atropine, nicotine, and morphine. This group also includes some alkaloids that besides

nitrogen heterocycle contain terpene (e.g., evonine[33]) or peptide fragments (e.g. ergotamine[34]). This group also

includes piperidine alkaloids coniine and coniceine[35] although they do not originate from amino acids.[36]

2. "Protoalkaloids", which contain nitrogen and also originate from amino acids.[32] Examples include mescaline,

adrenaline and ephedrine.

3. Polyamine alkaloidsderivatives of putrescine, spermidine, and spermine.

4. Peptide and cyclopeptide alkaloids.[37]

5. Pseudalkaloidsalkaloid-like compounds that do not originate from amino acids.[38] This group includes,

terpene-like and steroid-like alkaloids,[39] as well as purine-like alkaloids such as caffeine, theobromine and

theophylline.[40] Some authors classify as pseudoalkaloids such compounds such as ephedrine and cathinone.

Those originate from the amino acid phenylalanine, but acquire their nitrogen atom not from the amino acid butthrough transamination.[40][41]


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Alkaloid 4

Some alkaloids do not have the carbon skeleton characteristic of their group. So, galantamine and homoaporphines

do not contain isoquinoline fragment, but are, in general, attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids.[42]

Main classes of monomeric alkaloids are listed in the table below:

Class Major groups Main synthesis steps Examples

Alkaloids with nitrogen heterocycles (true alkaloids)

Pyrrolidine derivatives[43]

Ornithine or arginine putrescine

N-methylputrescine

N-methyl-1-pyrroline[44]

Cuscohygrine, hygrine,

hygroline,

stachydrine[43][45]

Tropane derivatives[46] Atropine group

Substitution in positions 3, 6 or

7

Ornithine or arginine putrescine

N-methylputrescine

N-methyl-1

-pyrroline[]

Atropine, scopolamine,

hyoscyamine[43][46][47]

Cocaine group

Substitution in positions 2 and 3Cocaine, ecgonine

[46][48]

Pyrrolizidine derivatives[49] Non-esters In plants: ornithine or arginine

putrescine homospermidine

retronecine[44]

Retronecine, heliotridine,

laburnine[49][50]

Complex esters of

monocarboxylic acidsIndicine, lindelophin,

sarracine[49]

Macrocyclic diesters Platyphylline,

trichodesmine[49]

1-aminopyrrolizidines (lolines) In fungi: L-proline + L-homoserine

N-(3-amino-3-carboxypropyl)proline

norloline[51][52]

Loline,N-formylloline,

N-acetylloline[53]

Piperidine derivatives[54]

Lysine cadaverine

1-piperideine[55]

Sedamine, lobeline,

anaferine, piperine[35][56]

Octanoic acid coniceine coniine[36]

Coniine, coniceine[36]


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Alkaloid 5

Quinolizidine derivatives[57][58] Lupinine group Lysine cadaverine

1-piperideine[59]

Lupinine, nupharidin[57]

Cytisine group Cytisine[57]

Sparteine group Sparteine, lupanine,

anahygrine[57]

Matrine group Matrine, oxymatrine,

allomatridine[57][60][61]

Ormosanine group Ormosanine,

piptantine[57][62]

Indolizidine derivatives[63]

Lysine -semialdehyde of

-aminoadipic acid pipecolic acid

1 indolizidinone[64]

Swainsonine,

castanospermine[65]

Pyridine derivatives[66][67] Simple derivatives of pyridine Nicotinic acid dihydronicotinic

acid 1,2-dihydropyridine[68]

Trigonelline, ricinine,

arecoline[66][69]

Polycyclic noncondensing

pyridine derivativesNicotine, nornicotine,

anabasine, anatabine[66][69]

Polycyclic condensed pyridine

derivativesActinidine, gentianine,

pediculinine[70]

Sesquiterpene pyridine

derivativesNicotinic acid, isoleucine

[12]Evonine, hippocrateine,

triptonine[67][68]

Isoquinoline derivatives and relatedalkaloids

[71]Simple derivatives ofisoquinoline

[72]Tyrosine or phenylalanine

dopamine or tyramine (for alkaloids

Amarillis)[73][74]

Salsoline, lophocerine[71][72]

Derivatives of 1- and

3-isoquinolines[75]

N-methylcoridaldine,

noroxyhydrastinine[75]

Derivatives of 1- and

4-phenyltetrahydroisoquinolines[72]

Cryptostilin[72][76]

Derivatives of

5-naftil-isoquinoline[77]

Ancistrocladine[77]

Derivatives of 1- and2-benzyl-izoquinolines

[78] Papaverine, laudanosine,sendaverine

Cularine group[79]

Cularine, yagonine[79]

Pavines and isopavines[80]

Argemonine, amurensin[80]

Benzopyrrocolines[81]

Cryptaustoline[72]


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Alkaloid 6

Protoberberines[72]

Berberine, canadine,

ophiocarpine, mecambridine,

corydaline[82]

Phthalidisoquinolines[72]

Hydrastine, narcotine

(Noscapine)[83]

Spirobenzylisoquinolines [72] Fumaricine [80]

Ipecacuanha alkaloids[84]

Emetine, protoemetine,

ipecoside[84]

Benzophenanthridines[72]

Sanguinarine, oxynitidine,

corynoloxine[85]

Aporphines[72]

Glaucine, coridine,

liriodenine[86]

Proaporphines[72]

Pronuciferine, glaziovine[72][81]

Homoaporphines[87]

Kreysiginine, multifloramine[87]

Homoproaporphines[87]

Bulbocodine[79]

Morphines[88]

Morphine, codeine, thebaine,

sinomenine[89]

Homomorphines[90]

Kreysiginine, androcymbine[88]

Tropoloisoquinolines[72]

Imerubrine[72]

Azofluoranthenes[72]

Rufescine, imeluteine[91]

Amaryllis alkaloids[92]

Lycorine, ambelline,

tazettine, galantamine,

montanine[93]

Erythrina alkaloids[76]

Erysodine, erythroidine[76]

Phenanthrene derivatives[72]

Atherosperminine[72][82]

Protopins[72]

Protopine, oxomuramine,

corycavidine[85]

Aristolactam[72]

Doriflavin[72]

Oxazole derivatives[94]

Tyrosine tyramine[95]

Annuloline, halfordinol,

texaline, texamine[96]


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Alkaloid 7

Isoxazole derivatives Ibotenic acid Muscimol Ibotenic acid, Muscimol

Thiazole derivatives[97]

1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate

(DOXP), tyrosine, cysteine[98]

Nostocyclamide,

thiostreptone[97][99]

Quinazoline derivatives[100] 3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolonederivatives

Anthranilic acid or phenylalanine or

ornithine[101]

Febrifugine[102]

1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone

derivativesGlycorine, arborine,

glycosminine[102]

Pyrrolidine and piperidine

quinazoline derivativesVazicine (peganine)

[94]

Acridine derivatives[94]

Anthranilic acid[103]

Rutacridone,

acronicine[104][105]

Quinoline derivatives[106][107] Simple derivatives of quinoline

derivatives of 2quinolones

and 4-quinolone

Anthranilic acid

3-carboxyquinoline[108]

Cusparine, echinopsine,

evocarpine[107][109][110]

Tricyclic terpenoids Flindersine[107][111]

Furanoquinoline derivatives Dictamnine, fagarine,

skimmianine[107][112][113]

Quinines

Tryptophan tryptamine strictosidine (with secologanin)

korinanteal cinhoninon[74][]

Quinine quinidinecinchonine, cinhonidine

[111]


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Alkaloid 8

Indole derivatives[89] Non-isoprene indole alkaloids

Simple indole derivatives[114]

Tryptophan tryptamine or

5-hydroxitriptofan[115]

Serotonin, psilocybin,

dimethyltryptamine (DMT),

bufotenin[116][117]

Simple derivatives of

-carboline [118]

Harman, harmine, harmaline,

eleagnine [114]

Pyrroloindole alkaloids[119]

Physostigmine (eserine),

etheramine, physovenine,

eptastigmine[119]

Semiterpenoid indole alkaloids

Ergot alkaloids[89]

Tryptophan chanoclavine

agroclavine elimoclavine

paspalic acid lysergic acid[119]

Ergotamine, ergobasine,

ergosine[120]

Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids

Corynanthe type alkaloids[115] Tryptophan tryptamine

strictosidine (with secologanin)[115]

Ajmalicine, sarpagine,vobasine, ajmaline,

yohimbine, reserpine,

mitragynine,[121][122]

group

strychnine and (Strychnine

brucine, aquamicine,

vomicine[123]

)

Iboga-type alkaloids[115]

Ibogamine, ibogaine,

voacangine[115]

Aspidosperma-type

alkaloids[115]

Vincamine, vinca alkaloids,

vincotine,

aspidospermine[124][125]

Imidazole derivatives[94]

Directly from histidine[126]

Histamine, pilocarpine,

pilosine, stevensine[94][126]

Purine derivatives[127]

Xanthosine (formed in purine

biosynthesis) 7 methylxantosine

7-methyl xanthine theobromine

caffeine[74]

Caffeine theobromine

theophylline saxitoxin

[128][129]

Alkaloids with nitrogen in the side chain (protoalkaloids)


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Alkaloid 9

-Phenylethylamine derivatives[81]

Tyrosine or phenylalanine

dioxyphenilalanine dopamine

adrenaline and mescaline tyrosine

tyramine phenylalanine

1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione

cathinone ephedrine and

pseudoephedrine

[12][41][130]

Tyramine, ephedrine,

pseudoephedrine, mescaline,

cathinone, catecholamines

(adrenaline, noradrenaline,

dopamine)[12][131]

Colchicine alkaloids[132]

Tyrosine or phenylalanine

dopamine autumnaline

colchicine[133]

Colchicine, colchamine[132]

Muscarine [134] Glutamic acid 3-ketoglutamic acid muscarine (with pyruvic

acid)[135]

Muscarine, allomuscarine,epimuscarine,

epiallomuscarine[134]

Benzylamine[136]

Phenylalanine with valine, leucine or

isoleucine[137]

Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin,

nordihydrocapsaicin[136][138]

Polyamines alkaloids

Putrescine derivatives[139]

ornithine putrescine spermidine

spermine[140]

Paucine[139]

Spermidine derivatives

[139]

Lunarine,codonocarpine

[139]

Spermine derivatives[139]

Verbascenine, aphelandrine[139]

Peptide (cyclopeptide) alkaloids


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Alkaloid 10

Peptide alkaloids with a 13-membered

cycle[37][141]

Nummularine C type From different amino acids[37]

Nummularine C,

Nummularine S[37]

Ziziphine type Ziziphine A, sativanine H[37]


cycle [37][141]

Frangulanine type Frangulanine, scutianine J

[141]

Scutianine A type Scutianine A[37]

Integerrine type Integerrine, discarine D[141]

Amphibine F type Amphibine F, spinanine A[37]

Amfibine B type Amphibine B, lotusine C[37]


cycle[141]

Mucronine A type Mucronine A[34][141]

Pseudoalkaloids (terpenes and steroids)

Diterpenes[34] Lycoctonine type Mevalonic acid

izopentenilpyrophosfate geranyl

pyrophosphate[142][143]

Aconitine, delphinine[34][144]

Steroids[145]

Cholesterol, arginine[146]

Solasodine, solanidine,

veralkamine,

batrachotoxin[147]


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Alkaloid 11

Properties

Head of a lamb born by a sheep that ate leaves of

the corn lily plant. The cyclopia in the calf is

induced by the alkaloid cyclopamine present in

the plant.

Most alkaloids contain oxygen in their molecular structure; those

compounds are usually colorless crystals at ambient conditions.

Oxygen-free alkaloids, such as nicotine[148] or coniine,[24] are typically

volatile, colorless, oily liquids.[149] Some alkaloids are colored, like

berberine (yellow) and sanguinarine (orange).[149]

Most alkaloids are weak bases, but some are amphoteric, for example

theobromine and theophylline.[150] Most alkaloids are poorly soluble in

water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such as diethyl ether,

chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane. However, caffeine dissolves well

in boiling water.[150] With acids, alkaloids form salts of various

strengths. Those salts are usually soluble in water and alcohol and

poorly soluble in most organic solvents. Exceptions include

scopolamine hydrobromide, which is soluble in organic solvents and

water-soluble quinine sulfate.

[149]

Most alkaloids have a bitter taste. It is believed that plants evolved the

ability to produce these bitter substances, many of which are

poisonous, in order to protect themselves from animals; however,

animals in turn evolved the ability to detoxify alkaloids.[151] Some

alkaloids can produce developmental defects in the offspring of animals that consume them but cannot detoxify

them. A characteristic example is the alkaloid cyclopamine, which is present in the leaves of corn lily. During the

1950s, up to 25% lambs born by sheep that had grazed on corn lily suffered serious facial defects. Those defects

ranged from deformed jaws to cyclopia (see picture). After decades of research, in 1980s, the substance that was

responsible for the deformities was identified as the alkaloid 11-deoxyjervine, which was renamed cyclopamine.[152]

Distribution in nature

Strychnine tree. Its seeds are rich in strychnine

and brucine.

Alkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by

higher plants about 10 to 25% of those contain alkaloids.[153][154]

Therefore, in the past the term "alkaloid" was associated with

plants.[155]

The alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and is

inhomogeneous over the plant tissues. Depending on the type of plants,

the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves (black henbane),

fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (Rauwolfia serpentina) or bark

(cinchona).[156] Furthermore, different tissues of the same plants may

contain different alkaloids.[157]

Beside plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungi, such as

psilocybin in the fungus of the genus Psilocybe, and in animals, such

as bufotenin in the skin of some toads.[16] Many marine organisms also

contain alkaloids.[158] Some amines, such as adrenaline and serotonin,

which play an important role in higher animals, are similar to alkaloids

in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes called

alkaloids.[159]


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Alkaloid 12

Extraction

Crystals of piperine extracted from black pepper.

Because of the structural diversity of alkaloids, there is no single

method of their extraction from natural raw materials.[160] Most

methods exploit the property of most alkaloids to be soluble in organic

solvents but not in water, and the opposite tendency of their salts.

Most plants contain several alkaloids. Their mixture is extracted first

and then individual alkaloids are separated.[161] Plants are thoroughly

ground before extraction.[160][162] Most alkaloids are present in the raw

plants in the form of salts of organic acids.[160] The extracted alkaloids

may remain salts or change into bases.[161] Base extraction is achieved

by processing the raw material with alkaline solutions and extracting

the alkaloid bases with organic solvents, such as 1,2-dichloroethane, chloroform, diethyl ether or benzene. Then, the

impurities are dissolved by weak acids; this converts alkaloid bases into salts that are washed away with water. If

necessary, an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is again made alkaline and treated with an organic solvent. The

process is repeated until the desired purity is achieved.In the acidic extraction, the raw plant material is processed by a weak acidic solution (e.g., acetic acid in water,

ethanol, or methanol). A base is then added to convert alkaloids to basic forms that are extracted with organic solvent

(if the extraction was performed with alcohol, it is removed first, and the remainder is dissolved in water). The

solution is purified as described above.[160][163]

Alkaloids are separated from their mixture using their different solubility in certain solvents and different reactivity

with certain reagents or by distillation.[164]

Biosynthesis

Biological precursors of most alkaloids are amino acids, such as ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine,tryptophan, histidine, aspartic acid, and anthranilic acid.[165] Nicotinic acid can be synthesized from tryptophan or

aspartic acid. Ways of alkaloid biosynthesis are too numerous and cannot be easily classified. [74] However, there are

a few typical reactions involved in the biosynthesis of various classes of alkaloids, including synthesis of Schiff

bases and Mannich reaction.[165]

Synthesis of Schiff bases

Schiff bases can be obtained by reacting amines with ketones or aldehydes.[166] These reactions are a common

method of producing C=N bonds.[167]

In the biosynthesis of alkaloids, such reactions may take place within a molecule, [165] such as in the synthesis of

piperidine:[30]


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Alkaloid 13

Mannich reaction

An integral component of the Mannich reaction, in addition to an amine and a carbonyl compound, is a carbanion,

which plays the role of the nucleophile in the nucleophilic addition to the ion formed by the reaction of the amine

and the carbonyl.[167]

The Mannich reaction can proceed both intermolecularly and intramolecularly:[168][169]


14/22

Alkaloid 14

Dimer alkaloids

In addition to the described above monomeric alkaloids, there are also dimeric, and even trimeric and tetrameric

alkaloids formed upon condensation of two, three, and four monomeric alkaloids. Dimeric alkaloids are usually

formed from monomers of the same type through the following mechanisms:[170]

Mannich reaction, resulting in, e.g., voacamine

Michael reaction (villalstonine)

Condensation of aldehydes with amines (toxiferine)

Oxidative addition of phenols (dauricine, tubocurarine)

Lactonization (carpaine).

Voacamine Villalstonine Toxiferine

Dauricine Tubocurarine Carpaine

The biological role

The role of alkaloids for living organisms that produce them is still unclear.[171] It was initially assumed that the

alkaloids are the final products of nitrogen metabolism in plants, as urea in mammals. It was later shown that

alkaloid concentrations varies over time, and this hypothesis was refuted.[8]

Most of the known functions of alkaloids are related to protection. For example, aporphine alkaloid liriodenine

produced by the tulip tree protects it from parasitic mushrooms. In addition, presence of alkaloids in the plant

prevents insects and chordate animals from eating it. However, some animals adapted to alkaloids and even use them

in their own metabolism.[172] Such alkaloid-related substances as serotonin, dopamine and histamine are important

neurotransmitters in animals. Alkaloids are also known to regulate plant growth.[173]


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Alkaloid 15

Applications

In medicine

Medical use of alkaloid-containing plants has a long history, and, thus, when the first alkaloids were isolated in the

19th century, they immediately found application in clinical practice.[174] Many alkaloids are still used in medicine,

usually in the form of salts, including the following:[8][175]

:

Alkaloid Action

Ajmaline antiarrhythmic

Atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine anticholinergic

Vinblastine, vincristine antitumor

Vincamine vasodilating, antihypertensive

Codeine cough medicine

Cocaine anesthetic

Colchicine remedy for gout

Morphine analgesic

Reserpine antihypertensive

Tubocurarine Muscle relaxant

Physostigmine inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase

Quinidine antiarrhythmic

Quinine antipyretics, antimalarial

Emetine antiprotozoal agent

Ergot alkaloids sympathomimetic, vasodilator, antihypertensive

Many synthetic and semisynthetic drugs are structural modifications of the alkaloids, which were designed to

enhance or change the primary effect of the drug and reduce unwanted side-effects.[176] For example, naloxone, an

opioid receptor antagonist, is a derivative of thebaine that is present in opium.[177]

Thebaine Naloxone


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Alkaloid 16

In agriculture

Prior to the development of a wide range of relatively low-toxic synthetic pesticides, some alkaloids, such as salts of

nicotine and anabasine, were used as insecticides. Their use was limited by their high toxicity to humans.[178]

Use as psychoactive drugs

Preparations of plants containing alkaloids and their extracts, and later pure alkaloids, have long been used aspsychoactive substances. Cocaine and cathinone are stimulants of the central nervous system.[179][180] Mescaline and

many of indole alkaloids (such as psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and ibogaine) have hallucinogenic effect. [181][182]

Morphine and codeine are strong narcotic pain killers.[183]

There are alkaloids that do not have strong psychoactive effect themselves, but are precursors for semi-synthetic

psychoactive drugs. For example, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are used to produce methcathinone and

methamphetamine.[184]

Notes

[1] Andreas Luch (2009).Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology (http:/

/

books.

google.

com/

?id=MtOiLVWBn8cC&

pg=PA20).Springer. p. 20. ISBN 3-7643-8335-6. .

[2] IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology (http://goldbook. iupac.org/A00220. html), 2nd ed. (The "Gold Book"). Compiled by A.

D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1997) ISBN 0-9678550-9-8 doi:10.1351/goldbook

[3] R. H. F. Manske. The Alkaloids. Chemistry and Physiology. Volume VIII.New York: Academic Press, 1965, p. 673

[4] Robert Alan Lewis.Lewis' dictionary of toxicology (http://books. google. com/books?id=caTqdbD7j4AC& pg=PA51). CRC Press, 1998, p.

51 ISBN 1-56670-223-2

[5] Chemical Encyclopedia: alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/119. html)

[6] "Alkaloid" (http://science.howstuffworks.com/alkaloid-info. htm). .

[7] Rhoades, David F (1979). "Evolution of Plant Chemical Defense against Herbivores". In Rosenthal, Gerald A., and Janzen, Daniel H.

Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites. New York: Academic Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-12-597180-X.

[8] Robert A. MeyersEncyclopedia of Physical Science and TechnologyAlkaloids, 3rd edition. ISBN 0-12-227411-3

[9] Leland J. Cseke Natural Products from Plants (http://books.google. com/books?id=wV2T41nGFc4C& pg=PA30) Second Edition.CRC,

2006, p. 30 ISBN 0-8493-2976-0

[10] A. William Johnson Invitation to Organic Chemistry (http://books. google.com/books?id=0X4cQus2gz8C& pg=PA433), Jones and

Bartlett, 1999, p. 433 ISBN 0-7637-0432-6

[11] Raj K Bansal A Text Book of Organic Chemistry (http://books. google. com/books?id=1B6ijcTkD5EC& pg=PA644). 4th Edition, New

Age International, 2004, p. 644 ISBN 81-224-1459-1

[12][12] Aniszewski, p. 110

[13] Biographical information about German pharmacist Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meiner (17921853) is available in the German Wikipedia:

http://de.wikipedia. org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Mei%C3%9Fner (in German).

[14] In the penultimate sentence of his article [W. Meissner (1819) "ber Pflanzenalkalien: II. ber ein neues Pflanzenalkali (Alkaloid)" (On

plant alkalis: II. On a new plant alkali (alkaloid)),Journal fr Chemie und Physik, vol. 25, pp. 377381] Meissner wrote "berhaupt scheint es

mir auch angemessen, die bis jetzt bekannten Pflanzenstoffe nicht mit dem Namen Alkalien, sondern Alkaloide zu belegen, da sie doch in

manchen Eigenschaften von den Alkalien sehr abweichen, sie wrden daher in dem Abschnitt der Pflanzenchemie vor den Pflanzensuren ihre

Stelle finden." (In general, it seems appropriate to me to impose on the known plant substances not the name "alkalis" but "alkaloids", sincethey differ greatly in some properties from the alkalis; among the chapters of plant chemistry, they would therefore find their place before

plant acids [since "Alkaloid" would precede "Sure" (acid)].)

[15] Hesse, pp. 13

[16][16] Hesse, p. 5

[17] The suffix "ine" is a Greek feminine patronymic suffix and means "daughter of"; hence, for example, "atropine" means "daughter of Atropa

(belladonna)". (https://webspace.yale.edu/chem125/125/history99/5Valence/Nomenclature/alkanenames.html)

[18][18] Hesse, p. 7


[20][20] Hesse, p. 338

[21][21] Hesse, p. 304

[22][22] Hesse, p. 350

[23] Hesse, pp. 313

316[24] TSB: Coniine (http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00036/77600. htm)

[25][25] Hesse, p. 204


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Alkaloid 17

[26][26] Begley, Natural Products in Plants

[27][27] Hesse, p. 11

[28][28] Orekhov, p. 6


[30][30] Dewick, p. 307

[31][31] Hesse, p. 12

[32][32] Plemenkov, p. 223

[33][33] Aniszewski, p. 108[34][34] Hesse, p. 84

[35][35] Hesse, p. 31

[36][36] Dewick, p. 381

[37] Dimitris C. Gournelif, Gregory G. Laskarisb and Robert Verpoorte (1997). "Cyclopeptide alkaloids".Nat. Prod. Rep.14 (1): 7582.

doi:10.1039/NP9971400075. PMID 9121730.


[39][39] Plemenkov, p. 246


[41][41] Dewick, p. 382

[42][42] Hesse, pp. 44, 53

[43][43] Plemenkov, p. 224

[44][44] Aniszewski, p. 75[45][45] Orekhov, p. 33

[46] Chemical Encyclopedia: Tropan alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2/4609. html)

[47][47] Hesse, p. 34


[49] Chemical Encyclopedia: Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2/3370. html)

[50][50] Plemenkov, p. 229

[51] Blankenship JD, Houseknecht JB, Pal S, Bush LP, Grossman RB, Schardl CL (2005). "Biosynthetic precursors of fungal pyrrolizidines, the

loline alkaloids". Chembiochem6 (6): 10161022. doi:10.1002/cbic.200400327. PMID 15861432.

[52] Faulkner JR, Hussaini SR, Blankenship JD, Pal S, Branan BM, Grossman RB, Schardl CL (2006). "On the sequence of bond formation in

loline alkaloid biosynthesis". Chembiochem7 (7): 10781088. doi:10.1002/cbic.200600066. PMID 16755627.

[53] Schardl CL, Grossman RB, Nagabhyru P, Faulkner JR, Mallik UP (2007). "Loline alkaloids: currencies of mutualism".Phytochemistry68

(7): 980996. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.01.010. PMID 17346759.

[54][54] Plemenkov, p. 225


[56][56] Orekhov, p. 80

[57] Chemical Encyclopedia: Quinolizidine alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2/5011.html)

[58] J. E. Saxton The Alkaloids. A Specialist Periodical Report. Volume 1.London: The Chemical Society, 1971, p. 93



[61] Joseph P. Michael (2002). "Indolizidine and quinolizidine alkaloids".Nat. Prod. Rep19: 458475. doi:10.1039/b208137g.


[63][63] Dewick, p. 310



[66][66] Plemenkov, p. 227[67] Chemical Encyclopedia: pyridine alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2/3336. html)



[70][70] Plemenkov, p. 228

[71][71] Hesse, p. 36

[72] Chemical Encyclopedia: isoquinoline alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/1642. html)

[73] Aniszewski, pp. 7778

[74][74] Begley, Alkaloid Biosynthesis


[76][76] Hesse, p. 54

[77][77] Hesse, p. 37

[78][78] Hesse, p. 38

[79][79] Hesse, p. 46

[80][80] Hesse, p. 50


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Alkaloid 18

[81] Kenneth W. Bentley (1997). "-Phenylethylamines and the isoquinoline alkaloids".Nat. Prod. Rep14 (4): 387411.

doi:10.1039/NP9971400387. PMID 9281839.

[82][82] Hesse, p. 47

[83][83] Hesse, p. 39

[84][84] Hesse, p. 41

[85][85] Hesse, p. 49

[86][86] Hesse, p. 44

[87] J. E. Saxton The Alkaloids. A Specialist Periodical Report. Volume 3.London: The Chemical Society, 1973, p. 164[88][88] Hesse, p. 51

[89][89] Plemenkov, p. 236



[92][92] Hesse, p. 52

[93][93] Hesse, p. 53

[94][94] Plemenkov, p. 241

[95] Arnold Brossi The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Pharmacology, Volume 35.Academic Press, 1989, p. 261

[96] Arnold Brossi The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Pharmacology, Volume 35.Academic Press, 1989, pp. 260263

[97][97] Plemenkov, p. 242

[98][98] Begley, Cofactor Biosynthesis

[99] John R. Lewis (2000). "Amaryllidaceae, muscarine, imidazole, oxazole, thiazole and peptide alkaloids, and other miscellaneous alkaloids"(http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/NP/article.asp?doi=a809403i).Nat. Prod. Rep17 (1): 5784. doi:10.1039/a809403i.

PMID 10714899. .

[100] Chemical Encyclopedia: Quinazoline alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2/5003. html)

[101][101] Aniszewski, p. 106

[102][102] Aniszewski, p. 105

[103] Richard B. Herbert; Herbert, Richard B.; Herbert, Richard B. (1999). "The biosynthesis of plant alkaloids and nitrogenous microbial

metabolites" (http://www.rsc. org/publishing/journals/NP/article.asp?doi=a705734b). Nat. Prod. Rep16: 199208.

doi:10.1039/a705734b. .

[104][104] Plemenkov, pp. 231, 246

[105][105] Hesse, p. 58

[106][106] Plemenkov, p. 231

[107] Chemical Encyclopedia: Quinoline alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2/5014. html)

[108][108] Aniszewski, p. 114

[109][109] Orekhov, p. 205

[110][110] Hesse, p. 55

[111][111] Plemenkov, p. 232

[112][112] Orekhov, p. 212

[113][113] Aniszewski, p. 118

[114][114] Aniszewski, p. 112

[115][115] Aniszewski, p. 113

[116][116] Hesse, p. 15


[118][118] Dewick, p. 349-350

[119][119] Aniszewski, p. 119

[120][120] Hesse, p. 29[121] Hesse, pp. 2326



[124] Hesse, pp. 1718

[125][125] Dewick, p. 357

[126][126] Aniszewski, p. 104

[127][127] Hesse, p. 72

[128][128] Hesse, p. 73

[129][129] Dewick, p. 396

[130] PlantCyc Pathway: ephedrine biosynthesis (http://www.plantcyc. org:1555/PLANT/NEW-IMAGE?type=NIL& object=PWY-5883)

[131][131] Hesse, p. 76

[132] Chemical Encyclopedia: colchicine alkaloids (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2069. html)

[133][133] Aniszewski, p. 77

[134][134] Hesse, p. 81


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Alkaloid 19


[136][136] Hesse, p. 77



[139][139] Hesse, p. 82

[140] Spermine Biosynthesis (http://www.chem.qmul. ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/misc/spermine.html)

[141][141] Plemenkov, p. 243

[142] Chemical Encyclopedia: Terpenes (http://www.xumuk. ru/encyklopedia/2/4392. html)[143][143] Begley, Natural Products: An Overview

[144] Atta-ur-Rahman and M. Iqbal Choudhary (1997). "Diterpenoid and steroidal alkaloids" (http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/NP/

article.asp?doi=NP9971400191).Nat. Prod. Rep14 (2): 191203. doi:10.1039/np9971400191. PMID 9149410. .

[145][145] Hesse, p. 88

[146][146] Dewick, p. 388

[147][147] Plemenkov, p. 247

[148] TSB: Nicotine (http://slovari.yandex. ru/dict/bse/article/00052/84600. htm)

[149][149] Grinkevich, p. 131

[150] G. A. Spiller Caffeine (http://books. google. com/books?id=Rgs_rVOceZwC&pg=PA140), CRC Press, 1997 ISBN 0-8493-2647-8

[151][151] Fattorusso, p. 53

[152] Thomas Acamovic, Colin S. Stewart, T. W. Pennycott (2004).Poisonous plants and related toxins, Volume 2001 (http://books. google.

com/

?id=nixyqfGIGHcC&

pg=PA362). CABI. p. 362. ISBN 0-85199-614-0. .[153][153] Aniszewski, p. 13

[154][154] Orekhov, p. 11

[155][155] Hesse, p.4

[156] Grinkevich, pp. 122123

[157][157] Orekhov, p. 12

[158][158] Fattorusso, p. XVII


[160][160] Hesse, p. 116

[161][161] Grinkevich, p. 132

[162][162] Grinkevich, p. 5



[165][165] Plemenkov, p. 253

[166][166] Plemenkov, p. 254

[167][167] Dewick, p. 19

[168][168] Plemenkov, p. 255

[169][169] Dewick, p. 305

[170] Hesse, pp. 91105

[171][171] Aniszewski, p. 142

[172] Hesse, pp. 283291


[174][174] Hesse, p. 303

[175] Hesse, pp. 303309

[176][176] Hesse, p. 309

[177][177] Dewick, p. 335[178] Gyrgy Matolcsy, Mikls Ndasy, Viktor AndriskaPesticide chemistry (http://books. google. com/books?id=fPiRSsUOpLEC&

pg=PA21), Elsevier, 2002, pp. 2122 ISBN 0-444-98903-X

[179][179] Veselovskaya, p. 75

[180][180] Hesse, p. 79


[182] Geoffrey A. Cordell The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology. Volume 56, Elsevier, 2001, p. 8


[184] Veselovskaya, pp. 5152


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Alkaloid 20

References

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Aniszewski, Tadeusz (2007).Alkaloids secrets of life. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-52736-3.

Begley, Tadhg P. (2009).Encyclopedia of Chemical Biology. Wiley. doi:10.1002/cbic.200900262.

ISBN 978-0-471-75477-0. Dewick, Paul M (2002).Medicinal Natural Products. A Biosynthetic Approach. Second Edition. Wiley.

ISBN 0-471-49640-5.

Fattorusso, E. and Taglialatela-Scafati, O. (2008).Modern Alkaloids: Structure, Isolation, Synthesis and Biology.

Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-31521-5.

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Hesse, Manfred (2002).Alkaloids: Nature's Curse or Blessing?. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-906390-24-6.

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Bodragon, BrightStarSky, Bryan Derksen, Cacycle, Carcharoth, Centrx, Chaos, CharlesHBennett, Christian75, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Cwkmail, Cycleskinla, DMacks, DVD R W,

Daniblanco, David Nemati, Deltabeignet, Dimitar2007, Dino, DolphinL, Drphilharmonic, Dungodung, EconoPhysicist, Edgar181, Elwikipedista, Foobar, Fredludlow, Freederick, Fura-2,

Fvasconcellos, Gonzonoir, Grenavitar, Gveret Tered, Harrisd5917, Hayadel, Heathhunnicutt, Hierophantasmagoria, Hmains, Hooperbloob, Ike9898, Itub, Jarr9, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Julesd,

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Maxamegalon2000, Meco, Melsaran, Meodipt, Merenta, Michael Bailes, Michael Linnenbach, Mihovil, Minimac, Moosesinvade, Moron801, MrFish, Nemu, Newcastleunii, Niklo sv,

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StrontiumDogs, Synclx, TDogg310, Taranet, Taw, The Epopt, The Obento Musubi, TheMan4000, Tmaester2345, Tom Radulovich, Tryptamines, Tsarapoid, U+003F, Una Smith, User A1, V8rik,

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User:Amgine, User:Common Good

File:Meissner alkalod definition article 1819.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meissner_alkalod_definition_article_1819.png License: Public Domain Contributors:

de:Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meiner

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