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Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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Page 1: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Essentials of BiologySylvia S. Mader

Chapter 31Lecture Outline

Prepared by: Dr. Stephen EbbsSouthern Illinois University Carbondale

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Page 2: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

31.1 Ecology of Communities

• A community is a collection of different species of living organisms.

• In some communities, some populations affect the evolution of other populations (coevolution).

• An ecosystem consists of a community and the physical environment.

Page 3: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Community Composition and Diversity

• Two characteristics can be used to describe a community.– Species richness includes the variety of

different plant species in a community.– Diversity includes the richness and relative

abundance of individuals of different species.

Page 4: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Ecological Succession

• As communities change over time, they typically go through an ordered process of change called ecological succession.

• The climax-pattern model of succession maintains that the climate of an area leads to the same stable climax community.

Page 5: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Two Types of Succession

• There are two types of succession.– Primary succession occurs where soil has not

formed.

– Secondary succession occurs on a disturbed site with soil (such as an old agricultural field) that returns to a natural pattern of community change.

Page 6: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Two Types of Succession (cont.)

Page 7: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Interactions in Communities

• The species in a community can interact in a variety of ways.– Competition occurs when species compete for the

same resource.– In predation, one species preys upon another.– In parasitism, one species is a parasite on another.– In commensalism, one in which the interaction

benefits one species, but the other is not affected.– In mutualism, the interaction benefits both species.

Page 8: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Interactions in Communities (cont.)

Interaction Expected Outcome

Competition (-, -) Abundance of both species decreases

Predation (+, -) Predator abundance increases, prey abundance decreases

Parasitism (-,-) Parasite abundance increases, host abundance decreases

Commensalism (+, 0) Abundance of one species increases; the other does not

Mutualism (+, +) Abundance of both species increases

Page 9: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Ecological Niche

• The spatial location where a species is found is called its habitat.

• The ecological niche of a species is the combination of its role in a community, its habitat, and interactions with other organisms.

Page 10: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Competition

• Competition for limiting resources contributes to the niche of each species and community structure.

• The competitive exclusion principle states that since no two species can occupy the same niche, one species will eventually die out.

Page 11: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Competition (cont.)

Page 12: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Competition (cont.)

• Competition for resources can also lead to resource partitioning, meaning that the two species utilize different aspects of the niche so they can both survive.

• Character displacement can also occur as organisms evolve different characters to adapt to aspects of a niche.

Page 13: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Competition (cont.)

Page 14: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Mutualism

• In mutualism, both species benefit from the interaction.

• Mutualism leads to an intricate web of interdependency critical to community structure.

Page 15: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Community Stability

• Communities rely upon one or more species called keystone species that stabilize the structure of a community.

Page 16: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Native Versus Exotic Species

• Native species are those indigenous to an area.

• Invasive species, sometimes called exotic species, are introduced into an area and displace native species.

Page 17: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

31.2 Ecology of Ecosystems

• The populations of an ecosystem are described in terms of their food source.

• Autotrophs, also called producers, produce their own food.– Photoautotrophs use the sun to make their

own food.– Chemoautotrophs obtain energy to make food

by oxidizing inorganic compounds.

Page 18: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

31.2 Ecology of Ecosystems (cont.)

• Heterotrophs (consumers) must consume the nutrients synthesized by autotrophs to survive.– Herbivores graze on plants.

– Carnivores eat meat.

– Omnivores eat both plants and meat.

– Decomposers break down dead organic matter (detritus).

Page 19: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling

• The autotrophs and heterotrophs of a community create a flow of energy and nutrients through an ecosystem.

• As energy flows from one level of an ecosystem to the next, a large fraction (about 90%) is lost, generally as heat.

Page 20: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling (cont.)

Page 21: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Energy Flow

• The energy flow through an ecosystem can be illustrated as a food web or food chain.– A grazing food web begins with plants.– A detrital food web begins with detritus.

• The level of nourishment within a food web or chain is called a trophic level.

• Since energy is lost as energy moves from one trophic level to the next, the flow of energy can be depicted as an ecological pyramid.

Page 22: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Energy Flow (cont.)

Page 23: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Energy Flow (cont.)

Page 24: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Chemical Cycling

• The pathways by which organisms move nutrients within ecosystems create biogeochemical cycles.– For a sedimentary cycle, nutrients originate in

sediments or soils and cycle from autotrophs to heterotrophs before being returned by decomposers.

– In a gaseous cycle, the nutrient originates in and is returned as a gas.

Page 25: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Chemical Cycling (cont.)

• A large fraction of nutrients may be found in reservoirs that are unavailable to organisms.

• Organisms generally acquire nutrients from an accessible source called an exchange pool.

• Human activities have both positive and negative effects on the pools of nutrients.

Page 26: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Chemical Cycling (cont.)

Page 27: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Phosphorus Cycle

• Phosphorus in the environment is released as rocks and weather, releasing phosphate.

• Producers such as plants and algae utilize phosphate in their metabolism.

• Consumers acquire phosphate by eating producers.

• Phosphate is returned to the ecosystem during decomposition of producers and consumers.

Page 28: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Phosphorus Cycle (cont.)

Page 29: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Nitrogen Cycle

• Producers can use different forms of nitrogen from the environment.– Ammonium (NH4

+) found naturally or derived from N2 by nitrogen fixation

– Nitrate (NO3-), produced from ammonium by

nitrification

• In the nitrogen cycle, nitrification is counterbalanced by denitrification and nitrogen fixation.

Page 30: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Nitrogen Cycling (cont.)

Page 31: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Carbon Cycle

• There are two primary sources of carbon for the carbon cycle. – Gaseous or dissolved carbon dioxide– Inorganic carbonate

• Much of the Earth’s carbon is tied up in the bodies of organisms or in limestone and carbonate shells.

Page 32: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Carbon Cycling (cont.)

Page 33: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

31.3 Ecology of Major Ecosystems

• The Earth’s biosphere is composed of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.– Aquatic ecosystems are both freshwater and

marine.– The different terrestrial ecosystems are called

biomes.

Page 34: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Primary Productivity

• Ecosystems can be compared on the basis of their primary productivity, which is the rate by which producers capture and store energy.

• Several factors influence the primary productivity of an ecosystem.– Temperature– Moisture– Nutrient availability

Page 35: Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Chapter 31 Lecture Outline Prepared by: Dr. Stephen Ebbs Southern Illinois University Carbondale Copyright © The

Primary Productivity (cont.)